Parametric Equations Area of the Surface

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions with the same domain 𝑆 in ℝ, and if Theorem 3.5 If an arc
we write 𝐶: 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
Is in the upper half-plane, then the area 𝐴(𝑆) of the surface
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), generated by revolving 𝐶 about the x-axis is given by
then we say that the two equations form a set of parametric 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
equations. The graph of the parametric equations is the set of 𝐴(𝑠) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑦(𝑡) √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
points in the 𝑥𝑦 plane which we get when 𝑡 takes on all
possible values in the domain 𝑆. or
𝑏
𝐴(𝑆) = 2𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑡.
Theorem 3.1 The set of parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, If the arc 𝐶 is located to the right of the y-axis and is revolved
So long as 𝑎 and 𝑏 are not both zero, has its graph a straight about the y-axis, the area 𝐴(𝑆) of the surface generated is
line in 𝑥𝑦 plane. This line (denoted by 𝐿 in the figure below), given by
𝑏
passes through the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). If 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝐿 has slope 𝑎. 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
If 𝑎 = 0, then it is vertical. 𝐴(𝑆) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or
𝑏
𝐴(𝑆) = 2𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑡.
.
Example 3.6 Find the area of the surface generated by
3
revolving about the x-axis the arc 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 , 𝑦 = 2 𝑡 2 , 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3.

Polar Coordinates

Remark 3.2 Every straight line in the plane may be

represented parametrically by
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + (cos 𝛼)𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (sin 𝛼)𝑡.

We call them as the parametric equation of a line in standard

form.

Example 3.2
1. Find parametric equations of the line 𝐿 through the points
(2, −1) and (4,7). Also determine the parametric From the figure above, consider 𝑃 be a point in the plane. Its
equations in standard form. position is determined by its distance 𝑟 form the pole (or origin)
2. Plot the graph of the parametric equations and by the angle 𝜃 that the line 𝑂𝑃 makes with the initial line.
𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 − 2. The coordinates of 𝑃 in the polar coordinates system are
Eliminate the parameter, if possible. (𝑟, 𝜃).

Note:
Derivatives and Parametric Equations 1) 𝜃 is positive whenever it is measured in the
counterclockwise direction. Otherwise, 𝜃 is negative.
Example 3.3 2) We allow 𝑟 to take on negative values. By convention,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 (−𝑟, 𝜃) is represented by a point with coordinates
1. Find 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 2, and 𝑑𝑥 3, given that 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 − 2, 𝑦 =
(𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝜋).
2 − 𝑡 − 𝑡 2.
2. Given that 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡. Find Example 3.7 Plot the following points whose polar coordinates
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
and 𝑑𝑥 2 . are 𝑃 (3, 3 ) , 𝑄 (−2, 3 ), 𝑅 (−2, 4 ), 𝑆 (2, 4 ), 𝑇 (3, − 6 )
𝑑𝑥
3. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve 𝑥 =
𝑡 2 − 2, 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 + 1, at the point where 𝑡 = 2.

Arc Length
𝑏
𝑠 = ∫ √[𝑥(𝑡)]2 + [𝑦(𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Example 3.4
1. Given that 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 9/2 − 4. Find the length
of the arc from the point where 𝑡 = 1to the point where
𝑡 = 3.
2. Find the length of one arch of a cycloid given that
𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 − sin 𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃), 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
Connection between Rectangular and Polar Equations and Conics Sections in Polar Coordinates
Coordinates System
Example 3.12
1. Find the graph of the equation in polar coordinates
which corresponds to the graph of the equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 = 0
in rectangular coordinates.
2. Given the polar coordinate equation
1
𝑟 = 1−cos 𝜃,
find the corresponding equation in rectangular
coordinates.

Theorem 3.13
Any linear equation may be put in normal form:
𝑥 cos 𝛼 + 𝑦 sin 𝛼 = 𝑝.
This equation describes a straight line, and the quantity 𝑝 is
From the figure above, the relationship between the
the distance to the line from the origin.
rectangular coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) and the polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃)
of a point 𝑃 is given by 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 Example 3.14 A circle has center at (5, 3 ) and the radius is 2.
and Find the equation in polar coordinates.
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.

When we are given 𝑟 and 𝜃, we also have Theorem 3.15 A polar equation of the form
𝑒𝑝
𝑟 = ±√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑟=
1 − 𝑒 cos 𝜃
and Describes a conic section. It is an ellipse if 0 < 𝑒 < 1, parabola
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = . if 𝑒 = 1, and a hyperbola if 𝑒 > 1.
𝑥

Example 3.8 The rectangular coordinates of a point are

Example 3.16
(√3, −1). Find a set of polar coordinates for this point. 1. Find the equation of the conic with focus (fixed point)
at the origin with directrix (fixed line) the line 𝑟 cos 𝜃 =
1
Definition 3.9 The graph of an equation in polar coordinates is −3 and with eccentricity 2.
the set of all points 𝑃 such that each point has at least one 2. Given the conic equation
7
pair of polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) which satisfies the given 𝑟 = 4−5 cos 𝜃,
equation. Find the eccentricity and locate the directrix. Identify
the conic.
3. Given the conic with equations
Example 3.10 Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑟 = 3 cos 𝜃. 3
𝑟 = 1+2 cos 𝜃,
Find the eccentricity, locate the directrix, and sketch
Aid in Graphing the graph.

Suppose that the positive x-axis coincides with the initial line
of the polar coordinates system. Derivatives in Polar Coordinates

Rule I. If the substitution of (𝑟, −𝜃) for (𝑟, 𝜃) yields the same
equation, the graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

Rule II. If the substitution of (𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃) for (𝑟, 𝜃) yields the

same equation, the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis.

Rule III. If the substitution of (−𝑟, 𝜃) or of (𝑟, 𝜋 + 𝜃) for (𝑟, 𝜃)

yields the same equation, the graph is symmetric with respect
to the pole.

Note: If any two of the three symmetries hold, the remaining

one holds automatically.

Example 3.11 Discuss for symmetry and plot the graph of

a) 𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos 𝜃
b) 𝑟 = 2 cos (2𝜃)
Consider the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) above. At a point 𝑃, the tangent
line is drawn with slope tan 𝜙. We know that
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝜃 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃
tan 𝜙 = = = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝜃 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃 − 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃

Theorem 3.17 Given an equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) in polar

coordinates, if 𝑓 is differential then the slope tan 𝜙 of the
tangent line to the graph of 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) at (𝑟, 𝜃) is given by
𝑑𝑟
sin 𝜃 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜙 = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃
As seen in the figure, the angle 𝜓 between the tangent line
and the line passing through the pole and point 𝑃 is given
𝜓=𝜙−𝜃
and so
tan 𝜙−tan 𝜃
tan 𝜓 = tan(𝜙 − 𝜃) = 1+tan 𝜙 tan 𝜃.
Substituting tan 𝜙, we have
𝑓(𝜃)
tan 𝜓 =
𝑓′(𝜃)
which can also be written as

𝑓′(𝜃) 1 𝑑𝑟
cot 𝜓 = = 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑟 ≠ 0.
𝑓(𝜃)

Example 3.18
1. Given the circle 𝑟 = 4 cos 𝜃, find the angle between
the tangent line and the line from the pole through the
𝜋
point of tangency. Evaluate this angle at (2, 3 ).
2. Given the curve 𝑟 = 3𝑒 2𝜃 . Find cot 𝜓 at any point, and
sketch the curve.
3. Given the equation 𝑟 = 2 + 4 cos 𝜃, find the slope of
𝜋
the tangent line at 𝜃 = 6 .

Arc Length in Polar Coordinates

Theorem 3.19 Let 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), 𝛼 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝛽, describe an arc in

polar coordinates. If 𝑓 has a continuous first derivative, then
the arc length is given by
𝛽 𝑑𝑟 2
𝑠 = ∫𝛼 √(𝑑𝜃 ) + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃.

Example 3.20 Find the arc length of the curve 𝑟 = 3𝑒 2𝜃 from

𝜋
𝜃 = 0 to 𝜃 = 6 .

Area in Polar Coordinates

Theorem 3.21 Let 𝑓 be continuous, positive function with

domain containing [𝛼, 𝛽], where 0 ≤ 𝛼 < 𝛽 ≤ 2𝜋. Then the
area 𝐴of the region bounded by the lines 𝜃 = 𝛼, 𝜃 = 𝛽 and the
curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) is given by
1 𝛽
𝐴 = 2 ∫𝛼 [𝑓(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃.

Example 3.22
1. Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃
𝜋
and the lines 𝜃 = 0, 𝜃 = 2 .
2. Find the entire area enclosed by the curve 𝑟 =
2 sin(3𝜃).
3. Find the area inside the circle 𝑟 = 5 cos 𝜃 and
outside the curve 𝑟 = 2 + cos 𝜃.