CHAPTER - 03

MOTION
 Motion is change in position of an object with time.
 Branch of physics which deals with the motion of objects - Mechanics
 Mechanics is classified into : (i) Statics (ii) Kinematics (iii) Dynamics
 Statics deals with object at rest under the action of forces
 In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without going into the causes of motion
 Dynamics deals with objects in motion by considering the causes of motion.
Point Object
 If the size of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves, it is considered as point object.
 Examples :
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track
Frame of Reference
 A place from which motion is observed and measured is called frame of reference.
 Example : Cartesian coordinate system with a clock-the reference point at the origin.
In order to specify position, we need to use a reference point. A rectangular coordinate system
consisting of three mutually perpendicular axes, labelled X-, Y-. and Z-axes. The point of intersection
of these three axes is called origin (O) and serves as the reference point. This coordinate system
along with a clock constitutes a frame of reference.
If one or more coordinates of an object change with time, we say that the object is in motion, Otherwise,
the object is said to be at rest with respect to this frame of reference.
Types of Motion
 Based on the number of coordinates required to describe motion, motion can be classified as :
a) One dimensional motion (Rectilinear motion)
b) Two dimensional motion
c) Three dimensional motion
One dimensional motion
 Motion along a straight line is called one dimensional motion or rectilinear motion.

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 Only one coordinate is required to describe this motion

 In one-dimensional motion, there are only two directions (backward and forward, upward and
downward) in which an object can move.
 Example :
(i) a car moving on a straight road.
(ii) Freely falling body
Two dimensional motion
 Motion in a plane is called two dimensional motions.
 Two coordinates are required to represent this motion
 Example :
(i) A car moving on a plane ground
(ii) A boat moving on a still lake
Three dimensional motion
 Motion in a space is called three dimensional motion
 Three coordinates are required to represent this motion.
 Example :
(i) Movement of gas molecules
(ii) A flying bird
Path Length (Distance Travelled)
The total length of the path travelled by an object is called Path Length. It is a scalar quantity.
Displacement
Displacement is the change in position of the object.
Let x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1 and t2. Then its displacement,

x  x 2  x 1
If x2 > x1, x is positive, and if x2 < x1, x is negative.
Displacement has both magnitude and direction. Such quantities are represented by vectors.
Difference between distance (path length) and displacement
1. Distance is a scalar, while displacement is a vector.
2. For a moving particle distance can never be zero or negative while displacement can be zero,
positive or negative.
3. For a moving particle, distance can never decrease with time wile displacement can. Decrease in
displacement with time means that the body is moving towards the initial position.
4. Distance is always greater than or equal to displacement.

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Problem
1. A body completes one full rotation in a circular path of radius R. Write the values of its,
a) Distance travelled
b) Displacement

(a) 2 R
(b) Zero
Uniform Motion
 If an object moving along the straight line covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said
to be in uniform motion along a straight line.

Average Velocity and Average Speed

Average Velocity
Average velocity is defined as the ratio of total displacement to the total time interval.

Total displacement
Average velocity = Total time int erval

x 2  x1 x
 
t 2  t1 t

where x2 and x1 are the positions of the object at time t2 and t1, respectively.
 The SI unit for average velocity is m/s or ms–1
 The average velocity is a vector quantity..
 The average velocity can be positive or negative depending upon the sign of the displacement. It is
zero if the displacement is zero.
Average Speed
Average speed is defined as the ratio of total path length (distance travelled) to the total time interval.

Total path length

Average speed = Total time int erval

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 The SI unit for average speed is m/s or ms–1

 It is a scalar quantity
 It is always positive
 If the motion of an object is along a straight line and in the same direction, the magnitude of
displacement is equal to the total path length. In that case, the magnitude of average velocity is
equal to the average speed.
Problem :
A car travels from A to B at 60 km/hr and returns to A at 90km/hr. What is the average velocity and
average speed?

x
Average velocity =  0 (sin ce x  0)
t

Total path length

Average speed = Total time int erval

2d 2v1 v 2

d d v1  v 2
= 
v1 v 2

2  60  90
=  72km / hr
60  90

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= 72   20m / s
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Instantaneous velocity and speed
Instantaneous velocity
The average velocity tells us how fast an object has been moving over a given time interval but
does not tell us how fast it moves at different instants of time during that interval. For this, we
define instantaneous velocity or simply velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is called instantaneous velocity and is defined as the limit of the average
velocity as the time interval t becomes infinitesimally small.

x
v  lim
t 0 t

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 dx
v
dt
Note :

dx
is the differential coefficient of x with respect to t. It is the rate of change of position with
dt
respect to time.
Instantaneous Speed (Speed)
 Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the magnitude of velocity..
 Instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at that
instant because for an infinitesimally small time interval, the motion of a particle can be approximated
to be uniform.
Average Acceleration

v 2  v1 v
 Ratio of change in velocity to time interval a  t  t  t
2 1

 Where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities or simply velocities at time t2 and t1.
 SI unit is m/s2
 Slope of the velocity - time graph gives average acceleration
Instantaneous Acceleration (Acceleration)
 It is the acceleration at an instant.
 It is the average acceleration as the time interval tends to zero.

v dv
a  lim 
t  0 t dt
 The instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the tangent to the v-t curve at that instant.
 Acceleration can be positive, negative or zero.
 It is a vector quantity..
Graphs Related to Motion
Position - Time Graph (x-t graph)
 It is the graph drawn taking time along x-axis and position along y-axis.
 Slope of the x-t graph gives the average velocity
 Slope of the tangent at a point in the x-t graph gives the velocity at that point.
Uses of Position - Time Graph
 To find the position at any instant
 To find the velocity at any instant
 To obtain the nature of motion

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Position - Time graph of stationary object

Position-time graph of an object in uniform motion

Position-time graph of a car

The car starts from rest at time t = 0s from the origin O and picks up speed till t = 10s and
thereafter moves with uniform speed till t = 18s. Then the brakes are applied and the car stops at
t = 20s and x = 296 m.

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Position-time graph of an object moving with positive velocity

Position-time graph of an object moving with negative velocity

Position - Time Graph of an object moving with

a) Positive acceleration

b) Negative acceleration

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c) Zero acceleration

Velocity - Time graph (v-t Graph)

 A graph with velocity along Y-axis and time along X-axis
 The acceleration at an instant is the slope of the tangent to the v-t curve at that instant
 Area under the v-t graph gives the displacement.
Velocity - time graph for uniform motion

Area = uT - displacement

Velocity-time graph for motions with constant acceleration.

a) Motion in positive direction with positive acceleration.

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 b) Motion in positive direction with negative acceleration

c) Motion in negative direction with negative acceleration

d) Motion of an object with negative acceleration that changes direction at time t1.
Between times 0 to t1, its moves in positive x-direction and between t1 and t2 it moves in the
opposite direction.

Kinematic Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Consider a body moving with uniform acceleration. The velocity - time graph is as shown in figure.

1. Velocity - time relation

From the graph, acceleration = slope

BC
a=
AC
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vu
a
t
v - u = at
v = u + at ------------- (1)
2. Position-time relation
Displacement = Area under the graph
S = Area of + Area of

S = ut + 1
2 (v-u) t
But from equation (1) v - u = at
S = ut + 1
2 at × t

S = ut + 1
2 at2 -------------------- (2)
3. Position - velocity relation
Displacement = Average velocity × time

vu
Average velocity =
2
From equation (1), v - u = at

vu
t
a

(v  u) (v  u)
Substituting the values, S 
2 a

v2  u 2
S
2a
v2 - u2 = 2as
v2 = u2 + 2as --------------- (3)
This equation can also be obtained by substituting the value of t from Eq. (3.6) into Eq. (3.8). Thus, we
have obtained three important equations :
v = v0 = at

1
x  v 0 t  at 2
2

v2  v02  2ax (3.11a)

connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion for
constant acceleration.
The set of Eq. (3.11a) were obtained by assuming that at t = 0, the position of the particle, x is 0. We
can obtain a more general equation if we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non-zero, say x0. Then

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 Eqs. (3.11a) are modified (replacing x by x – x0) to :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x x  x 0  v0 t  at (3.11b)
2

v2  v02  2a(x  x 0 ) (3.11c)

Example 3.3 Obtain equations of motion for constant acceleration using method of calculus.
Answer By definition

dv
a
dt
dv = a dt
Integrating both sides,
v
v0 dv  0t a dt

 a 0t dt (a is constant)
v - v0 = at
v = v0 + at

dx
Further, v 
dt
dx = v dt

Integrating both sides, x

x0 dx  0t v dt

= 0t  v 0  at  dt

1
x  x 0  v 0 t  at 2
2

dv dv dx dv
We can write a   v
dt dx dt dx
or v dv = a dx

Integrating both sides, v

v0 v dv  x 0 x a dx

v 2  v02
 a(x  x 0 )
2

v2  v02  2a(x  x 0 )
The advantage of this method is that it can be used for motion with non-uniform acceleration also.
Now, we shall use these equations to some important cases.

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Example 3.4 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from the top of a multistory
building. The height of the point from where the ball is thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How high
will the ball rise ? and (b) how long will it be before the ball hits the ground? Take g = 10 m s–2.
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the vertically upward direction with zero at the ground, as shown
in Fig. 3.13.
Now v0 = +20 ms–1.
a = -g = -10m s–2.
v = 0 m s–1
If the ball rises to height y from the point of launch, then using the equation

v2  v02  2a(y  y0 )
we get 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10) (y – y0)
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
(b) We can solve this part of the problem in two ways. Note carefully the methods used.

FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to B)
and the downward motion (B to C) and calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and t2. Since the
velocity at B is zero, we have :
v = v0 + at
0 = 20 – 10t1
Or, t1 = 2 s
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or the point of the maximum height, the ball falls
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The ball is moving in negative y direction. We use equation;

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 1
y  y0  v0 t  at 2
2
We have, y0 = 45m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = -g = –10 m s–2
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t
Solving, we get t2 = 3s
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2s + 3s = 5s
SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can also be calculated by noting the coordinates of initial
and final positions of the ball with respect to the origin chosen and using equation

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y  y0  v0 t  at 2
2
Now y0 = 25m y = 0m
v0 = 20 m s–1 ; a = -10m s–2, t=?

0  25  20t  1 2  (10)t 2

Or, 5t2 - 20t - 25 = 0

Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.
Example 3.5 Free-fall : Discuss the motion of an object under free fall. Neglect air resistance.
Answer : An object released near the surface of the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude of acceleration due to gravity is represented by g. If air
resistance is neglected, the object is said to be in free fall. If the height through which the object falls
is small compared to the earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant, equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is
thus a case of motion with uniform acceleration.
We assume that the motion is in y-direction, more correctly in –y-direction because we choose
upward direction as positive. Since the acceleration due to gravity is always downward, it is in the
negative direction and we have
a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore, v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
v=0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
y = 0 – ½ g t2 = –4.9 t2 m
v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
These equations give the velocity and the distance travelled as a function of time and also the variation
of velocity with distance. The variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance, with time have been
plotted in Fig. 3.14(a), (b) and (c).

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Motion of an Object Under Free Fall

 A body falling under the influence of acceleration due to gravity alone is called free fall (air resistance
neglected).
 If the height through which the object falls is small compared to the earth’s radius, g can be taken
to be constant, equal to 9.8 m/s–2.
 Free fall is an example of motion with uniform acceleration.
 Since the acceleration due to gravity is always downward, it is in the negative direction.
 Acceleration due to gravity = -g = -9.8 m/s2.
Equations of motion of a freely falling body
 For a freely falling body with v0 = 0 and y0 = 0, the equations of motion are :
v = 0 - gt =-9.8 t ms –1

y=0- 1
2 gt 2 = -4.9 t2 m
v2 = 0 - 2 gy = -19.6 y m 2s –2
Acceleration - Time graph of a freely falling body

Velocity - Time graph of a freely falling box

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Position - Time graph of a freely falling body

Stopping Distance of Vehicles

 When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance.
 Stopping distance is an important factor considered in setting speed limits, for example, in school
zones.
 Stopping distance depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the braking capacity, or deceleration (-a)
that is caused by the braking.
Equation for Stopping Distance
 Let the distance travelled by the vehicle before it stops be, d.
 Substituting v = 0, x = d and acceleration = -a in the equation

v2  v02  2ax

0  v02  2ad

v02  2ad

v02
 Thus stopping distance, d 
2a
 Thus stopping distance is proportional to square of initial velocity.
Relative Velocity
 It is the velocity measured whenever there is a relative motion between objects.

 The velocity of object B relative to object A is VBA  VB  VA

 Similarly, velocity of object A relative to object B is :

VAB = VA - VB
 Thus, VBA = -VAB
Special cases :-
 If vB = vA, - relative velocity vAB or vBA is zero
 If vA > vB, vB - vA is negative, thus, object A overtakes object B at this time.

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Position-time graphs of two objects with equal velocities

Position-time graphs of two objects with unequal velocities

Position-time graph of two objects with velocities in opposite directions

Problem
 Two parallel rail tracks run north-south. Train A moves north with a speed of 54 kmh–1, and train B
moves south with a speed of 90 kmh–1.
What is the;
a) Velocity of B with respect to A?
b) Velocity of ground with respect to B?
c) Velocity of a monkey running on the roof of the train A against its motion (with a velocity of 18kmh–1
with respect to the train A) as observed by a man standing on the ground?

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 Solution
 Let the positive direction of x-axis to be from south to north, then
vA = +54 km/h = 15 m/s
vB = -90 km/h = -25 m/s
a) Relative velocity of B with respect to A vBA = vB - vA = -25 - 15 = -40m/s from north to south.
b) Velocity of ground with respect to B is vGB = vG - vB = 0 - (-25) = 25 m/s
c) Let velocity of monkey with respect to ground be vM. Relative velocity of monkey with respect to
train A is
vMA = vM - vA = -18km/h = -5m/s
vM = vMA - vA = (15 - 5) m/s = 10 m/s
Objective Questions
1. The co-ordinates of a moving particle at any time ‘t’ is given by x  t 3 . The speed of the particle at
time ‘t’ is given by
A) t 2 B) 3t 2 C) t D) 2t
2. A car moves from X to Y with a uniform speed vu and returns to X with a uniform speed vd. The average
speed for this round trip is
vd v u v u  vd 2v d v u
A) vu vd B)
vd  vu C) D)
vd  vu
2
3. Acceleration of a body when displacement equation is 3s = 9t + 5t2, is
A) 5/3 B) 14/3 C) 10/3 D) 19/3
4. By what velocity a ball be projected vertically upwards so that the distance covered in 5th second is
twice of that covered in 6th second?
A) 19.6m/s B) 58.8 m/s C) 49 m/s D) 65 m/s
5. A particle is thrown vertically up with a certain velocity. Assuming the air resistance to be negligible,
which one of the following represents the velocity (along y-axis)-time (along x -axis) graph for the entire
motion of the particle til lit reaches back to the ground

A) B)

C) D)

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VA
6. The displacement time graph for two particles A and B is as follows. The ratio
VB is

A) 1:2 B) 1: 3 C) 3 :1 D) 1:3
7. A stone is dropped into a well in which the level of water is h below the top of the well. If v is velocity of
sound, the time T after which the splash is heard is given by

 2h  h  2h  h  h  2h
A) T  2h / v B) T    C) T    D) T   
 g  v  v g  2g  v
8. A body is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 10ms–1. It reaches maximum height h at time
t. In time t/2 the height covered is

h 2 3 5
A) B) h C) h D) h
2 5 4 8
9. A train of 150m length is going towards north direction at a speed of 10ms–1. A parrot flying at the
speed of 5ms–1 towards south direction parallel to the railway track. The time taken by the parrot to
cross the train is equal to
A) 15s B) 12s C) 10s D) 8s
10. Two trains, each 50m long are travelling in opposite direction with velocity 10m/s & 15m/s the time of
crossing is

A) 2s B) 4s C) 2 3 s D) 4 3 s

Descriptive Questions
1. A metro train starts from rest and in five seconds achieves a speed 108 km/h. After that it moves with
constant velocity and comes to rest after travelling 45m with uniform retardation. If total distance
travelled is 395 m, find total time (in sec) of travelling
2. A ball is dropped from the top of a tower of height 100m and at the same time another ball is projected
vertically upwards from ground with a velocity 25ms–1. Then what will be the distance (in m) from the
top of the tower, at which the two balls meet?
3. A car, moving with a speed of 50km/hr, can be stopped by brakes after at least 6m. If the same car is
moving at a speed of 100km/hr, then what is the minimum stopping distance (in m)?

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4. A body is thrown vertically up with a velocity u. It passes three points A,B and C in its upward journey
u u u
with velocities , and respectively. Then what is the ratio of AB and BC?
2 3 4
5. In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered approximately a point object
a) A railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations
b) A monkey sitting on the top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track
c) A spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground
d) A tumbling beaker that has slipped-off the edge of a table
6. A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, followed again by 5
steps forward and 3 steps backward and so on each step is 1m long and requires 1s. Determine how
long the durnkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m a way from the start.
7. Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is true or false. A
particle in one-dimensional motion
a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity
c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration
d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up
8. Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list: Force, angular momentum, work, current, linear
momentum, electric filed, average velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity
9. Figure shows the x-t plot of one0dimensional motion of a particle. Is it correct to say from the graph
that the particle moives in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic path for t > 0 ? If not suggest a
suitable physical context for this graph

 t
10. A particle moving along x-axis has acceleration f, at time t, given by f  f o 1   , where fo and T are
 T
constants. The particle at t = 0 has zero velocity. In the time interval between t=0 and the instant when
f = 0, the particle’s velocity (vx) is

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Objective answer key
1. B

2. D

3. C

4. D

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5. B

VA tan 30 1 / 3 1
6. D   
VB tan 60 3 3
7. B

8. C

9. C

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10. B For crossing, distance to be covered = 50 + 50 = 100m

10v
Relative velocity = 10+15 = 25m/s  t   45
25

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