Philosophical

Framework of Ethics
 Table of Contents
Lesson 1: Morality as Virtue: Aristotle ....................................................................... 1
Nicomachean Ethics ................................................................................... 2
Thomas Aquinas’s Ethics ............................................................................ 4

Lesson 2: Morality and Sentiment: David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau ............ 6
David Hume ............................................................................................... 6
Jean-Jacques Rousseau ............................................................................... 7

Lesson 3: Morality and Practical Reason: Immanuel Kant ........................................ 8

Lesson 4: Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill .............................. 11

Lesson 5: The Creation of Morality: Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre ........ 13
Jean-Paul Sartre ........................................................................................ 13
Friedrich Nietzsche ................................................................................... 15

Questions .................................................................................................................. 18

References ................................................................................................................. 27
 Lesson 1: Morality as Virtue: Aristotle

Aristotle (384-322 BC) is a philosopher and natural scientist who eventually shared the
distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers with Socrates and Plato, who is
Aristotle’s teacher. The contemporary theory in ethics called Virtue Ethics is said to have
started with these three great philosophers. In the medieval era, the Italian philosopher and
theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) revived, enhanced, and “Christianized” the Greek
Virtue Ethics.

Virtue Ethics Defined

Virtue Ethics is a moral philosophy that teaches that an action is right if it is an action
that a virtuous person would do in the same situation. A virtuous person is someone who acts
virtuously, they possess and live the virtues. Virtue Ethics puts emphasis on developing good
habits of character and avoiding bad character traits or vices.

Developing one’s faculties to the fullest is pursing ethical excellence, which is displayed
by virtues. Basically, the virtues are the freely chosen character traits that people praise in
others because: (1) they are difficult to develop, (2) they are corrective of natural deficiencies,
and (3) they are beneficial both to self and society.

Socrates and Plato’s Moral Philosophy

In the dialogue Gorgias, Socrates indicates that pleasure and pain fail to provide an
objective standard for determining moral from immoral since they do not exist apart from one
another, while good and evil do.

In Euthyphro, Socrates asks Euthyphro whether something is good because the gods love
it, or whether the gods love it because it is good. Socrates therefore believed in the existence of
objective ethical standards though he admitted that it is not that easy to specify them.

Central to Plato’s philosophy is his theory or Forms - the objectively existing immaterial
entities that are the proper object of knowledge. There is also a form even for moral predicates
such as justice and happiness. The highest of all forms is the form of the Good. For Plato, those
who comprehend the Good will always do good actions. To know Good, nonetheless, requires
an austere and intellectually meticulous way of life.

Virtue is regarded as knowledge and can be taught. Knowledge of the Good is considered
as the source of guidance in moral decision making that to know the good is to do the good.

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Aristotle’s Ethics

Aristotle has two works concerning morality, the Eudemian ethics and Nicomachean
ethics. Nicomachean ethics is more frequently referenced due to its depth and comprehensive
nature.

Eudemian ethics centers on the concept of happiness and the role of virtue in achieving a
good life. This has 3 key themes which are: (1) Virtue and happiness, discusses how virtues
contribute to a fulfilling and happy life; (2) Human Agency, this work studies the relationship
between our actions and virtues, emphasizing the importance of deliberate and virtuous actions
in achieving happiness; and lastly (3) Kalokagathia, combines the ideas of beauty (kalos) and
goodness (agathos).

Kalokagathia has three key aspects namely: (1) Moral Virtue, possessing moral virtues
such as courage, temperance, and justice signifies a person who do not only perform good
actions but also has the right intentions and character; (2) Physical Excellence, kalokagathia
includes physical beauty and health, reflecting the Greek ideal that a noble character should be
complemented by a well-maintained body; and (3) Integration of Virtues, it is the harmonious
integration of moral and intellectual virtues.

Nicomachean Ethics

Because only few have studied the Eudemian ethics, the Nicomachean ethics is regarded
as Aristotle’s ethics. In this work, there are three general descriptions that can be used to depict
Aristotle’s ethics. First, self-realization, when someone acts in line with his nature or end (telos)
and thus realizes his full potential, he does moral and will be happy. Second, eudaimonistic, it
focuses on happiness (eudaimonia), or the good for man, and how to obtain it. Lastly, aretaic or
virtue-based, whereas act-oriented ethics is focused on what we should do, virtue ethics is
basically what we should be, the character we should struggle to become.

Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics can be summarized in this manner:

“All humans seek happiness, but in different ways. True happiness is tied to the
purpose or end of human life. The essence of human beings is Reason. Reason employed in
achieving happiness leads to moral and intellectual virtues.”

Aristotle’s Telos

A “telos” is an end or purpose. Aristotle argues that rational beings can discover the
“essences” of things, and that essence is its potential fulfillment or ‘telos’. The essence of human
beings is rationality; thus, a life of contemplation is the best kind of life for true human
flourishing.
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 Aristotle believes in the excellence of philosophical contemplation and virtuous actions
stemming from virtuous persons. By virtuous actions he means those which the person with
wisdom would choose because what is good is obvious to such a person.

Happiness and Virtues

Aristotle believes that the ultimate goal is self-realization. This entails achieving one’s
natural purpose by living consistently with human nature. Accomplishing it produces
happiness. Aristotle identifies three natures of man: (1) physical, (2) emotional, and (3) rational.
The rational nature of humans distinguishes us from other creatures, thus deemed as the most
important. Living in accordance with reason is viewed as vital in self-actualization or
developing one’s potential. Self-realization is the key to human happiness.

Ethics, for Aristotle, is the inquiry of the human good. The purpose of studying ethics is
to make ourselves good. The human good is eudaimonia or happiness. Aristotle considers
happiness as the summum bonum – the greatest good of all human life. It is the only intrinsic
good.

Human good is the activity of the soul in accordance with excellence or virtue. Aristotle’s
happiness is not much of a subjective feeling of well-being, but human well-being itself.

Virtue as Habit

Aristotle’s idea of happiness should also be understood in the sense of human flourishing.
This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences or
virtues. Aristotle employs the word “hexis” to refer to moral virtue. Hexis is an active state, a
condition in which something must actively hold itself. Virtue manifests itself in action. An
action counts as virtuous when a person holds oneself in a state of equilibrium of the soul. This
state of the soul is what constitutes character.

Virtues and the Golden Mean

Intellectual virtues correspond to the fully rational part of the soul, the intellect. Moral
virtues pertain to the rational soul that can obey reason. Moral virtue is an expression of
character, hence also called virtue of character. Moral virtues are the trait that enable us to act
according to reason.

Acting in a reasonable manner is done when we choose to and indeed act in a way that
neither goes to excess nor defect because they normally indicate vice. Virtue neither lies in any
vice but in the middle ground. Moral virtue is the golden mean between the two less desirable
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extremes. The virtuous person is brought up to find enjoyment in virtuous actions and sorrow
in vices. Aristotle mentions four basic moral virtues: courage, temperance, justice, and
prudence.

Phronesis and Practice

The golden mean is relative to us as moral agents. The right amount for a person may not
be the same amount for another, the golden mean for us may not be the golden mean in other
people’s situation. Phronesis is the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom, this guides us to what
is appropriate in conjunction with moral virtues.

Once we have learned the proper amount of action through moral and intellectual virtues,
we have “the right prescription” (orthos logos). To be virtuous, one must act in accordance with
the right prescription. Acting appropriate should be understood in practice. To be virtuous, one
must perform the actions that habitually bring virtue.

A morally virtuous man is someone who constantly and habitually acts according to moral
virtue and practical wisdom, ideally exhibiting a lifetime of rational living and avoidance of
vice, forming an ethical character, achieving self-actualization, and realizing happiness and
human good. Moral virtue is a state of character manifested in choice and action, resting in the
golden mean, resolved by the prescription a wise person would determine.

Thomas Aquinas’s Ethics

Also called the Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics. He believes that all actions
are directed towards the end and happiness is the final end. But ultimate happiness is not
attainable in this life, for happiness in this life is imperfect. True happiness is found in the souls
of the blessed in heaven or in beatitude with God.

The Natural Law

By term “law”, he means an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by
someone who has care of the community. These are “rules and measures” for people’s conduct
as “rational patterns or forms”. Obedience to the law is viewed as participating or being in
conformity with the pattern or form.

4 Types of Laws

1. Eternal – rational plan of God. God is the supreme ruler of everything, the rational
pattern in his mind is the law. Everything in the universe is subject.

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 2. Natural – Portion of eternal law relating to human conduct. People are subject by their
nature ordering them to do good and avoid evil.

3. Human – The human law’s precise, positive rules of behavior are supposed to spell out
what the natural law prescribes. This law cultivates moral values. This law includes civil and
criminal laws formulated in light of practical reason and moral laws. Human laws that are
against natural laws are not real laws.

4. Divine – complement to other types of laws. It is a law of revelation, disclosed through

sacred texts or Scriptures. It is more focused on how man can be inwardly holy and eventually
attain salvation.

Syndresis – Virtue of a faculty of moral insight or conscience.

Through syndresis we identifies 3 sets of natural indications to a specific good: (1) to

survive, (2) to reproduce and educate offspring, and (3) to know the truth about God and live
peacefully in society.

Features of Human Actions

Three aspects through which the morality of an act can be determined:

1. Species – refers to its kind, also called the object of the action. Can be either good, or
bad, or neutral. For an act to be moral, it must be good or at least not bad.
2. Accidents – the circumstances surrounding the action.
3. End – the agent’s intention.

Happiness, Moral Virtues, and Theological Virtues

Happiness consists of activities in accordance with virtue. A person needs a moral

character cultivated through the habits of choice to realize real happiness. He defines virtue as
“a good habit bearing on activity”. Habits are firm dispositions or “hard to eradicate” qualities.
Not all habits are virtue, only those that leads us to our good.

Acquired habits are involved in consistent deliberate effort to do an act time and again
despite obstructions. Infused habits are directly instilled by God, these virtues are divine gifts
which elevate the activities of those who receive them.

There are two kinds of infused virtues: (1) Moral virtues, the four basic moral virtues are
prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice; (2) Theological virtues are concerned directly with
God. These are faith, hope and love.
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 Lesson 2: Morality and Sentiment: David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Morality refers to principles and values that distinguish between right and wrong or good and
bad behavior

Sentiment involves feelings or emotions that influence our thoughts and attitudes.

David Hume- (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist
known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. Hume conceived of
philosophy as the inductive, experimental science of human nature. The notion of sentiment is
"feeling" and sympathy is "feeling for other people and taking their interests into account as well
as our own."

The hypothesis that we embrace is plain. It maintains that morality is determined by

sentiment. It defines virtue to be whatever mental action or quality gives to a spectator the
pleasing sentiment approbation: and vice contrary of reason.
The central concern of Hume’s moral philosophy distinguishes those who defend morality as a
function of reason from those who say that it is rather a matter of sentiment and passion.

On “REASON AS SLAVE OF THE PASSIONS" the role of reason and passion in

morality. It argues that reason is often a slave to passion and that morality is a function of
passion rather than reason.

Truth is disputable, not taste: what exists like things is the standard of our judgment:
what each man feels within himself is the standard of sentiment.
On the other hand, those who would resolve all moral determinations into sentiment may
endeavor to show that it is impossible for reason ever to conclude this nature.

Men are now cured of their passion for hypotheses and systems in natural philosophy
and will hearken to no arguments but those which are derived from experience. It is time they
attempt a like reformation in all moral disquisitions and reject every system of ethics, however
subtle or ingenious, which is not founded on fact and observations.

Reason, Hume argues, may be of use in deciding how we can get what we want, but it is
incapable of ever telling us what we ultimately want. Notice the familiar arguments against an
infinite regress: notice also Hume’s sharp distinction between reason (which is concerned with
knowledge, truth, and falsehood) and taste or sentiment (that judge, values, which ultimately
depend upon pleasure and pain).

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 Thus, the distinct boundaries and offices of reason and taste are easily ascertained. The
former conveys the knowledge of truth and falsehood: the latter gives sentiment of beauty and
deformity, vice and virtue.

Elsewhere, Hums argues a razor-sharp distinction between facts and values. He argues
with characteristic conciseness that “it is impossible to derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’ that is any
notions of value or what we ought to do cannot be derived from any statement of fact.

Morality and Sentiment: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is an 18th-century philosopher, writer, and composer. He

defended a similar theory of sentiment although he is not as antagonistic to reason as his
reputation suggest.

His view of morality is focused on his belief that humans are inherently good in nature
and he rejects the idea of original sin, asserting that moral wrongdoing comes from harmful
intentions, not from innate desires. Since people are essentially good, sentiment, by his theory,
is tied to a kind of "natural reason." The key to his theory, therefore, is the concept of
conscience, a powerful kind of moral feeling that has its own kind of divine reason

Rousseau believes that instead of engaging in complex philosophical debates, one must
know the importance of noble feelings and empathy in human life, that people should consult
their heart and natural feelings to understand what is right or wrong. He concludes that
feelings, such as self-love, fear, and the desire for comfort, are inborn and exist before
knowledge or reason and refutes the belief that humans act only out of self-interest, noting that
empathy, admiration for noble deeds, and shared joy contradict this idea, which shows the
natural inclination of people towards goodness and virtue. That’s why most people, despite
flaws, naturally feel empathy for the suffering of others and are inspired by acts of goodness.
Even the wicked, such as thieves or murderers, may demonstrate moments of compassion,
which reveals a universal instinct for sympathy. He highlights the inner torment of remorse that
comes with wrongdoing, contrasting the inner peace and joy that arise from a good conscience.

For him, conscience is an inherent feeling which drives us to love good once "natural
reason" reveals it. However, unlike judgments, conscience operates as an instinctive moral
compass, an "immortal voice from heaven" that helps humans distinguish right from wrong.
Even if knowledge and reason might confuse or mislead us, Rousseau believes that conscience
remains a reliable and divine guide towards moral behavior.

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 Morality and Practical Reason: Immanuel Kant

Morality and Practical Reasons is a significant topic in ethics that explores the relationship
between moral obligations and practical decision-making, addressing questions about how and
why moral considerations should influence real-world choices.

1. Defining Morality and Practicality

Morality refers to a system of values and principles that guide actions, distinguishing
between right and wrong, good and bad. It often appeals to ethical theories like
utilitarianism (maximizing happiness), deontology (duty-based ethics), or virtue ethics
(developing moral character).
Practical reasons concern the motivations and considerations involved in making choices
based on outcomes, preferences, or circumstances. These are tied to self-interest, personal
goals, or consequences.

2. The Conflict Between Moral and Practical Reasons

In everyday life, individuals often face a conflict between moral obligations and practical
concerns. For example:
Moral reasons may tell you not to lie because honesty is a virtue or because lying violates a
duty to others.
Practical reasons might tell you to lie if it helps avoid immediate harm, embarrassment, or
some negative consequence.

This raises the question: Should we prioritize moral reasons over practical ones, and if
so, why?

3. Ethical Theories on the Relationship

Kantian Ethics (Deontology): According to Immanuel Kant, moral reasons must always
take precedence over practical reasons. Kant believed that morality is grounded in
categorical imperatives—absolute duties that must be followed regardless of practical
consequences. For example, if lying is wrong, it remains wrong even if it benefits you.
Utilitarianism: This approach, advocated by John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, focuses
on the consequences of actions. If lying or breaking a moral rule result in greater happiness
for the majority, then it might be justified for practical reasons. Utilitarianism essentially
blurs the line between moral and practical reasoning by measuring actions by their
outcomes

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 Virtue Ethics: Rooted in Aristotle's philosophy, virtue ethics emphasizes moral character
rather than rigid rules. Here, practical and moral reasons often align because a virtuous
person will naturally act in ways that promote both moral goodness and practical well-
being. For example, being generous (a moral virtue) can also help build trust and
relationships (practical benefits).

4. Conclusion: Integration of Morality and Practicality

In ethical decision-making, the challenge is often integrating moral obligations with

practical reasoning. Ideally, moral principles should guide actions, but practical concerns (such
as survival, well-being, or societal functioning) cannot be ignored. Many ethicists believe that a
balance can be struck, where moral reasoning informs practical choices, and practical
considerations ensure that moral rules are applicable in real-world contexts.

Immanuel Kant’s View

Immanuel Kant’s views on morality and practical reasons are central to his ethical
philosophy, and he developed these ideas in contrast to thinkers like David Hume and Jean-
Jacques Rousseau.

Kant’s Ethics: Morality and Practical Reasons

Kant’s philosophy is grounded in deontological ethics, which emphasizes that moral

actions are driven by duty rather than outcomes or practical consequences. For Kant, moral
reasons are binding and universal, dictated by what he called the categorical imperative. This is
a principle that demands that actions be performed according to maxims (rules) that could be
universalized—i.e., that everyone could follow without contradiction.
Practical Reason in Kant’s Ethics: For Kant, practical reason refers to the faculty by which
humans decide on actions, specifically in terms of moral obligations. Practical reason is
guided not by what we desire (empirical motivations) but by what we ought to do, based on
rational principles. Unlike theoretical reason, which is concerned with understanding the
world, practical reason is focused on how we act within it.
Moral Law and Freedom: Kant believes that true freedom comes from following moral
laws that we give to ourselves through rational deliberation. These laws are derived from
practical reason and apply universally to all rational beings. Morality, in Kant’s view, is not
subject to personal interests or outcomes, but instead comes from acting out of respect for
moral laws. This makes moral reasons objective and binding regardless of one’s desires.

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Kant's ethical philosophy is centered around the idea that morality is grounded in reason,
specifically what he calls "practical reason." According to Kant, humans are not just
motivated by desires or inclinations, but also by the capacity to reason and act according to
moral laws.
Categorical Imperative: Kant introduces the concept of the categorical imperative, which is
a universal moral law that applies to all rational beings. It commands actions that must be
followed regardless of personal desires or circumstances. For instance, one formulation of
the categorical imperative is to "act only according to that maxim by which you can at the
same time will that it should become a universal law."
Practical Reason and Autonomy: Practical reason is the ability of individuals to act in
accordance with moral laws that they autonomously endorse. For Kant, true moral actions
stem from the will to do what is right, not from seeking any personal gain or reward. Thus,
morality is not a matter of subjective preference but of rational duty.
Moral Law and Freedom: Kant argues that freedom and morality are intertwined. A person
is truly free only when they act in accordance with rational moral laws. This concept of
autonomy is fundamental to Kant's understanding of ethics—humans are morally obligated
to follow laws they give to themselves through rational deliberation, rather than being
controlled by external factors or personal desires.
Kant's system contrasts with philosophers like David Hume, who believed that morality
arises from emotions and subjective experiences rather than reason. For Kant, practical
reason provides the foundation for objective moral laws that are valid for all rational
beings.

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 Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill were influential proponents of utilitarianism, a
consequentialist theory that determines the morality of an action by considering its effects as
opposed to the act's nature or conventional moral rules. According to utilitarianism, morality is
determined by the consequences of an action, which makes it good in and of itself.

1. Utilitarianism Explained

Utilitarian ethics posits that the right course of action maximizes overall happiness,
identifying it with pleasure. It can be divided into three main sections: Act Utilitarianism, Rule
Utilitarianism, and Preference Utilitarianism.

1.1 Act utilitarianism is a choice-based theory that holds that doing the right thing will
produce the greatest or least negative consequences. However, others claim this theory
might be used to justify unethical behavior, such as torturing children whose fathers are
enemy soldiers.

1.2 Rule Utilitarianism Critics of rule utilitarianism contend that it can result in unfair rules
because it applies the concept of utility to judge the legitimacy of morally and immorally
consequential standards of behavior, such as promise keeping.

1.3 Preference Utilitarianism this argument says that you should take into account the
preferences of the person concerned in each case, unless those preferences are outweighed
by the preferences of other people.

2. Origins and Nature of the Theory

Jeremy Bentham founded the doctrine of Utilitarianism, but John Stuart Mill later
systematized and modified some of Bentham's principles.

2.1 Bentham's Utilitarianism is a moral theory that emphasizes the principle of utility,
which states that an action is right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest
number. Principle of Utility has four main characteristics:
(1) It recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life.
(2) approves or disapproves of an action on the basis of the amount of pain or pleasure
brought about, that is, consequences
(3) equates good with pleasure and evil with pain and
(4) asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of quantification (and hence ‘measure’

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 2.2 Mill Utilitarianism, influenced by Bentham and John Stuart Mill, emphasizes the
importance of a balance between pleasure and societal well-being. Mill is a qualitative
hedonist, believing that happiness primarily composed of higher pleasures is a deeper, truer,
and more valuable form of happiness.
He adjusted more hedonistic tendencies in Bentham’s philosophy by emphasizing:
(1) It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to
utilitarianism
(2) the calculus is unreasonable (distinction between higher and lower pleasures)
(3) utilitarianism refers to “the Greatest Happiness Principle”

Hinman (2013) suggests that there are four principal differences between pleasure and
happiness:
(1) Happiness is related to the mind, whereas pleasure is related to the body
(2) Pleasure is of shorter duration than happiness. Happiness is long-term, focusing on
the satisfaction of living well, or achieving life goals.
(3) Happiness may encompass pleasure and pain.
(4) There is an evaluative element in happiness versus pleasure.

3. Effects of Utilitarianism in Other Fields

From Encyclopedia Britannica comes an explanation on the effects of utilitarianism in

other fields. The influence of utilitarianism has been widespread, permeating the intellectual life
of the last two centuries. Its significance in law, politics, and economics is especially notable.

4. Problems with Utilitarianism

Measuring happiness is difficult.

Utilitarian ethics is concerned about the consequences of our actions, regardless of the
action itself.
Desired ethical consequences that actually result from our actions do not always happen
immediately.
Happiness should not be the only consequence or goal that matters in some ethical
dilemmas.
When utilitarian decisions benefit the majority at the expense of the minority, the minority’s
rights may not be taken into account.
Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values such as justice and individual rights

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 The Creation of Morality: Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (1905–1980) was a French existentialist philosopher,

writer, and political activist. Sartre is best known for his contributions to existentialism and
phenomenology, exploring themes like freedom, responsibility, and the meaning of existence.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a family views and form of philosophical inquiry that explores the issue
of human existence. It focuses on the nature of human existence, often exploring themes such as
the meaning of life, the absurdity of the human condition, and the isolation of the individual in
a seemingly indifferent or meaningless universe. It is a philosophical movement that emphasizes
individual freedom, choice, and responsibility. According to Sartre to live a good life, a moral
life one has to be live in authentic life. For an individual to live in authentic life is to be freedom
in which person can be able to choose or decide for himself and for what is best and ideal and
excellent for himself. It is contrary to a person who lived by the choice of other people and
controlled by them. For Sartre, morality is not predetermined but created by the individual
freewill and choice.

The common idea of the existentialist philosopher is “existence precedes essence”. This
idea pertains that humans are not born with the predetermined nature or purpose instead they
must create their own essence or meaning, including their values through actions and choices.
With the absence of predetermined purpose, humans are radically free to make choices but with
this freedom come the weight of responsibility for the choices. According to Sartre, individual
may feel “existential angst “or feeling of disorient or searching for meaning of meaningless. This
is somehow feeling absurd and anxiety when you did some decision on your own because you
will realize that there is no choices that provide absolute certainty in life.

One of the best examples of existentialism is choosing one’s career path or life direction.
Imagine a person who feels pressure to pursue a stable career or such an accountant because of
the expectation by their family or they are a family of an accountant. However, that person has
a different path of life that what to be which is to be an artist. In this situation if we talk to
Sartre, he will definitely tell you that:
1. you’re not born as an accountant, or an artist (existence precedes essence) and you must
create your own purpose and meaning through your choices.
2. You have freedom to choose but always remember that your freedom has responsibility.
If the choice you made for yourself becomes failure you should not blame others for that.
3. You must live authentically where you live that is align to your personal values and
desires. Don’t live in conforming life to others for it such a bad faith living. This is the decision
making of an existentialist that focuses on authenticity, freedom and responsibility.

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 The given illustration is for us to understand how existentialist ideas work in decision
making. Let me provide you an example for a moral dilemma. Imagine someone working for a
successful company that engages in ethically questionable practices. He has a well paid salary
and has comfortable life, but they begin to question whether it is morally right to continue
working for the company has unethical practices. If he stays, he will continue to have paid and
provide food for his family, on the other hand when he leaves he will experience financial loss
for him and his family. In existentialism philosophy, individual has freewill and choices and in
every decision they create there always a responsibility attached on it. In the given example the
man decides to leave his well-paying job, driven by the moral framework he has created for
himself. He accepts the financial and personal risks, understanding that he is responsible for
living authentically according to his own moral values. This decision reflects existentialist ideas
of personal freedom, the creation of meaning, and taking responsibility for one’s own moral
choices. In this way, existentialism emphasize that morality is not something we passively
receive from external sources, but something actively creates through our choices and actions in
life.

Existentialism concludes that a man is responsible for himself; he is not only responsible
for his own individuality and moral value but that he is responsible for all men and his life.
When Sartre say man chooses himself, we do mean that everyone of us must choose himself; but
by that he also means that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men. Hence, of all the
actions a man may take in order to create himself as he wills to be, there is not one which is
creative, at the same time, of an image of man such as he believes he ought to be. What we
choose is always the better and nothing can be better for us unless it is better for all. And what
we choose always together for the consequences, and we are the only one responsible for it.

The main point of Existentialism as to morality:

1. Morality is not predetermined or universal. It’s often rejecting the idea of universal
moral truths, arguing that morality is context dependent and shaped by personal circumstances.
2. Authenticity for your moral values, its required individual experiences and personal
beliefs rather than societal norms or imposed rules.
3. We can create their own meaning through their actions and choices, even to moral
perspective. Life may be meaningless but as to existentialism we find our own meaning and
develop essence in life.
4. Each decision and choices have moral responsibility.

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 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a German philosopher, classical scholar, and
cultural critic. He is one of the most influential modern thinkers, known for his profound and
often controversial ideas on morality, religion, and culture. Nietzsche began his career as a
classical philologist before turning to philosophy. His major works include “Thus Spoke
Zarathustra,” “Beyond Good and Evil,” and "On the Genealogy of Morals". Nietzsche’s
philosophy is characterized by a radical critique of traditional values and a call for the re-
evaluation of all values.

Friedrich Nietzsche often referred to himself as an “immoralist” to emphasize his

rejection of traditional moral values. By calling himself an immoralist, Nietzsche did not mean
that he advocated for immoral behavior in the conventional sense. Instead, he sought to
challenge and deconstruct the prevailing moral systems of his time, which he believed were life-
denying and rooted in weakness.

Nietzschean Morality

Nietzsche’s perspective on morality is complex and multifaceted, involving both a

critique of existing moral systems and the proposal of a new, life-affirming set of values.

1. Critique of Traditional Morality

Master-Slave Morality: Nietzsche distinguished between “master morality” and “slave
morality.” Nietzsche admired the values of ancient Greek and Roman societies, which he
associated with “master morality.” Master morality arises from the strong and noble, who
create values based on their own experiences and strengths. It values pride, power, and
nobility. Nietzsche was inspired by the heroic ideals of ancient Greek culture, as exemplified
by figures like Achilles and Odysseus. These heroes embodied qualities like courage, honor,
and excellence, which Nietzsche believed were essential for a flourishing life. Slave morality,
on the other hand, emerges from the weak and oppressed, valuing humility, empathy, and
kindness as a reaction against the dominance of the masters. Nietzsche argued that
Christianity, through its promotion of slave morality, creates a moral system where the
oppressed see themselves as morally superior because of their virtues like humility and
patience. They view the strong (which have qualities such as such as pride, power, and
assertiveness) as morally inferior, incapable of these virtues, and thus condemn them. This
dynamic, according to Nietzsche, undermines the qualities that he believed were essential
for a flourishing life.

Critique of Ascetic Ideals: Asceticism involves practices of severe self-discipline and

abstention from all forms of indulgence, typically for religious reasons. Nietzsche saw
ascetic ideals as life-denying because they promote self-denial, the rejection of earthly
pleasures, and the suppression of natural instincts and desires. Nietzsche was particularly
critical of the hypocrisy he perceived in Christian morality. Nietzsche believed this focus on
an imagined afterlife detracts from the richness and potential of earthly existence. Nietzsche
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 argued that ascetic ideals are often used by religious institutions, particularly Christianity,
to exert power over people. By promoting values like poverty, chastity, and humility,
religious leaders can maintain control and influence over their followers. These ideals create
a sense of moral superiority among those who practice them, even though they stem from a
position of weakness and self-denial. Nietzsche saw this as hypocritical and manipulative.
Ascetic ideals provide an escape from the challenges and complexities of life. Instead of
facing and overcoming these challenges, individuals retreat into self-denial and
otherworldly hopes.

Rejection of Universal Morality: Nietzsche rejected the notion of universal moral truths. He
argued that what we consider moral truths are merely reflections of the prevailing cultural
and moral biases of the time. Nietzsche used a method called “genealogy” to trace the
historical development of moral values. He argued that our current moral values are not
timeless truths but have evolved through specific historical and psychological processes.
Nietzsche introduced the concept of perspectivism, which posits that all knowledge,
including moral knowledge, is contingent upon the perspectives from which it is viewed.
There are no absolute or objective truths, only interpretations. This challenges the idea that
there can be a single, universal set of moral principles applicable to all people at all times.

2. Re-evaluating values using positive ethical vision

Will to Power: Central to Nietzsche’s philosophy is the concept of “will to power” (der Wille
zur Macht). He proposed that the fundamental driving force in humans is not a will to
survive or seek pleasure, but a will to exert and expand one’s power and influence. This
drive is not just about domination over others but also about self-overcoming and
creativity. It is the driving force behind the desire to grow, improve, and assert one’s
individuality. It emphasizes the constant of becoming and transformation of all things.
Nietzsche was influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer’s concept of the “will to live,” which
posits that a blind, irrational force drives all living beings to survive and reproduce.
Nietzsche transformed this idea into the will to power, focusing on the drive for growth and
self-overcoming rather than mere survival.

Übermensch (Overman): Nietzsche introduced the idea of the “Übermensch” or “Overman,”

an individual who transcends conventional morality to create their own values. This
appears prominently in his work “Thus Spoke Zarathrustra”. The Übermensch is not just a
superior human but a new kind of being who embodies the highest potential of humanity.
The Übermensch represents an idealized future human being who transcends the limitations
and constraints of ordinary humanity. Nietzsche envisioned the Übermensch as a creator of
new values, someone who lives beyond traditional notions of good and evil and moral
values imposed by society and religion (particularly Christianity), and who embodies the
highest potential of human existence. Instead, they create their own values based on their
unique perspective and experiences. Nietzsche’s concept of eternal recurrence asks us to
imagine living our lives repeatedly, in exactly the same way, for eternity. This thought
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experiment challenges us to evaluate our lives and choices. If we can affirm our lives in such
a way that we would gladly live them again and again, it means we are living authentically
and achieving our highest potential. This individual is autonomous, meaning they are self-
governing and independent. They do not rely on external validation or approval but follow
their own path. The emergence of the Übermensch represents a new moral horizon, where
individuals are free to define their own purpose and meaning in life.

Autonomy and Self-Creation: Nietzsche’s positive ethical vision emphasizes autonomy,

authenticity, and self-creation. He believed that flourishing individuals are those who are
capable of creating themselves and affirming life in their own unique way.

Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche’s new morality is life-affirming, encouraging individuals to

embrace life with all its challenges and complexities rather than seeking to escape from it
through asceticism or otherworldly beliefs.

17
 Questions

1. Virtue Ethics is said to have started with these three great philosophers, namely:
a. Socrates, Aristotle, Pythagoras c. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, Karl Marx
b. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle d. Socrates, Plato, Pilosopo Tasio

2. The dialogue Gorgias and Euthyphro contains words of Socrates but are written by his
student _____.
a. Plato c. Immanual Kant
b. Aristotle d. Aeschines

3. Aristotle has two works concerning ethics, the one most used is Nicomachean ethics. What is
the other?
a. Utilitarianism c. Eudemian
b. Eudaimonistic d. Virtue Ethics

4. Nicomachean ethics can be described into the following general descriptions, except
a. Holiness c. Eudaimonistic
b. Self-realization d. Arteic

5. Aristotle considers happiness as the summum bonum. What is summum bonum?

a. Greatest gift of all human life c. Sole purpose of all human life
b. Greatest good of all human life d. Greatest goal of all human life

6. Aristotle identifies three natures of man. Which of the following is not a nature of man?
a. Physical c. Emotional
b. Spiritual d. Rational

7. Hexis is an active state, a condition in which something must actively hold itself. What
concept did Aristotle employed this word?
a. Moral Virtue c. Righteousness
b. Intellectual Virtue d. Holiness

8.Which of the following are the four basic moral virtues according to Aristotle?
a. Courage, Temperance, Justice, c. Integrity, Justice, Empathy,
Prudence Righteousness
b. Courage, Patience, Faith, d. Integrity, Charity, Justice,
Compassion Purity

9. Thomas Aquinas is also called the Prince of Scholastics and _______?

a. Doctor of Virtues c. Angelic Doctor
b. Doctor of Ethics d. Virtuous Doctor

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10. These are three theological virtues of Thomas Aquinas:
a. Faith, Devotion, Love c. Faith, Hope, Love
b. Meek, Pure, Peacemaker d. Purity, Devotion, Godliness

11. In Aristotle’s Eudemian ethics, which two ideas are combined in the idea of Kalokagathia?
a. Beauty and Virtue c. Purity and Virtue
b. Goodness and Aesthetic d. Beauty and Goodness
12. What does agathos mean?
a. Beauty c. Righteousness
b. Goodness d. Virtuous

13. According to Aristotle, what is the ultimate goal?

a. Virtuous c. Death
b. Self-realization d. Godliness

14. In Aristotle’s Eudemian ethics, this emphasizes the importance of deliberate and virtuous
actions in achieving happiness
a. Human Agency c. Humanitarian Acts
b. Human Rationality d. Human Virtues

15. _____ is the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom, this guides us to what is appropriate in
conjunction with moral virtues.
a. Naivety c. Ilithios
b. Phronesis d. Vlakas

16. In which dialogue did the philosophers talked whether something is good because the gods
love it, or whether the gods love it because it is good?
a. Gorgias c. Eudemian
b. Euthyphro d. Nicomachean

17. Moral virtue is the ________ between the two less desirable extremes (excess and defects).
a. Average c. Golden Rule
b. Equality d. Golden Mean

18. Which of the following is not one of the four types of laws in Thomas Aquinas’s ethics?
a. Divine c. Human
b. Natural d. Holy

19. What are the two infused virtues according to Thomas Aquinas’s ethics?
a. Moral and Intellectual c. Moral and Theological
b. Positive and Negative d. Deontological and Theological

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20. Thomas Aquinas defines virtue as:
a. a good habit bearing on activity c. beatitudes of God
b. hard to eradicate d. good habits

21. He was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist known especially for his
philosophical empiricism and skepticism.
a. Immanuel Kant c. David Hume
b. Jean-Jacques Rousseau d. James Mill

22. The role of reason and passion in morality. It argues that reason is often a slave to passion
and that morality is a function of passion rather than reason.
a. Reason as slave of the passion c. Slave of the reason and passion
b. Passion as slave of the reason d. Reason of passion and slave

23. Truth is disputable, _________: what exists like things is the standard of our judgment: what
each man feels within himself is the standard of sentiment.
a. Not love c. Not false
b. Not passion d. Not taste

24. Hume argues a razor-sharp distinction between facts and values. He argues with
characteristic conciseness that?
a. it is possible to derive an ‘ought’ from c. ‘ought’ from an ‘is’ is possible
an ‘is’
b. it is impossible to derive an ‘is’ from d. it is impossible to derive an ‘ought’
an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’

25. The hypothesis that we embrace is?

a. Pain c. Plain
b. Difficult d. Hard

26. It involves feelings or emotions that influence our thoughts and attitudes.
a. Emotion c. Sentiment
b. Reason d. Feelings

27. Doubt about the truth of something

a. Empiricism c. Skepticism
b. Philosopher d. Utilitarianism

28. The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience

a. Empiricism c. Skepticism
b. Philosopher d. Utilitarianism

20
29. Refers to principles and values that distinguish between right and wrong or good and bad
behavior
a. Moral c. Morality
b. Virtue d. Morality and Sentiment

30. Hume argues, that it is maybe used in deciding how we can get what we want, but it is
incapable of ever telling us what we ultimately want.
a. Sentiment c. Emotion
b. Reason d. Rational

31. According Rousseau, humans are inherently ______ in nature.

a. Good c. Neutral
b. Evil d. None of the above

32. Sentiment is tied to what?

a. God c. Society
b. Humans d. Natural Reason

33. Humans had intelligence before feelings

a. True c. Either True or False
b. False d. None of the above

34. The Philosopher who believed that people are inherently good in nature.
a. David Hume c. Jean Jacques Rousseau
b. Aristotle d. Plato

35. The following are example of sentiment/feelings except:

a. Self Love c. Desire for comfort
b. Fear d. Knowledge

36. Based on Rousseau, where does moral wrongdoings come from?

a. Harmful Intention c. Anger
b. Innate desire d. Hatred

37. It a powerful kind of moral feeling that has its own kind of divine reason
a. Love c. Reason
b. Conscience d. Anger

38. Rousseau is not as antagonistic to reason as his reputation suggests.

a. True c. Either True or False
b. False d. None of the above

21
39. Despite flaws, people naturally feel empathy for the suffering of others and are inspired by
acts of goodness.
a. True c. Either True or False
b. False d. None of the above

40. Unlike _______, conscience operates as an instinctive moral compass, an “immortal voice
from heaven” that helps humans distinguish right from wrong.
a. Judgement c. Love
b. Knowledge d. Compassion

41. Which philosopher's approach to morality did Kant oppose by emphasizing reason over
sentiment?
a. Jean-Jacques Rousseau c. Jeremy Bentham
b. David Hume d. John Stuart Mill

42. What is autonomy according to Kant’s moral philosophy?

a. The ability to make decisions based c. The capacity to self-legislate moral laws
on personal feelings through rational thought
b. The freedom to act based on external d. The ability to follow societal
influence expectations

43. Which philosopher influenced Kant’s idea of autonomy and moral self-legislation?
a. David Hume c. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
b. John Locke d. Jeremy Bentham

44. According to Kant, morality is grounded in:

a. Emotions c. Practical reason
b. Desires d. Social conventions

45. The categorical imperative is:

a. A rule that applies in certain situations c. Based on individual desires

b. A universal moral law that applies to d. Dependent on the consequences of

all rational beings actions

46. According to Kant, a morally good action is one that is performed:

a. Out of sympathy c. For personal gain
b. For the sake of duty d. To avoid punishment

47. Kant distinguishes between two types of imperatives:

a. Hypothetical and Categorical c. Moral and Legal
b. Conditional and Unconditional d. Social and Individual

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48. Which concept does Kant oppose in his moral philosophy?
a. Moral absolutism c. Deontological ethics
b. Moral relativism d. Empiricism

49. Which concept does Kant oppose in his moral philosophy?

a. Moral absolutism c. Deontological ethics
b. Moral relativism d. Empiricism

50. What is the term Kant uses for the moral law that individuals impose on themselves?
a. Empirical law c. Autonomous law
b. Hypothetical imperative d. Categorical imperative

51. He proposed that an act is justified by the person's motive to perform his duty.
a. Kant c. Mill
b. Bentham d. Hume

52. It judges the rightness of an act in terms of an external goal or purpose.

a. Deontological ethics c. Teleological ethics
b. Thomistic ethics d. Kantian ethics

53. He is the most famous proponent of utilitarianism after Bentham.

a. James Mill c. John Stuart Mill
b. David Hume d. John Rawls

54. It argues that the right course of action is one that maximizes overall happiness.
a. Consequentialist ethics c. Teleological ethical system
b. Utilitarian ethics d. Kantian ethics

55. Mill advocates this principle which states that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number that is the measure of right and wrong
a. Secondary Principle c. Principle of Socrates
b. Hedonic calculus d. The greatest happiness principle

56. The Latin term utilis

a. helpful c. resourceful
b. useful d. harmful

57. They believe in the natural law or natural rights which render some acts as immoral
a. Consequentialists c. Utilitarians
b. Absolutists d. none of these

23
58. It refers to sensual, bodily, and physical pleasures.
a. higher pleasures c. quantitative utilitarian
b. lower pleasures d. all the above

59. Animals, too, can experience this pleasure, such as those from food, drink and sex.
a. lower pleasures c. quantitative utilitarian
b. higher pleasures d. none of the above

60. Past experiences teach us which kinds of action promote happiness and which do not.
a. Principle of utility c. The greatest happiness
b. Secondary principles d. Hedonistic

61. According to Jean Paul Sartre, how is moral value created in an individual’s life?
a. By following religious commandments c. By personal choices and actions
b. Through societal norms and laws d. Through inherited moral codes

62. What does Sartre mean by “existence precedes essence “in the context of morality?
a. Human are born with a fixed moral c. Society determines a person’s moral
code essence
b. Individuals must create their own d. Religious teachings define moral
essence, including moral values, through essence
choices

63. What does Sartre argue is a consequence of human freedom in the creation of morality?
a. People are free from any responsibility c. Morality is predetermined by cultural
for their actions expectations
b. Individuals are completely responsible d. Freedom only exists when following a
for their own moral choices universal moral law

64. What is "bad faith" according to Sartre in the realm of morality?

a. Relying on religious faith for moral c. Conforming to laws and social norms
guidance
b. Refusing to accept the freedom and d. Making moral choices that are
responsibility of making one’s own inconsistent with one’s emotions
moral choices

65. How does Sartre believe people should approach situations with conflicting moral choices?

a. By deferring to societal norms and c. By accepting the freedom and

choosing the socially acceptable responsibility to create their own path,
option even without certainty
b. By turning to religion or philosophy d. By avoiding difficult decisions to reduce
for a fixed answer anxiety
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66. What is the main idea behind Nietzsche’s “will to power”?
a. The desire to survive c. The fundamental drive to exert and
expand one’s power
b. The drive to seek pleasure d. The need to follow societal rules

67. What does Nietzsche mean by “Übermensch” (Overman)?

a. A person who follows all societal rules c. Someone who rejects all forms of power

b. An individual who transcends d. A person who lives in isolation

conventional morality to create their
own values

68. What is “slave morality” according to Nietzsche?

a. Morality based on pride and power c. Morality that rejects all forms of
pleasure
b. Morality that values humility, empathy, d. Morality that follows strict religious
and kindness rules

69. Why does Nietzsche criticize ascetic ideals?

a. Because they promote excessive c. Because they encourage too much power
pleasure
b. Because they are life-denying and stem d. Because they are too easy to follow
from a fear of facing life’s challenges

70. What method does Nietzsche use to trace the origins of moral values?
a. Scientific experiments c. Religious texts
b. Genealogy d. Legal documents

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 References

De Guzman: etc. (2017) Ethics: Principle of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.

Kirwin, Claire. (n.d.). Nietzsche’s Ethics. https://iep.utm.edu/nietzsches-ethics/

Murray, P.D. (2016). Nietzsche and Morality. https://link.springer.com/referencework

entry/10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_465-1

Naqvi, Erum. (2020). On the Genealogy of Morals. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/on-the-

genealogy-of-morals/third-essay-what-do-ascetic-ideals-mean

Roberts, Tyler T. (2015). The Journal of Religion. The University of Chicago Press.

Solomon, Robert C (2001). Introducing Philosophy, 7th Edition. Oxford University

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