Module 3 - Industrial Electronics & PLC

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 INDUCTION HEATING

When a ferromagnetic material is subjected

subjec to an alternating magnetic field, it gets heated up by
the eddy currents and the hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of a magnetic
field which brings about a magnetic molecular friction and results in the heating of the material.
Theory of Induction Heating
If a high frequency current flows through a coil surrounding a workpiece (magnetic material),
there is a tendency of the resulting eddy current in the workpiece to concentrate near its surface.
The eddy emf induced in the outer loop is more because of its higher inductance. In induction
heating, as the frequency of the heating current increases a greater part of the induced heating
current tends to concentrate close to the metal surface (workpiece). This is referred to as the skin
effect.
Figure 8.1(a) illustrates
strates the general pattern of the numerous closed and concentric inductive
paths for eddy currents, i1, i2, i3, etc..induced in the cylindrical metal piece owing to current i in
the workpiece.

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the inductive loop-1
1 serves as a magnetic shield for the inner inductive loops.
Therefore, the magnetic flux tries to pass through the outer cross-
cross -section of the
workpiece. As a result, the eddy currents also pass in a similar fashion. The increase
in frequency enhances the shielding effect. Therefore, the skin effect decreases the
depth of penetration of current and thus increases the current density at the surface.

The current density at any distance x from the surface is given by

/
= A/

Where is the current density at the surface of the workpiece in A/ m2

is the depth of penetration in metres which depends upon the frequency

Principle of Induction Heating

Induction heating is based on the principle of transformer. There .is a primary winding through
which alternating current is passed. This winding is magnetically coupled with the metal piece to
be heated. An eddy current is, therefore, induced in the metal piece when alternating current is
passed through the primary heating coil. The value of the induced eddy current depends on
(i) the magnitude of the primary current,
(ii) the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and secondary circuit, and
(iii) the coefficient of magnetic coupling.

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Heat generated due to eddy current is given by
∝
Where f is frequency of applied
ed AC current
t is the thickness of the material
Bmax is the maximum flux density
Applications of Induction Heating
Some of the industrial applications of high frequency induction heating are as follows:
(i) Surface hardening of steel
(ii) Annealing of brass and bronze items
( i i i ) Soldering or brazing of copper„
(iv) Melting of metals.
Surface Hardening of Steel or Surface Heating of a Small Cylindrical Rod
Surface heating of a small cylindrical iron rod is implemented by high frequency eddy current
heating. It is nothing butt a form of induction heating usually employed for
for surface hardening,
annealing. In induction heating, heat is concentrated near the surface of the workpiece. An iron
bar whose surface is to be hardened by induction heating, is placed in a strong ac magnet
magnetic field
at high frequency. The current carrying conductor is surrounded by a water-cooled
water cooled helical coil
made of copper tubing as shown in Fig. The phenomenon of skin effect
effect plays a major part in
heating.

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 DIELECTRIC HEATING
When an insulating material is subjected to an alternating electric field, the atoms get stressed
and because of the inter-atomic
atomic friction, heat is produced. This loss is known as the dielectric
loss.
Theory -of Dielectric Heating
An atom of any material consists of a nucleus having a net positive charge at the centre and the
negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus. When the atom is not under the influence of
any electric field, the centers of the positive charge and negative charge coincide as shown in
Fig.(a) and, therefore, the atom as a whole acts as a neutral particle. When the atom is subjected
to an electric field the positive charge of the nucleus is acted
acted upon by a force in the direction of
the field and the negatively charged electrons are acted upon by forces in the opposite direction
as shown in Fig. (b). The two centers are displaced by a distance,
dista d (say) as shown in Fig. (c).

The atom in this state

ate is said to be polarized. As the electric field strength is increased, the degree
of polarization keeps increasing as well. For a certain value of the electric field, all electric
dipoles align themselves. The dielectric material in such a state is said to be satura
saturated as shown
in figure below.

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If the electric field is alternating, the forces within the atom are reversed. The atoms are as a
consequence subjected to a constant unrest changing with each shift in polarity. It is seen that the
loss increases with the increase in frequency and strength of the electric field. If the electric field
applied is very strong, it may overstress the charges and some electrons may be knocked off
from the outermost orbit resulting in a rupture of the dielectric medium. Hence, in dielectric
heating it is desirable not to apply high voltages but to use high frequencies.

Principle of Operation of Dielectric Heating

If insulators such as china clay, glass, ceramics, etc. are subjected to high voltage & alternating
current, their temperature will increase after some time, increase in temperature is due to the
conversion of dielectric loss into heat. High voltage at about 20 kV and frequency in the range of
1 and 50 MHz are usually employed in dielectric heating. If an ac voltage is applied across a
piece of insulator, an electric current i flows as shown in Fig.(a). The total current i can be
supposed to be made up of two components and as shown in Fig.(b), where is the
capacitive current and is the resistive current in phase with the applied voltage shown in
Fig.(c). The resulting loss appears in the form of heat in the dielectric of the capacitor.

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 Applications of Dielectric Heating
Some uses of dielectric heating are as follows:
(i)Gluing of wood
Dielectric
ic heating also be used for binding boards edgewise for making large panels. The glue
used should be one which hardens quickly when heated to the desired temperature,
(ii)Preheating
Preheating of plastic preform
Thermosetting plastics are required to be heated to a particular
p cular temperature for hardening or
setting. Technically, this is called curing. The raw material in the form of tablets are commonly
called plastic preform, is put into a hot mould. If these preforms are dropped directly into the hot
mould, the outer skin
kin of the preforms will become hot and start curing while the interior of the
preforms would still not have reached the fluid temperature. This results in a mould with
unevenly fitted corners.
The real problem, therefore, is to heat these preforms uniformly
ly so that the whole mass becomes
a fluid in a certain time. The preheating of preform tablets uniformly throughout the mass to a
proper temperature is done by placing them between the electrodes. After the whole mass has
turned into a fluid, it starts hardening
dening within seconds.
(iii) Sewing of plastic films

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An electronic sewing machine uses dielectric heating to sew plastic film materials into articles
such as umbrellas, raincoats, food packets, tobacco pouches, etc.
(iv)Food processing
Heating of food inside cartoons or wrappings can be done rapidly with dielectric heating. It is
also used in disinfecting of dry cereals inside paper packages.It Is used for defrostation of frozen
foods too.
(v)Diathermy
For the treatment of certain types of pains and diseases, it becomes necessary to heat tissues and
bones of the body with the help of dielectric heating.
Comparison Between Induction Heating And Dielectric Heating
Induction Heating Dielectric Heating
Dielectric heating depends on the electrostatic
Induction heating is caused by eddy currents
effect
The operating frequencies are the order of The operating frequencies are the order of
200KHz to 500KHz 1MHz to 50MHz
Induction heating is termed surface heating Dielectric heating is termed volume heating.
The cost of equipment required is
The cost of equipment required is low.
comparatively higher

Merits and demerits of induction heating

The induction heating advantages include:
1.It can heat the workpieces on a part instead of the whole one;
2.Fast heating do not need the gas protection;
3.Adjust the working frequency and power according to the requirement
4.Easy to operate and convenient to use.
5. Very high heating rate with less amount of oxidation is possible
6. Automatic control of temperature is possible.
7. System is free from fuel gases therefore free from contamination
Demerits
1.The equipment is much complex
2.interchangeability and adaptation of the induction part is not excellent

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3.Efficiency of the system is quite low.
Merits of Dielectric Heating
1. Uniform heating
2. Running cost is low eventhough cost of equipment is high
3. Easy heat control
4. Non conducting matrials are heated in short period
Demerits of Dielectric Heating ( write opposite of advantages of induction heating)

WELDING
It is a metallurgical union of metals brought about by the application of heat and pressure such
that the welded joint has properties as close to its parent metal. Depending upon the heat applied,
welding is classified as thermal welding, gas welding, and electric welding.
In electric resistance welding, two or more pieces of metals are fused together by ac a. dc current
of high value that flows for a short duration through the area of contact. The duration of the
current is varied from a few milliseconds to several seconds depending upon the requirement.
Theory of Resistance Welding
In resistance welding, the heat required for the purpose of the weld is produced by the resistance
offered to the flow of the current at the junction of the two metals. The heat energy produced is
given by
H=0.24∫ cal
Where, r is the resistance of the entire circuit
i is the instantaneous current, in A
t is the duration of welding, in s
Since the junction resistance is usually very small, it is essential to use a large current of the
order of 1000 A or above at a low voltage of 1 V to 15 V.
Classification of Resistance Welding
Electrical resistance welding can be divided into:
• Spot welding
• Seam welding
• Butt welding

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• Flash butt welding
• Projection welding
1. Spot welding
In spot welding, the two overlapping metal pressed together by mechanical pressure exerted
through two tipped electrodes E1 and E2 as shown in Fig. (a). A low-voltage, high-current
supply is switched on for a short duration between the two electrodes. As a result of this current,
the temperature at the junction causesJ1, J2, and J3 (J1 and J3 between electrodes and
workpieces, and J2 between the two workpieces) fuse together under the pressure of the
electrodes. In practice it is Possible that the electrodes themselves may get welded to the
materials, or it may result in making a hole in the material. In order to prevent the electrodes
from getting welded to the sheet, the electrodes are made of metals having high electrical and
thermal conductivity and are generally water cooled. For reasons of water cooling, the spot
welding electrode is generally made hollow with provision for circulating cold water as shown in
Fig.(b).

2. Seam Welding
In this type of welding, a series of spots between two overlapping sheets of metals are produced
by roller electrodes instead of tipped electrodes as shown in figure below. Welding current i
between the two roller electrodes flown for a short interval and depending upon the number of

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welding current pulses per second and the peripheral speed of the roller electrodes, a series of
weld spots is obtained. Seam welding consists of making a series of overlapping spot welds.

3.Butt welding

In the butt welding arrangement as shown in figure below, the butts to be welded together taken
as the electrodes. The ends are so prepared that they butt together with good contact between
them. They are then placed in the jaws of the machine which presses them close together end to
end. When a suitable pressure is reached, a high current is switched on and the current flowing
through the contact resistance between the ends brings them to welding heat. Extra pressure is
now applied so that the butt ends are pushed into each other. This method is most suitable for
joining metal bars end to end.

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4.Projection welding

In projection welding, instead of using tipped electrodes for the concentration of heat, either a
raised projection is used where the welding is desired. In this method, the exact location of
welding arcs is determined and the projection is pressed on the sheets to be welded. When
current flows and electrode pressure is applied, the projection collapses and the sheets get
welded together.
The advantages of projection welding over spot welding are as follows:
• More than one weld can be done at a time to obtain more output.
• The life of the electrodes is more because of low current density and low Pressure
• The finish is good as the surface remains unindented by electrodes,
• Welds are automatically located by the position of projections.

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Timers in resistance welding
Sequence timer
To control a spot weld,, a sequence timer is
i used to measure four lengths of time (from 2 to 80
cycles each) in a certain order or sequence, as shown in Fig

Electrodes close Current flows Metal becomes solid Electrodes open

(Weld time) (Squeeze
Squeeze time) (Hold time) (OFF time)

After the control contact is closed, the squeeze time permits the electrodes to build up the right
pressure on the work. The weld time is the length of time during which the welding current
flows. After the welding currentt stops, the electrodes continue to press against the metal pieces
during the hold time, while the weld hardens. Then the electrodes separate. The
he electrodes will
reclose after a period called the OFF time.
time

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 Speed Control of Shunt-wound DC Motors (Armature Voltage Control)

A full-wave bridge rectifier as shown in Fig.(b) consisting of diodes D4, D5, D6, and D7
supplies pulsating dc voltage , to the motor field. Armature current is controlled by SCR T,
whose anode-cathode circuit is connected in series with the armature winding. Free wheeling
diode D3 is connected across the armature winding to provide a discharge path for the energy
stored in the inductance of the armature winding when the SCR turns off at the end of each
cycle.
A diac is used in conjunction with capacitor C to trigger the- gate of the SCR. The
automatic adjustment of the triggering angle to keep the speed constant at various loads is
obtained by a feedback signal which is proportional to the actual speed of the motor. This signal
can be obtained from the back emf developed across the armature.

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Principle
ciple of operation of speed control for dc shunt-wound
shunt motors
Assuming that capacitor C is initially discharged, it begins to charge at the start of each half
half--
cycle through
hrough resistance RI, diode D1 and armature winding. When capacitor C has charged to
the forward breakover voltage of the diac, a trigger pulse is delivered by the diac to the SCR
gate, thus turning on the SCR. The pulsating voltagevoltage
voltage , is then applied to the armature
for the remaining half-cycle.
cycle. The charge time for C that determines the triggering angle at which
the SCR is turned on, depends on the charging time constant TC= (R1 + Rf1 + Ra)C whereRf1 is
the forward resistance of diode D1. The triggering angle is controlled by the variable resistance
R1. The power delivered to the armature depends on the length of the SCR conduction interval.
Therefore, the longer the conduction interval, i.e. the lower the value of R1, the faster the mo
motor
revolves.
At the end of the half-cycle,
cycle, capacitor C discharges through the field winding, current
limiting resistance R2, and diode D2.
D2

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Effect of freewheeling diode
Rectifier diode D3, in parallel with the armature winding, provides a discharge path for the
energy stored in the inductance of the armature winding when the SCR turns off at the end of
each half-cycle.
cycle. It is that point at which the magnetic field around the armature winding
collapses and is discharged through diode D3. Without D3, the inductive
inductive kick would develop a
high voltage across the armature and keep the SCR conducting at the end of each half
half-cycle, thus
defeating the effect of the gate control circuit.
Effect of varying load on automatic speed control
Assuming that R1 is set to operate the motor at a specified speed of 1000 rpm for a particular
load. If the load is now increased, tending to slow down the motor to say, 900 rpm, the reduced
speed results in a lower back emf Eb ( N α Eb) and accordingly in a higher
her voltage across the
SCR (VSCR= , − Eb). Hence, capacitor C charges more rapidly and turns the SCR on some
what earlier. This increased SCR conduction time increases the power delivered to the armature,
bringing back the speed of the motor to 1000 rpm. Similarly, the speed will stay at its preset
level,i.e. 1000 rpm, if the load decreases. In this manner, automatic
automatic regulation of speed is
accomplished in spite of changes in the load.
Speed Control of DC Series Motors
A simple half-wave
wave circuit for the speed
spee control of a dc series motor iss shown in Fig. 7.5(a
7.5(a).
Principle of operation of speed control for dc series motors
During the positive half-cycle,
cycle, capacitor C charges through resistance RI and variable resistance
R2.
2. When the capacitor voltage Vc
V becomes equal to the breakover voltage of the diac plus the
back emf Eb of the armature, SCR T gets turned on. Now, the motor current flows through the

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series field, conducting SCR T, and armature of the motor. The speed of the motor can be
changed by varying the resistance R2 which controls the charging time of capacitor C. When the
SCR T is not conducting, the armature voltage is due to the residual flux.

Effect of varying load

Assume that R2 is set to operate the motor at a specified speed of 1000 rpm for a particular load.
If the load is increased, it will tend to slow down the motor to say, 900 rpm. The reduced speed
results in a lower value of the back emf Eb. The increased difference between Vc and Eb will
trigger the SCR earlier than before in the next positive half-cycle.
cycle. Since the break
overvoltage(VBO) of the diac is constant and the back emf of the armature has decreased, the
capacitor takes less time to reach (VBO+ Eb), and therefore, SCR T triggers earlier. As a result,
the average dc voltage across the armature increases and so does the speed to 1000 rpm.
Similarly, if the speed rises because of some load being thrown-off,
thrown off, the triggering angle will
automatically advance and bring down the speed to its preset level, i.e. 1000 rpm. In the series

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motor drive, the current flows cthrough
through the
the armature and the field when the SCR is triggered at
an angle α. The current continues beyond ωt=π until the stored energy of the armature is
dissipated

Disadvantage of the dc series motor

The disadvantage of the dc series motor is that the speed does
does not remain constant for all loads
in this method of using proportional feedback

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 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR (AC MOTOR)
Speed Control of Induction Motors by Stator Voltage Control Method
The speed of an induction motor may be continuously varied by controlling the voltage applied
to the stator winding. The output torque of an induction motor at a given slip is proportional to
the square of the voltage applied per phase
phase to its stator according to the equation given below

Where is rotor resistance

V is the voltage applied
In Fig. , SCRs are connected in anti parallel and each group of two SCRs is triggered
symmetrically at identical points in their respective anode-cathode
anode cathode voltage cycles. By controlling
the conduction period of the SCRs, the level of the stator voltage can
ca be varied from zero to full
supply voltage. This method is simple, reliable,
relia and offers a wide range of speed variation.

Disadvantages of the stator voltage control method

(i) During speed reduction, a heavy current flows through the stator ther
thereby resulting in
undue generation
n of heat in the stator winding.

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(ii) This method is suitable only for small and medium sized induction motors as the supply
current
nt contains harmonic components (noise).
Speed Control of Slip Ring Induction Motors by Means of a Chopper-controlled
Chopper controlled Resistance
in the Rotor Circuit (Rotor ON-OFF
ON Control)

The speed control of slip ring induction motors can be achieved by using ON-OFF
ON OFF control on the
rotor side as shown in Fig.(a).
(a). The rotor windings are periodically subjected to open
open-circuit and
short-circuit,
circuit, and the voltage is continuously applied to the stator. The period during which the
rotor windings are open-circuited
circuited (OFF time), the developed torque is zero. In the remaining
period (ON time), the torque is developed. By controlling the ON and OFF periods, the average
torque can be changed, i.e. the speed can be adjusted by varying the control voltage Vc which
varies the duty cycle D of the chopper.
In Fig.(a),
(a), the diode bridge
brid rectifies the voltage induced in the rotor winding. The
rectified voltage is applied to a filter which provides a steady dcc output voltage and supplied to
SCR T.. The SCR T is made to function as a chopper by operating it at a fixed frequency with an
adjustable duty
uty cycle. The average rotor resistance across the rotor slip rings will vary from 0 to
R depending on the rate of switching of the rapidly pulsed SCR. The torque T2 with rotor ON
ON-
OFF control is given by

T2=T1

Where T1 is the torque developed under normal operation

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Salient features of rotor ON-OFF
OFF control
• Fast response
• Smooth variations of speed
• Better power factor at low speeds
• Wide range of speed control
• Speed can be varied from 1000 rpm to 3000 rpm
• Suitable
ble for single motor drive and group drives
Variable Voltage—Variable
Variable Frequency Control System for Three-phase
Three phase Induction Motors

Figure shows the speed control circuit diagram for a three-phase

thr phase induction motor. The dc
voltage is obtained from a phase-controlled
phase controlled rectifier. This dc voltage is fed to a bridge inverter
which generates the required variable voltage—variable
voltage variable frequency output, connected to the input
of the delta-connected
connected stator winding. The phase-controlled
phase controlled rectifier and inverter are iinter-

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connected by an inductor which smoothens out the ripple. The capacitor maintains the voltage of
the dc at a constant value. This inverter is called the voltage-source inverter.
The dc voltage is converted to 3 phase ac by the voltage source inverter, by applying
proper gate control voltage to the SCRs of the voltage-source inverter. The control of the phase-
controlled rectifier and the voltage-source inverter provide the desired voltage and frequency,
respectively, to the stator of the induction motor. In the closed-loop system, the actual speed is
compared with the desired speed of the induction motor. This arrangement makes use of
feedback from the tachogenerator to find the actual speed of the motor. If the actual speed is less
voltage and frequency should be increased . The voltage level is increased by triggering the
SCRs of rectifier early, frequency can be increased by triggering the SCRs of inverter early vice
versa if the actual speed is more than the desired speed.
Advantages of AC drives over DC drives(comparison between AC & DC
drives )
1. Improved ruggedness
2. Low cost
3. Small size
4. Higher efficiency
5. Increased reliability
6. Less maintenance
7. Can be used in explosive environments
8. Working voltage can be as high as 1500 V and more

UNINTERUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

A UPS basically consists of
(i) a battery charger,
(ii) a rechargeable battery,
(iii) an inverter, and
(iv) a static contactor which connects the load from inverter to the ac supply.
The inverter in the UPS works from an internal dc rechargeable battery. When the power
supply is healthy, this dc battery is fed through a battery charger within the UPS. During failure
of the ac power supply, the UPS automatically feeds ac power to the computer system, i.e. the

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inverter continues to function without being interrupted. When the ac power supply is working,
the rechargeable battery draws its charging current from it, thereby ensuring that the battery is
always ready for providing power to the inverter.
inverter. The UPS operates at high efficiency (up to
94%).
The rechargeable battery is normally either nickel-cadmium
nickel or lead-acid
acid type. A nickel
nickel-
cadmium battery is preferred over a lead-acid
lead acid battery, because the electrolyte of a nickel
nickel-
cadmium battery is noncorrosive
corrosive and does not emit any explosive gas. It has a longer operating
life owing to its ability to withstand over heating. However, its cost is at least three times that of
a lead-acid battery.
There are two types of configurations which are commonly used in UPS.
(i) ON-line UPS
(ii) OFF-line UPS
Online
line (C ontinuo us) UPS
The inverter in this configuration shown in Figure operates
es continuously and its output is
connected to the load through static switch-2
switch 2 which is normally ON. Thus, there is no break in
the supply in the event of main supply (utility voltage) failure. The rectifier/battery charger
maintains the charge on the standby battery and the battery in turn supplies dc power to the
controlled frequency inverter.

The controlled frequency inverter

er is used

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(i) to condition the supply to the load,
(ii) to protect the load from transients in the main supply, and
(iii) to maintain the load frequency at the desired value.
In the case of the inverter failure, the load is switched ON directly to the mai
main supply
without interruption through a fast-acting
fast static transfer switch-1.
1. This transfer by a solid state
switch usually takes 4 to 5 ms. The total transfer operation is made within one-fourth
one fourth of the cycle
so that the operation of the critical load is not disturbed. During the emergency power flow,
back-up
up time available depends on the ampere-hour
ampere hour capacity of the battery. Figure below shows
the waveforms of utility voltage and the UPS output voltage.

This type of U.PS is more costly and it is available in ratings above 5 KVA. This
configuration
tion is the best as it provides
(i) full isolation of the critical load from the unhealthy ac supply,
supply and
(ii) power conditioning
OFF-line UPS
The load in Figure below is normally supplied from the ac supply and the rectifier/battery
charger maintains the full charge of the battery. If the ac supply fails, the load is switched ON to
the output of the inverter
erter through static switch-2.
switch 2. This configuration requires breaking the circuit
momentarily and the transfer by a solid state switch usually takes around 10ms. The total transfer
operation is made within one-fourth
fourth of the cycle so that the operation of the critical load is not
disturbed. The inverter runs only during
d the time when the ac supply fails.

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 After restoration of the ac supply, the load is transferred to the ac supply through static
switch-1. Now the battery is put on charge again and remains on float when fully charged.

UPS SPECIFICATIONS
UPS Output Specifications

Voltage The UPS output voltage must match the requirement of the load. In North
America this voltage is 120Vac, in most of Europe 230Vac is used and the
rest of the world is 220Vac.

Regulation The regulation specification is the maximum expected deviation for the
normal output voltage (e.g. 120Vac) that is expected over the entire range
of operating conditions (e.g. load, temperature, altitude). For Off-Line
systems the regulation spec refers to the battery backup mode. For On-
Line systems the spec is normally ± a few percent an is valid for both the
normal and battery backup modes.

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Frequency The frequency of the UPS output must match the requirements of the load.
Switch-mode power supplies have a wide (47 - 63 Hz) range to be able to
operate from either 50 or 60Hz. Other loads may require either 50 or
60Hz.

Power Rating To completely specify a UPS, both the Volt-Ampere (VA) and wattage
(Watts) rating must be known. See the section on "Understanding Watts,
VA and Power Factor" for an in-depth explanation.

Load Power A power factor (p.f.) in the 0.6 to 0.8 range is typical. A p.f. rating of 0.6
Factor to 0.7 is good for a switch-mode power supply. A p.f of 0.8 is typical for
older UPS equipment designs used before the widespread used of
computers.

Transfer Time In an On-Line system the transfer time refers to a change from the bypass
source to the UPS and vise-versa. A typical time is ¼ of a cycle or about
5-6 milliseconds.
In an Off-Line system the transfer time refers to the change from the
utility source to the inverter when there is a power outage and is about 5 to
10 milliseconds.

Current The output current refers to the maximum current available at the normal
output voltage.

Overload If more load is added to a UPS and the new total is more than the rating,
Capability the UPS must be able to continue to function. At typical Overload
specification is 1.25% for 10 minutes or 150% for 1 minute.

Waveform Not all UPS products have a sine-wave output and most modern loads do
not require a perfect sine-wave source. Lower cost UPS equipment will
have a quasi square-wave or a step sine-wave output waveform

UPS Input Specifications

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Voltage The input voltage specification is the nominal voltage the UPS
expects to see on its input.

Voltage Range All UPS products are designed to operate over a range of input
voltages. A typical range is +10% to -15% or 102Vac to 132Vac
for North America or 196Vac to 253Vac for Europe.

Frequency Modern UPS equipment will operate on either 50 or 60Hz as

long as the voltage is within the specified limits. Some UPS
equipment is designed to operate only on 50 or 60Hz.

Maximum The maximum current occurs when the UPS is fully loaded and
Current the input voltage is at the minimum allowed for normal operation
(usually about -15%).

Power Factor The UPS input is a load on the utility power source. The UPS
input power factor (p.f.) varies with how much load is on the
output of the UPS and in modern UPS equipment is 0.9 or better.
In large UPS equipment (e.g. 25kVA) the input power factor
could be a very important part of the overall system design. In
small UPS equipment, power factor is usually not a concern
unless many units are being installed.

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