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National Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Indian Knowledge System

Study Material
Unit: 3: Ancient Indian Knowledge in Civil Engineering, Metallurgy, Mechanical Sciences, Textile Technology

Ancient Indian Town Planning & Architecture

Vastu Shastra: The planning and architectural aspects detailed in Västu can be viewed using an eight-part
classification of the concepts. These could be referred to as the limbs of Vastu.

1. Yajamana (Host): The core objective of Västu-śāstra is to provide satisfaction, peace of mind, and prosperity
for a dweller or the owner. Therefore, the host has a very important role, and the building of any
infrastructure depends upon certain characteristics of the yajamāna. This includes horoscope, varņa,
profession, and anthropometrics.
2. Sthapatya (Architecture): In modern parlance we use the term 'architecture' to denote all aspects of structural
design, developing detailed specifications, cost estimation, and unique styling. These issues come under
Sthapatya in vastu śāstra..
3. Shilpin(Technician); According to Mayamata, four types of technicians (silpis) work on a building: Sthapati,
Sütragrahin. Vardhaki and Takşaka. The master architect is known as Sthapati in Vatu Shastra. The Sthapati
is required to be well-versed in more than one branch of learning including mathematics, astrology and
Vedas.
4. Bhūmi (Land): The starting point for any architectural endeavour, be it a civil building, a temple, a palace, a
fort, or a town is to survey the land on which the proposed structure needs to be established. This involves
ascertaining the overall suitability of the site for the proposed construction (Bhü-parīksä).
5. Västoşpati Pūjā (Offerings): The beginning of an architectural endeavour has two activities: Västu-pūjana
and bali-dana, in which certain offerings are made and the gods, spirits, and demons are bid to leave. Once
the place is emptied of its former contents and occupants, it is ready to assimilate the new ones. Västoşpati
deals with various rituals related to Västu like homa, śänti, pārāyana (chanting), etc. These are performed by
the yajamana (owner) to receive prosperity, protection, and happiness from the lord Västospati also referred
to as the master of the area (Kśetrapati).
6. Pädavinyāsa (Site layout) is the approach to site layout or design for the proposed construction.
7. Vastu (Materials) deals with the materials used and the processing of those materials as required for the
construction in detail. Stone was one of the most important materials used.. The stones were obtained from
two sources-hills and underground mines. These stones are selected based on colour, defects, age, and gender.
The color of the stone should be uniform..
8. Alankarana (Renovations and Decorations) in Västu deals with two aspects: interior and exterior design of a
building and repairs and modifications. The Interior and exteriors itself is a great subject of the vastu study.

Manasara (Art of measurement) Architecture

The Manasara Shilpa Shastra, often known as Manasa or Manasa, is a classic Sanskrit work on Indian architecture
and design. It is one of the numerous Hindu writings on Shilpa Shastra, the study of arts and crafts that were formerly
written in the first millennium CE. It is divided into 70 adhyayas (chapters) and 10,000 shlokas (verses). One of the rare
works on Hindu architecture whose complete manuscripts have persisted until the present day is the Manasara. It is a
text that offers comprehensive instructions on how to erect Hindu temples, statues, residences, gardens, water tanks, and
other buildings.

Planning Concept of Manasara

Manasara An extensive guide to urban planning from ancient India is called Vastushastra. It was penned by a wise man
named Mansara. It is one of the five current documents dealing with Vastu Sasthram. This book has various chapters on
building construction and town planning. The selection of an appropriate location for the construction of a new village,
town, or city has received significant attention from Vastu Sastra. Based on cosmological beliefs, a traditional city was
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created using holy geometry concepts. – Mandala for Vaastu Purush. In forts and fortified cities, there are four different
types of inhabited settlements referred to as silpasasthras;

1. Janabhavanas: houses for common mass,

2. Rajbhavanas: palaces and gorgeous mansions for the ruling class,

3. Devabhavanas: religious shrines,

4.Vishrambhavana: Public buildings such as public rest houses, public gardens, public libraries, public tents,
reservoirs, and wells.

According to the Manasara, these locations for establishing cities were once chosen based on their fragrance, taste,
shape, direction, sound, and touch. The street that borders the street (Mangalaveedhi) and the street that encircles the
Brahmasthana are mentioned (Brahmaveedhi) According to this, the optimum location for a city is one where there are
plenty of trees, water bodies, rivers, plants, shrubs, and other types of green flora, including livestock. If a river borders
the location, it should flow south to north, west to east, or left to right. The water table at the location should also be as
deep as a man standing with his arms lifted over his head. The location should maintain a moderate temperature both in
the summer and the winter. The land would be denied if these conditions weren’t met.

Manasara’s eight types of plans for designing towns

According to the shapes there are eight different types of settlements.

1.Dandaka Design and its Characteristics

Streets are straight in this style of town plan and cross one another at a right angle in the middle. On its four square or
rectangular sides, it features four gates. The street’s width ranges from one to five danda, or around 1-2 metres. At the
ends, there are two transverse streets. It features a single row of dwellings, and to the east are the village offices.

2. Sarvathobhadra Design and its Characteristics

Larger villages and towns, which must be built on square grounds, can use this form of town layout. In accordance with
this plan, all of the homes in the town should be fully occupied by residents of all socioeconomic strata. The village is
dominated by the temple in the middle.

3. Nandyavarta Design and its Characteristics

The flower with the name “Nandyavarta” is imitated in its form. Instead of villages, towns are typically built using this
form of town layout. It is typically used for circular or square areas with between 3000 and 4000 homes. With the temple
of the presiding deity in the middle of the town, the streets run parallel to the adjacent central streets.

4. Padmaka Design and its Characteristics

This kind of design was used to construct fortified settlements all around. The plan’s structure has an outward-moving
pattern similar to the petals of a lotus. This style of town plan is conceptualized around the idea that the city was once
essentially an island surrounded by water, with no room for expansion.

5. Swastika Design and its Characteristics

can be of any shape and is not required to be divided into squares or rectangles. The village is surrounded by a rampart
wall with a water-filled moat at its base. In the middle, two major streets that run from South to North and from West to
East cross each other.

6. Prastara Design and its Characteristics

The site can be either square or rectangular in this style of plan, but not triangular or circular. According to each person’s
ability to buy or build on the land, different sites are designated for the poor, the middle class, the wealthy, and the
extremely wealthy. Compared to other layouts, the primary highways are significantly wider. There may or may not be
a fort around the settlement.

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7. Karmuka Design and its Characteristics

This style of town plan is most suited for locations where the town’s site is shaped like a bow, semicircle, or parabolic,
and it is typically used for cities that are situated along rivers or coastlines. The town’s main thoroughfares run from
North to South or East to West, and the cross streets intersect them at right angles to create blocks that make up the
entire region. The temple is constructed in any convenient location, with the ruling deity—typically a female deity—
installed.

8. Chaturmukha Design and its Characteristics

From the biggest town to the smallest village, it applies to all towns. The location can have four faces and be either
square or rectangular. With four main streets, the town is arranged lengthwise from east to west. Always in the middle
will be the temple dedicated to the presiding deity.

Conclusion: Importance of Manasara Architecture

Building planning, proportioning, and construction guidelines are prominent parts of architecture and planning is
covered in vastu shastra. The Manasara is the most well-known and conceivably the most comprehensive vastu shastra.
The design of sites and the construction concept of buildings in each type of manasara is unique and needful at that time.
The irony is, these styles are also followed in modern architecture for a better urban level of planning. This knowledge
is based on the Universal Laws of Nature and dates back to ancient India. Vedic architecture seeks to produce stunning,
useful spaces that are harmonious with the natural world. Manasara Architecture is renowned for embracing the old
Universal Principles of Vedic Architecture without sacrificing the contemporary lifestyle of the twenty-first century in
its designs.

Manasara’s eight types of plans for designing towns

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Different Categories of Towns Mentioned in Västu Texts:

1. Rājadhānī - Capital city. Primary abode of the king, has a sabha at the centre of the city
2. Pattana/Putabhedana: Second residence of a king, a commercial centre
3. Droņamukha: Situated on a riverbank, frequented by traders from distant places
4. Durga: A fortified town, 12 types of forts have been discussed
5. Sthānīya: Fortress at the centre of 800 villages
6. Śākhānagara: Subsidiary town
7. Kārvaţika: Situated at the centre of 200 villages
8. Kheta: Smaller town mainly of labour class
9. Nigama: Market mainly of artisan.
10. Grāma: Smaller than Nigama
11. Matha or Vihārā: A residential village University.

Indus Valley Civilization town planning

The Harappan Civilization is regarded as one of the three greatest civilizations of antiquity, and further excavations will
almost certainly raise its stature even further. The town planning of the Harappan Civilization talks about the urban
settlements and construction of Harappan sites. It also explains the cultural history and development of ancient
civilizations.

Town planning of Harappan civilization was a cultural, social, and political entity that thrived in the northern Indian
subcontinent between approximately 7000 and 600 BCE. In addition to the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization and the
Harappan Civilization, its contemporary name is derived from its location in the Indus River Valley. These last names
are derived from the nearby Indus River-flowing Sarasvati River referenced in Vedic literature and the area’s ancient
city of Harappa, the first to be discovered in modern times. They followed a system of centralized administration.

Settlements of Harappans with Town planning

● Harappa or Mohenjodaro in Pakistan

● Kalibangan, Lothal or Sarkotada in India

The architecture of Indus Valley Civilization features

Urban Cities: Remarkable town planning, and an excellent system of drainage and sanitation

Large cities divided into two parts: The ‘Citadel’ mound built on the high podium of mud-brick to the west. The town
to the east was the main hub of the residential area, which was also surrounded by a massive brick wall

Streets: Fine drainage system, Well-arranged water supply system, The street lights system, Watch and ward
arrangement during the night to oust the lawbreakers, Particular places to throw thrash and waste material, Public wells

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in every street, Well in every house, Main streets varying for 9 feet to as wide as 30-34 feet and were divided into
networks of narrow lanes with great skills of dividing the cities.

Building Materials: No stone-built house in the Indus cities and the staircases of big buildings were solid; the roofs
were flat and were made of wood.

Material used:

• Burnt bricks

• Sun-dried bricks

Drainage System

Advanced drainage and sanitation system. Each house had horizontal and vertical drains and the house drains were
connected with road drains. There were underground drains for the streets and there drains were shielded by stone slabs.
Bricks were used to make the soak pits.

Great Granary

Great granary at Harappa measuring 169 fit x 135 fit. Attached to the granary were two-roomed tenements with a
common courtyard.

Great Bath

• The overall dimension of the Great Public Bath is 180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool measured about 39
feet by 23 feet with 8 feet depth. There is a device to fill and empty the water of the bathing pool and the bathing
pools were encircled with galleries and rooms.

• The urban planning of the Harappan has become a landmark for the contemporary civilization and we can get
a hint of the modern-day swimming pools and storehouses from their concept of bathing pools and granaries.

• Overall the Harappa town planning was very scientific and clearly indicates that the Harappan were chiefly
urban people.

The features of Harappan town planning are listed below (objectives)

• Underground Drainage System links every residence to street drains protected by stone or bricks.
• The Great Bath: The largest and most important public area at Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath, which measures
39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep. Charred bricks made up the floor of the Bath.
• Grid-Based Town Planning System: Grid pattern of harappan civilization used by the Harappan civilization
was notable for the practically right-angle intersections of its streets and lanes, which divided the city into
numerous rectangular blocks.
• Each of the cities of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan had a fortress built on a tall mud-brick pedestal.
• Utilization of Burnt Bricks: The absence of stone constructions and the extensive use of burned bricks in almost
every building style are two characteristics that set the Harappan civilization apart.
• Separate Dressing Rooms: A set of stairs goes to the surface at each end. There are various changing areas.
• Harappan Granary: A 150-foot long by 50-foot broad granary is the largest building of Mohenjodario. However,
the castle of Harappa has up to six granaries.
• High Mud-Brick System: Each of the cities of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan had a castle built on a
tall mud-brick pedestal.
• Construction of Brick Buildings: Underneath the castle in each city is a lower town of brick structures inhabited
by common citizens.

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Harappan Civilization Town Planning: Streets and Roads

o The Indus Valley’s streets and roadways were all straight and angled toward one another.

o All the roadways were constructed using burnt bricks, each with dimensions of four times its length and two
times its height in breadth.

o Archaeologists uncovered the lamp posts at regular intervals. This suggests that there is lighting on the streets.

o Trash containers were also present on the streets. These show that there is effective municipal management in
place.

o The roads and streets of the Indus Valley were all straight and met at perfect angles.

o They were fully lined and ranged in width from 13 to 34 feet.

o The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular units.

o To split the villages into square or rectangular blocks, the main streets were best laid out going north-south and
east-west, cutting at right angles. Streets have rounded corners, demonstrating the fundamental rule of traffic.

o The city is divided into various residential blocks by it. The streets form a crisscross pattern with right angles
between them. Narrow lanes join the main street. Instead of the major streets, the doors of the houses opened
in these lanes.

o There was no evidence of vehicular traffic. The only exception was the outer street close to the northernmost
point of the citadel wall.

o Numerous pairs of rut marks were discovered here, deeply carved into the pavement. This demonstrates that
certain designated roadways were the only ones where carts could move.

Buildings of the Harappan Civilization

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o During the town planning of the Harappan civilization, settlements were divided into a citadel and a lower
town.

o People from the Indus constructed roadways, homes, structures, and buildings.

o The buildings were constructed with bricks in the ratio 1:2:4 whether they were in Rajasthan, Punjab, or Sindh.
The size of the city wall was 10*20*40 cm, while the home bricks were 7*14*28 cm.

o They used burned bricks to construct terraced homes. Every home had two rooms or more. Additionally, there
were homes with more than one story.

o The homes included pillared halls, bathrooms, paved floors, kitchens, wells, etc., built around an inner
courtyard. In addition to residential areas, complex constructions have also been discovered.

o The largest hall in one of these structures is 80 feet long and 80 feet broad. It could have been a palace, temple,
or gathering place.

o Cooking and knitting were probably done in the courtyard throughout the summer.

o The main door was typically placed so that it would not give a clear view of the inside to promote privacy. In
addition, none of the houses’ ground-level walls had windows.

o In the town planning of the Harappan civilization, there were also living quarters for the workers. The water
supply system was first-rate.

o Along the sides of the streets, there were public wells. Every large house had a well of its own.

o Some of the buildings of the Harappa civilization include the ‘Granary’ in Punjab – located near the Ravi river,
the priest’s College, and Assembly Hall in Mohenjo-Daro. Both were located adjacent to the Great Bath.

o At Lothal in Gujarat, they also constructed a dockyard. In the Lower Town, most homes had a central courtyard
surrounded by rooms.

o Lothal was the port town of Harappans which included inlets and spring channels for water regulation.

o Kalibangan in Rajasthan was located on the Ghaggar river. This site includes high and lower citadel formations
mounted on the west and east.

o Banawali in Haryana was located on the Rangoi river. The citadel and lower town were located in the same
complex on this site.

o Dholavira in Gujarat was located on the Rann of Kutch island. It is a unique Harappan settlement because
buildings are made of sandstone instead of bricks.

Drainage System of Harappan Civilization

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o The drainage system in town planning of Indus valley civilization is mainly notable for the efficient closed
drainage system installed in the city.

o Some of the distinctive elements of the complex drainage system include in-house wastewater management,
intramural drains, vertical drain pipes in the walls, chutes through walls to the streets, and drains from bathing
floors into street drains.

o Every home had its own soak pit and drainage system that was connected to the general drainage system.

o Every street had channels that were laid out with a brick. To clean and clear them, they were covered and had
maintenance holes at regular intervals.

o Substantial brick culverts with corbelled ceilings on the city's fringes were built to transport extra water.

o Canals with brick pavers bordered every road. For cleaning and clearing, they were covered and had manholes
at regular intervals.

o On the city's fringes, massive brick culverts with corbelled ceilings were constructed to transport additional
water.

o The Indus people, as a result, created a perfect subsurface drainage system. No other contemporary society gave
cleanliness such careful consideration.

o The main means of garbage and rainwater collection were corbelled drains, which may also have been used to
drain large pools for ceremonial washing.

o The majority of the drains had stone or brick coverings. Small settling pools and traps were incorporated into
the drainage system to catch coarse silt. Baths were generally built into the homes.

o As a result, the Indus civilization developed a superior underground drainage system. No other modern culture
places such a high value on hygiene.

Great Bath of Harappan Civilization

o The Great Bath is prominent part of indus valley civilization architecture. It is made up of a sizable quadrangle.

o A massive swimming pool (about 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep) sits in the middle of the structure,
surrounded by the ruins of galleries and rooms.

o It is fed by a well that is located in one of the adjacent rooms and has a flight of stairs at either end.

o The water was removed by a sizable drain with a corbelled ceiling that extended more than 6 feet deep.

o The Great Bath’s exterior walls were 8 feet thick. For 5000 years, this sturdy edifice has successfully weathered
the effects of nature.

o Some of the rooms had provisions for a hot water bath. The tank was sealed with gypsum to prevent water from
leaking.

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Granaries of Harappan Civilization

o The granary at Mohenjo Daro, which is 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide, is the largest structure there.

o Several brick platforms in Harappa served as the foundation for two rows of six granaries each. Also discovered
in Kalibangan’s southern region are brick platforms.

o These granaries, which were probably built as revenue-generating structures or as emergency storage facilities,
kept the grains in good condition.

o Most basic goods, including rice, wheat, and barley, were stored at these warehouses for emergency
distribution.

o The cervical granaries were enormous structures. According to archaeological data, the stockroom’s lower half
may have been constructed of blocks, while its upper portion was probably made of wood.

Temple Architecture of Ancient India

Temple architecture serves as a testament to the profound advancements achieved in the realm of ancient Indian building
sciences. This paper intricately explores a spectrum of facets including styles, design geometry, philosophical
underpinnings, construction technology, and the intriguing concept of self-similarity between the human body and
temple elements. The geometric intricacies of Indian temples, including the extent of work and the area they encompass,
are contingent upon multifarious factors such as location, budget constraints, and the availability of specific building
stones for construction. Across temporal and geographical dimensions, the geometry of temples undergoes dynamic
transformations, adapting to the available materials and evolving design paradigms. The prevalent use of fractal
architecture transcends various styles and regions of temple construction, persisting as a dominant practice even in
contemporary times. The meticulous stone artwork adorning every facet of the temples appears to be meticulously
crafted with the purpose of preserving and transmitting information. The shikhara's fractal geometry imparts an ambient

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aesthetic, achieving an exquisite equilibrium between mass and symmetry. Vertical offsets, increasing in a zigzag
fashion with each side recess, contribute to a discernible vertical rhythm, while horizontal abutments and carvings
enhance the structural stability of the temple The temple's geometric configuration is not merely an architectural feat;
rather, it symbolically mirrors the human body, aligning with the sequential awakening of the seven chakras of Kundalini
Shakti from feet to head. The thoughtful design, not only aesthetically pleasing but also resilient, was orchestrated to
endure moderate seismic activities, reinforcing the temples as not just structures but profound symbolic representations
of the human spiritual.

In ancient India, building temples was a sacred and intricate process guided by religious, architectural, and cultural
beliefs.The steps involved were:

1.Choosing the Right Spot: Picking the perfect location based on ancient architectural guidelines, considering direction,
landscape, and energy flow.

2.Setting the Foundation: A solid foundation was laid with precision, symbolizing the temple's strength and longevity,
accompanied by rituals and prayers.

3.Designing and Planning: Architects crafted detailed plans incorporating regional styles, religious beliefs, and royal
preferences, outlining layouts and decorative elements.

4.Selecting Materials: Durable materials like stone (sandstone, granite), wood, and metal were chosen, impacting the
temple's durability.

5.Artistic Carving: Skilled artisans sculpted intricate reliefs and statues depicting deities and myths, infusing spiritual
meaning and aesthetic beauty.

6.Constructing the Structure: Stones or bricks were meticulously assembled following the architectural plan, often
featuring a central sanctum, hall, and tower.

7.Adding Ornamentation: Elaborate decorations like motifs, friezes, and carvings adorned both interior and exterior
surfaces, enhancing visual appeal.

8.Installing Deities: After completing the main structure, a consecration ceremony infused spiritual energy, installing
idols of deities.

9.Conducting Rituals: Priests performed rituals to bless and sanctify the temple, marking the beginning of worship
and religious activities. Temple construction wasn't just about building; it was a spiritual and communal effort, blending
religious principles, traditional craftsmanship, and cultural symbolism to create enduring architectural marvels. These
stages ensured the proper construction and consecration of ancient Indian temples.

Prominent features of Temple architecture

Prakara is the open space for circumambulation around the grabhagrha. There could be one or more parallel
structures designed depending on the overall size and span of the temple super structure. Viewing the temple from an
elevated view, one can identify distinctive elements that make up the structure. These include the following:

Adhişthăna is the base platform on which the entire superstructure rests. In addition to the foundation deposit, it can
have a raised platform (socle) on which the rest of the structure is established. Various designs for the profile of the
socle have been proposed in the vastu texts. Stambha pillars that support various structures and provide the basis for
developing the elevation for the temple.

Prastara is the entablature in the temple structure. Temples are typically multi-storeyed (varying from one to 16
storeys) and the prastara contributes to the substantive part of this. The ground floor is the only habitable storey.

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Šikhara is the superstructure, often a tower-like infrastructure that is built above the garbhagrha. This forms the main
elevation to the temple. In the South Indian temples, the superstructure over the garbhagrha is called Vimana and the
dome-shaped cupola at the top of it is called śikhara.

Stupi is the finial to the structure.

The South Indian (Dravida) and the North Indian (Nagara) designs vary in their approach to the design of several
aspects of the above components of the temple. The śikhara in a Dravida architecture is a solid dome-shaped roof or
cupola.

--The Technological Advancements in the Construction of Ancient Hindu Temples:

According to the references, the temple's construction materials comprised stone slabs, metal plates, palm fronds, and
timber parts. Dravidian and Nagara temple construction techniques were substantially similar, culminating in temple
construction [26]. Minor variances arose as a result of factors such as the variety of construction materials, climate
considerations, and the availability of manual labor during the construction process. The building of the temples began
with the gathering of a knowledgeable group under the direction of the chief architect, whose titles differed according
to the location (sompuras in the western region, mahapatras in the eastern region, and Sthpatis in the southern region).
The building team was divided into four different classes:

i.Sthapati: The chief architect, well-versed in traditional knowledge, mathematics, and Shilpa shastras.

ii.Sutragrahin: Responsible for executing tasks allocated by the “Sthapati”.

iii.Taksaka: extensively involved in the precise shaping and engraving of stones. I

v.Vardhakin: The stonemason responsible for assembling all the individual components. The sequence of temple
construction is explained below;

1.Planning the Temple: •The construction of a temple, an extensive and lengthy process lasting years, commenced with
meticulous planning. •The initial phase involved the selection and inspection of the site, determining the orientation and
layout, and choosing materials. This process utilized the Indian Circle Method and an instrument known as "shanku
yantra."

The orientation of the temple was significantly influenced by the nature of the main deity. •The chosen stone for
construction had to exhibit specific qualities, including even color, hardness, and a pleasing tactile feel.

2.Carving the Temple Parts: •The subsequent phase focused on the intricate carving of different temple components.
The takshaka guided sculptors and shilpis in carving according to specified drawings. •Stone cutting and carving adhered
to predetermined shapes, and rough joinery was established during the cutting process. •Locally crafted tools such as
hammers and chisels were regularly sharpened for use. •Sketching was executed using charcoal or sharpened bamboo,
and the polishing process involved the use of stone bars.

3.Assembling the Temple: •The final stage encompassed the assembly of temple parts, marking the actual construction
phase. •Mortise and tenon joints, a key joinery system involving a peg secure between two mortises in diverse stones,
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were prominently used. This method prevented movement due to lateral forces and was particularly employed between
two courses of masonry. Lap joints were also utilized during assembly•Stone Wall Thickness: The typical thickness of
stones employed for constructing walls ranged between 800 mm to 1200 mm. •Column Structure: The five integral
pieces of a column were two segments that made up the base of the column, one segment that made up the shaft of the
column, and two portions that made up the capital. •Monolithic Construction: Both columns and beams were constructed
as monolithic structures, ensuring a seamless and cohesive architectural integrity. Hindu temples were established across
a myriad of locations, each characterized by its distinct geography, topography, and meteorological conditions. As a
result of this diversity, several building styles and materials were incorporated. Here are some instances of these many
temple locations:

4.Temples in Varied Locations: •Mountain Temples: Notable examples include Mansa Devi and Vaishno Devi. •Cave
Temples: Examples encompass Chandrabhaga and the Chalukya Ellora Caves. •Step Well Temples: Prominent instances
are Mata Bhavani stepwell and Khodiyar Mata stepwell, both situated in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. •Temples inside forests:
Locations like “Kasaun” and “Kusama” are representative of temples in forested areas. •River Bank and Seashore
Temples: Iconic temples situated along riverbanks and seashores include Jagannath Puri, Somnath, Kashi, Prayag
(Allahabad), Hardwar, and Rameswaram, among others.

Noted Facts:

There was no idol worship during Vedic period. Agnihotra or Yajna were performed. In Yajna, God is worshiped by
honouring fire and fire is the vehicle that takes the request to God. However, Vedas contain hymns (mantras) to worship
deities who number around 33 koti including Indra, Agni, Varuna, surya, vaayu, Vishnu and Rudra (later became Shiva).
Idol worship is the extension of Yagna which is allowed in Vedas. Earlier Hindus used to worship cave temples so there
was no need to construct temples. The earliest example of this kind was a cave temple that was built in around 400 B.C.
at Bhaje containing images of learned Parasurama with Indra and Surya. Later, worship of Kubera, Rama, Kesava,
Krsna, Vishnu, Mata and Shiva started. This led to image worshipping and building of temples. Hindu Temples are
spread over entire Indian sub-continent. Many temples date back to thousands of years. Sri Adi Shankaracharya (8th
century)-He went on to connect holy spots of India such as the 12 jyotirlingas, 8 shakti-peethas and four Vishnu-dhams
to create pilgrim routes that defined India as a single land. A large number of ancient temples are found in southern and
Far East countries such as Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It is
interesting to know that Hindu temples are spread over now in over 43 countries.

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Metallurgy in Ancient India

Introduction

Technology is today defined as applied science, but early humans developed technologies such as stone-working,
agriculture, animal husbandry, pottery, metallurgy, textile manufacture, bead-making, wood-carving, cart-making,
boat-making and sailing-with hardly any science toback them up. If we define technology as a human way of altering
the surrounding world for making life easier, we find that the first stone tools in the Indian subcontinent go back more
than two million years! Jumping across ages, the ‗Neolithic revolution‘ of some 10,000 yearsago saw the development
in agriculture in parts of the Indus and the Ganges valleys, which in turn triggered the need for pots, water
management, metal tools, transport, etc. Metallurgy brought about important changes in human society, as it gave rise
to a whole new range of weapons, tools and implements. Some of these had been made in stone earlier, it is true, but
the result was coarser as well as heavier. Metal, precious or not, is also a prime material for ornaments, and thus
enriches cultural life. Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, alloying and application of metals.
Today, some eighty-six metals are known, butmost of them were discovered in the last two centuries. The ‗seven metals
of antiquity‘, as theyare sometimes called, were, more or less in order of discovery: gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron
and mercury. For over 7,000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skills; let us see some of its
landmarks.

Copper Metallurgy
The first evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent comes from Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, where a small copper
bead was dated to about 6000 BCE; it is however thought to have been native copper, not the smelted metal extracted
from ore. The growth of copper metallurgy had to wait for another 1,500 years; that was the time when village
communities were developing trade networks and technologies which would allow them, centuries later, to create the
Harappan cities. Archaeological excavations have shown that Harappan metal smiths obtainedcopper ore from the
Aravalli hills, Baluchistan or beyond. They soon discovered that adding tin to copper produced bronze, a metal harder
than copper yet easier to cast, and also more resistant to corrosion. Whether deliberately added or already present
in the ore, various

impurities such as nickel, arsenic or lead enabled the Harappans to harden bronze further, to the point where bronze
chisels could be used to dress stones. Shaping copper or bronze involved techniques of fabrication such as forging,
sinking, raising, cold work, annealing, riveting, lapping and joining.

Among the metal artifacts produced by the Harappans, objects discovered are spearheads, arrowheads, axes, chisels,
sickles, blades (for knives as well as razors), needles, hooks, and vessels such as jars, pots and pans, besides objects
of toiletry such as bronze mirrors; those were slightly oval, with their face raised, and one side was highly polished.
The Harappan craftsmen also invented the true saw, with teeth and the adjoining part of the blade set alternatively
from side to side, a type of saw unknown elsewhere until Roman times. Besides,many bronze figurines or humans
such as the well-known Dancing Girl‘, for instance and animals like rams, deer, bulls etc. have been unearthed from
Harappan sites. Those figurines were cast by the lost-wax process: the initial model was made of wax, then thickly
coated withclay; once fired which caused the wax to melt away or be lost‘, the clay hardened into a mould,into which
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molten bronze was later poured. Harappans also used gold and silver to produce a wide variety of ornaments such as
pendants, bangles, beads, rings or necklace parts, which were usually found hidden away in hoards such as ceramic
or bronze pots. While gold was probably panned from the Indus waters, silver was perhaps extracted from galena, or
native lead sulphide

Gold Metallurgy

The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and as is well known, gold andsilver were used to make
jewelry and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals. Some of the early rich finds of gold
artifacts were from the cemeteries in Bulgariain Europe (5th millennium BC) with accouterments of hammered and
sheet gold. Some of themost elegant gold vessels made by the repousse technique come from the Mesopotamia (ca
2500 BC). Spectacular gold castings are known from ancient Pharaohnic Egypt, such as the enigmatic face of the
young Pharaoh Tutenkhamen (ca 1300 BC). Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian subcontinent are found
from Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjodaro (ca 3000 BC). These are on display in the National Museum, New
Delhi.

In antiquity gold would usually have been collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However India
has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for goldcome from the Maski region of Karnataka with
carbon dates from the mid 1st millennium BC.A rather delightful piece of conjecture is that tales of Herodotus, the
Greek, about gold-diggingants from India refers to marmot, a type of rodent found in Afghanistan, who dig up the
river sand which could then have been panned for gold by the inhabitants.

Surface tension was used to turn melted gold filings into spheres. The granulation technique was also used to make
gold jewelry in India in the late 1st millennium BC to early Christian era. Interestingly, as far as silver production
goes, the Aravalli region in north-west India alongwith Laurion in Greece and the Roman mines of Rio Tinto in Spain
ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites from about the mid 1st millennium BC onwards.

Iron Metallurgy

While the Indus civilization belonged to the Bronze Age, its successor, the Ganges civilization,which emerged in the
first millennium BCE, belonged to the Iron Age. But recent excavationsin central parts of the Ganges valley and in the
eastern Vindhya hills have shown that iron wasproduced there possibly as early as in 1800 BCE. Its use appears to
have become widespread from about 1000 BCE, and we find in late Vedic texts mentions of a dark metal‘ (krṣnāyas),
while earliest texts (such as the Rig-Veda) only spoke of ayas, which, it is now accepted, referred to copper or bronze.
Whether other parts of India learned iron technology from the Gangetic region or came up with it independently is
not easy to figure out. What seems clear, however, is that the beginnings of copper-bronze and iron technologies
in India correspond

broadly with those in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the Caucasus, but were an independentdevelopment, not an
import.

Wootz Steel

Instead, India was a major innovator in the field, producing two highly advanced types of iron.The first, wootz steel,
produced in south India from about 300 BCE, was iron carburized undercontrolled conditions. Exported from the
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Deccan all the way to Syria, it was shaped there into Damascus swords renowned for their sharpness and toughness.
But it is likely that the term Damascus derived not from Syria‘s capital city, but from the ‘damask’ or wavy pattern
characteristic of the surface of those swords. In any case, this Indian steel was called ‘the wonder material of the
Orient’. A Roman historian, Quintius Curtius, recorded that among thegifts which Alexander the Great received from
Porus of Taxila (in 326 BCE), there was some two-and-a-half tons of wootz steel-it was evidently more highly prized
than gold or jewels. Later, the Arabs fashioned it into swords and other weapons, and during the Crusades, Europeans
were overawed by the superior Damascus swords. It remained a favoured metal forweapons through the Moghul era,
when wootz swords, knives and armours were artistically embellished with carvings and inlays of brass, silver and
gold.

Wootz steel is primarily iron containing a high proportion of carbon (1.0-1.9%). Thus the termwootz applies to a high-
carbon alloy produced by crucible process. The basic process consisted in first preparing sponge iron; it was then
hammered while hot to expel slag, broken up, then sealed with wood chips or charcoal in closed crucibles that were
heated, causing the iron to absorb appreciable amounts of carbon; the crucibles were then cooled, with solidified ingot
ofwootz steel remaining.

Right from the 17th century, several European travellers documented India‘s iron and steel- making furnaces. From
the 18th century, savants in England, France and Italy tried to master the secrets of wootz; the French Jean-Robert
Bréant, conducting over 300 experiments by adding various metals to steel, understood the role of the high carbon
proportion in wootz, andwas the first European who successfully produced steel blades comparable to the Indian ones.
Together, such researches contributed to the understanding of the role of carbon in steel and tonew techniques in steel-
making.

The second advanced iron is the one used in the famous 1,600-year-old Delhi Iron Pillar, which,at a height of 7.67 m,
consists of about six tons of wrought iron. It was initially erected by

Chandra as a standard of Vishnu at Vishnupadagiri‘, according to a six-line Sanskrit inscription on its surface.
‘Vishnupadagiri’ has been identified with modern Udayagiri near Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, and ‘Chandra’ with the
Gupta emperor, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375-414 CE). In 1233, the pillar was brought to its current location
in the New Delhi‘s Qutub complex, where millions continue to come and see this ‘rustless wonder’. But why is it
rustless, or, more precisely, rust-resistant is still a major question. Here again, numerous experts, both Indian and
Western, tried to grasp the secret of the pillar‘s manufacture.Only recently have its rust-resistant properties been fully
explained. They are chiefly due to the presence of phosphorus in the iron: this element, together with iron and oxygen
from the air, contributes to the formation of a thin protective passive coating on the surface, which gets reconstituted
if damaged by scratching. It goes to the credit of Indian blacksmiths that throughpatient trial and error they were able
to select the right type of iron ore and process it in the right way for such monumental pillars. There are a few more
such pillars in India, for instance at Dhar (Madhya Pradesh) and Kodachadri Hill (coastal Karnataka). Besides, the
same technology was used to manufacture huge iron beams used in some temples of Odisha, such as Jagannath of
Puri (12th century). The iron beams at Konarak‘s famous sun temple are of even larger dimensions. Chemical analysis
of one of the beams confirmed that it was wrought iron of a phosphoric nature (99.64%Fe, 0.15% P, traces of C, traces
of S and no manganese).

Zinc Metallurgy
The earliest firm evidence for the production of metallic zinc is from India. Of the metals usedin antiquity zinc is one

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of the most difficult to smelt since zinc volatalises at about the same temperature of around 1000oC that is needed to
smelt zinc ore. Indian metallurgists were familiarity with zinc deserves a special mention because, having a low
boiling point (907°C), it tends to vaporize while its ore is smelted. Zinc, a silvery-white metal, is precious in
combination with copper, resulting in brass of superior quality. Sometimes part of copper ore,pure zinc could be
produced only after a sophisticated downward distillation technique in which the vapour was captured and condensed
in a lower container. This technique, which wasalso applied to mercury, is described in Sanskrit texts such as the 14th-
century Rasaratnasamuccaya.

There is archaeological evidence of zinc production at Rajasthan‘s mines at Zawar from the6th or 5th century BCE.
The technique must have been refined further over the centuries. India

was, in any case, the first country to master zinc distillation, and it is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 tons
of zinc was smelted at Zawar from the 13th to the 18th century CE! British chroniclers record continuing production
there as late as in 1760; indeed, there is documentary evidence to show that an Englishman learned the technique of
downwarddistillation there in the 17th century and took it to England-a case of technology transfer whichparallels that
of wootz steel. Another remarkable artistic innovation by Indian metalworkers ofthe past was the use of zinc in making
highly elegant bidri ware, an inlayed zinc alloy, which came into vogue under the Muslim rulers of the Bidar province
in the Hyderabad region fromabout the 14th century. AD.

Social Context of Metallurgy in Ancient India

We should finally note that most of India‘s metal production was controlled by specific social groups, including so-
called tribes, most of them from the lower rungs of Indian society. For instance, the Agarias of Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh are reputed iron smiths, and thereare still such communities scattered across Jharkhand, Bihar, West-
Bengal, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Together, they contributed substantially to India‘s wealth, since India was for a long
time a major exporter of iron. In the late 1600s, shipments of tens of thousands of wootz ingots would leave the
Coromandel Coast for Persia every year. India‘s iron and steel industry was intensive till the 18th century and declined
only when the British started selling their own products in India while imposing high duties on Indian products.
Industrially produced iron and steel unavoidably put a final stop to most of India‘s traditional production.

Textual reference on ancient Indian Metallurgy

Note: Many texts of chemistry refer to the working of metals, especially precious ones (a fewextracts are below), but
it should be kept in mind that some of India‘s greatest metallurgical advances-such as wootz steel or rust-resistant
iron-do not figure in any known texts; they werethe work of communities of craftsmen who perfected such practices
from generation to generation, but did not generally leave written testimonies behind.

Rig-Veda:

There are many more references in the Vedas to metal and metal-working, often used as a metaphor. The word for
metal was ayas, which in the Rig-Veda, refers to copper or bronze, notto iron. In later literature, terms like krsnayas,
kalayasa or syamayas, i.e., ‗dark metal‘, came
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into use, which clearly referred to iron; loha (literally- red) or lohāyas initially referred tocopper, but later became
a generic term for metal, and often came to mean iron.

Arthasastra:

Kautilya‘s famous treatise of governance and administration, the Arthasastra, dates back to Mauryan times, a 4th
centuries BCE. A passage, from a long chapter on the ‘department of mines’, reveals an intimate knowledge of the
different types of metal ores and the ways to testand purify different metals, or to create alloys. Kautilya said, that the
Director of Mines, beingconversant with the sciences of metal veins in the earth and metallurgy, the art of smelting
andthe art of colouring gems, or having the assistance of experts in these, and fully equipped withworkmen skilled in
the work and with implements, should inspect an old mine by the marks ofdross, crucibles, coal and ashes, or a new
mine, where there are ores in the earth, in rocks or inliquid form, with excessive colour and heaviness and with a
strong smell and taste.

Varahamihira (5th CE):

In Khaḍgalakṣaṇam, Varahamihira explains the process of carburization and hardening of ironswords. Carburization
is the controlled addition of carbon to iron, so as to turn it into steel; it is usually done by adding organic substances,
whether vegetal or animal, in the course of the smelting.

Nagarjuna (7th or 8th century CE):

Narjuna, in his, Rasendramaṅgalam, a process for whitening copper is described. It would beinteresting to try and put
such recipes to test so as to assess their value.

Vagbhata (13th CE)

Vagbhaṭa (13th century), in his Rasaratnasamuccaya gives us a systematic exposition of the principal metals in a
well-known text of alchemy. Each metal‘s properties and medicinal usesare clearly brought out, although, of course,
within the alchemical framework of the times.

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Textile in Ancient India

The Indian textile industry has a significant presence in the economy as well as in the international textile
economy. Its contribution to the Indian economy is manifested in terms of its contribution to the industrial
production, employment generation and foreign exchange earnings. It contributes 20 percent of industrial
production, 9 percent of excise collections, 18 percent of employment in the industrial sector, nearly 20
percent to the country’s total export earning and 4 percent to the Gross Domestic Product. In human history,
past and present can never ignore the importance of textile in a civilization decisively affecting its destinies,
effectively changing its social scenario. A brief but thoroughly researched feature on Indian textile culture.

Indian Textile History

The record of ancient and medieval Indian textiles exists mostly in literature and sculpture. There
is archaeological evidence of a cotton textile industry at Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley around 3000
B.C., and a few fragments survive from much later periods. Most of the extant textiles are dated after the
seventeenth century, because the monsoon climate has beenvery destructive to early specimens. The
Greeks with Alexander the Great wrote of the fine flowered muslins and robes embroidered in gold they
had seen in India. They may also have seen the cotton fiber that grew on trees.

A handbook of administration, the Arthasastra, tentatively dated to the third century B.C.,1 dealt with
methods for distributing materials to spinners and weavers whether the workers were guild members or
worked privately at home. At that time few occupations were open to women. Indeed, women who elected
not to marry were not allowed to hold jobs. However, weaving was permitted to widows and retired
prostitutes. The Arthasastra gave the penalties for fraudulent practices and listed the taxes to be paid by
weavers. Among the textiles mentioned were white bark cloth from Bengal, linen from Banaras, cottons
from south India, and several kinds of blankets, the best described as being slippery and soft.
In ancient and medieval India the textile industries were politically controlled, and if a ruler was favorably
disposed towards the arts, weaving prospered. Differentiation was made between the rural textiles woven
for the masses and those made in state workshops for royalty and the well-to-do in other countries (Plate
48). The best workmanship was found in the ritual hangings for temples, and even in modern times it has
been considered preferable to destroy worn ones rather than allow them to fall into foreign hands.

Few good commentaries survive from the early medieval period (900 -1200 A.D.) when terms
were used inconsistently. Fabric names apparently represented the places where they were woven, and
details about weaving techniques were scanty.

The Muslim period in India extended from around 1200 A.D. to 1760 when the British took
over. A succession of sultans controlled most of India until Genghis Khan attacked early in the thirteenth
century and Tammerlane invaded in the late fourteenth. Marco Polo left detailed accounts of the peopleand
industries of the coastal regions of India in the late thirteenth century. He mentioned seeing on the
Coromandel Coast the finest and most beautiful cloth in all the world-buckrams like the tissues of spider
webs, and he observed dyeing with indigo in the great textile center of Cambay and spinning of cotton in
Gujarat. Under the Sultan of Delhi (1325-1351) price controls for food, cloth, and other commodities were
initiated to help fight inflation. A permit was required to buy silks, satins, and brocades, and only the well-
to-do were allowed to have them. The sultan employed four thousand silk weavers who made robes of
honor, hangings, and gifts of gold brocade for foreign dignitaries.

Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, founded a new and important dynasty, the Mogul, in
1526. A series of great rulers-the greatest Akbar who ruled for the second half of the sixteenth century-
governed a glorious empire where the textile arts flourished until the late seventeenth century. Some of the

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best accounts of Indian textiles were written by European ambassadors tothe Mogul courts. Fabulous
horse and elephant trappings, as well as the apparel, pillows, and wall hangings, were remarked upon. A
king always wore a garment but once. There were marvelous gold brocades called kimhabs, or kincobs,
from Banaras. Writers proclaimed on the sheerness of Dacca muslins, called evening dew, running water,
or sweet-like-sherbert. Seventy- three yards, a yard wide, weighed only one pound. By comparison, the
finest Swiss cottons ever made were at best sixteen or seventeen yards to the pound.

European settlements appealed in India in the latter part of the Mogul period. Motivated by the desire to
break the spice trade monopoly held by Venice and the Arabs, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to
India by sailing around Africa in 1498, and by 1510 the Portuguese had jurisdiction in Goa onthe west
coast of India. For a short time they controlled the Asian trade by taking over the port of Malacca (near
Singapore), where they met trading junks from China. The Portuguese carried pintados (painted cottons) east
from India to trade for spices.

Indian textiles were more important to the Dutch and the English thanto the Portuguese. The
Dutch East India Company was chartered in 1597, the East India Company in 1600. Their ships went first
to India with bullion to exchange for the cotton textiles that could be bartered for spices in the Malay
Archipelago. Eventually, the Dutch gained a monopoly in Indonesia, with trade centered in Java, and the
English withdrew to India to establish trading stations known as "factories." One of the intentions of the
East India Company was to sell English woolens in Asia, but broadcloth was never more than a novelty
in India. By 1649 the British were sending chintz (see chapter 4) and cheap cotton calico to England.
Much was for reexport to America, the Near East, West Africa, and the slave plantations in the West Indies.
A four- cornered trade developed. The East India Company shipped calicos to Londonwhere they were
sold to the Royal Africa Company. The latter shipped them in turn to West Africa as guinea-cloth to be
bartered for people. These slaves, and any remaining cloth, were shipped to the West Indies and exchanged
for sugar, cotton, and tobacco-all cargoes bound back for England.

Points to remember:

The production of sophisticated textiles within the Indian – subcontinent hasPrehistoric Origins.

- For two thousand years, the Indians have had supremacy in textiles.
3000 BC

- The earliest textile finds were at Mohenjo-Daro, an archaeological site on theIndian River.
-Madder (Red) dyed cotton Fragments have been found wrapped around a silver pot.
-Salts were used as color fastener and as a chemical.

-Spindles and bronze needles have been recovered.

- carved stone sculpture with patterned cloth

15-2 BC

- Our epics and Vedas talk rich textiles silk, cotton and linen between 15-2BC

- The silk is thought a to be a Chinese and thus suggests a long established traderoute over the Himalayas.
6C BC

- The Persian Empire was a link between the Indus basin and the Mediterranean.
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- Indian cloth became famous with the Persians and Greeks because brilliantcolours.
-the Quality of Indian dyeing was praised in the Roman world as a reference made in the Latin translation of bible say
“ wisdom is even more enduring than the dyedcolours of Indian".

➢ 15th C:-
➢ Babar founded the magnificent Mughal dynasty in North India.
➢ The traditional Indian textiles as they were now being influenced bytwo totally different empires
➢ 16th C:-
➢ The Indians had the ability to cater to the import market.
➢ They produced printed and embroided textiles with animal andflower designs for Europeans.
➢ For Muslims of Africa and Arabia more simple printed and StripedCotton was produced.
➢ Silk cloth was produced for the nobility.
➢ 17th C:-
➢ Chinese designs mingled with the Mughal, Persian and Hindudesigns.
➢ Floral and bird life was intertwined to produced charming effects.
➢ The Portuguese called it "PINTATHOE meaning painted and theEnglish called it CHINTZ' from the
Hindi word "Chint' meaning variegated.
➢ 18th C:-
➢ Kashmiri woven and embroidered shawls become a fashion wrap forthe women of England and France.
➢ 19th C:-
➢ The Indian textile industry suffered from the influence of cheapEnglish cloth.
➢ “Khadi” - handspun and handwoven cotton was a symbol ofindependence and self-sufficiency.
➢ It is seen that for ages Indian textiles have ruled the market ofworld.
➢ India remains the most original, creative and prolific sources oftextile production in the world.
➢ 5-8 BC
➢ -The famous Ajanta wall paintings depict lion cloth anal blouses pattered byresist techniques Of Ikat and
Bandhini.
➢ - Everyday costume by the people was draped , not tailored and was mostlywhite
➢ - Cotton and thin fabrics were used.
➢ 3rd C BC
➢ - The empire of Alexander, the greek conqueror extended to the fort hills Hindukush mountains.
➢ -Trading was done betwen Mediterranean to Indian through Persia andAfganisthan.
➢ -A famous Greek scholar Magasthenes came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya and studied the trading
and textile Networks.
➢ 2nd C, BC
➢ - The Romans Used a Sanskrit word for cotton i.e. 'carbasina' in latin derived from karpasa in Sanskrit.
➢ - A Roman scholar, the Indian, merchants become both middlemen andsuppliers to the trade(started
by Pliny).
➢ -They travelled to china to get silk and Java and Sumatra for spices and jewelsand supplied it to the Romans.
➢ -The Indian muslims were described as "Venti" - (find as the wind) and nebula'(mistry in mature).
➢ 1st C AD
➢ -The Afghans led by Muhammad Of Gazni conducts his annual raids in India and by the 12th C AD they
had established them
➢ - Selves in North and Central India and created the Delhi sultanate.
➢ -Delhi Royal silk Karkhana is recorded as having employed over 4000 weaversto supply silk for the trade
with Central Asia.

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➢ History and Function of Motifs:-

❖ Indian subcontinent brought many non- indigenous motifs to beintegrated with the traditional Indian
motifs.
❖ Motifs were picked or taken from natural surroundings such asFloral, animals, human creature, Birds,
insects, Geometrical Pattern etc.

➢ Central Asian Motty and their significance

❖ The majority of textiles are used and always have been made byWomen.
❖ Motifs were taken according to the activity happen around them.
Persian Matija - Persian motif o Paisley [Keri design), tree of life androunder containing birds or beasts are
commonly used.

Buddhist Motifs - Natural Motifs were used mainly Lotus are the favourite among weavers and
embroiders.

Islamic Pattern -- Free flowing flower motif and geometrical pattern motifs were used. Symbolic shapes connected
with Muslim beliefs suchas mihrab (arch) and the hand of Fatima have curved a niche in Indian art.

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