Electric Current and Resistance

Chapter 4

Electric Current and Resistance

4-1 Electric Current

Electric current is the rate of charge flow through cross section of wire

or charge per unit time:

∆Q
I=
∆t
And the instantaneous is given by
dQ
I=
dt
units of Coulomb/second = 1 Ampere

Current can be formed with positive charges moving in positive direction

or with negative charges moving in the opposite direction. Electron flow is

opposite to the direction of current flow as shown in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-1:

A steady current of 2.5 A exists in a wire for 4.0 min.

(a) How much total charge passed by a given point in the circuit during those

4.0 min?

(b) How many electrons would this be?

Solution
Q
(a) I =
t

Q = It = 2.5 × 4 × 60 = 600 C

(b) Q = ne
Q 600
n= = = 3.8 × 1021 electrons
e 1.6 × 10−19
4-2 Current Density

Current Density, J, is the current flow per unit area (A/m2 )

I 1 dq
J= =
A A dt

We can obtain an expression for the relationship between current density J and

drift velocity vd by considering the number of free charges in a segment of

wire, as illustrated in Figure 4-2.

The volume of the segment V = l A,

The number of free electrons per unit volume is n.

Then, the number of electrons in the volume element = n A l.

The total charge q that passes in this region in time t is:

q = (n A l)e

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Where
l
t=
vd

∴ q = (n A vd t)e
q
The current, I= t

Cross-sectional Area A

I Vd dt

Figure 4-2
q
I= = n A vd e
t
where 𝐼 is the current through a wire of cross-sectional area 𝐴 made of a material

with a free charge density 𝑛. The carriers of the current each have charge q and

move with a drift velocity of magnitude vd .

I
∴ vd =
nAe
and
I
J=
A
J
∴ Vd =
ne
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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-2:

A wire is made of copper and has a radius 0.815 mm. Calculate the drift

velocity of electrons assuming the number of free electrons per cubic meter is

8.47 × 1028 for I = 1 A.

Solution

A = πr 2

A = π(0.815 × 10−3 )2

1
vd =
8.47 × 1028 × π(0.815 × 10−3 )2 × 1.6 × 10−19

= 3.54 × 10−5 m/s

4-3 Resistance

Resistance is the property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow

of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:

(i) It varies directly as its length, L.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.

(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.

(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

We can say that

L L
R∝ R=ρ
A A
where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor

and is known as its specific resistance or resistivity. The unit of resistivity is

ohm-meter (Ω. m).

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-3:

A rectangular carbon block has dimensions 1.0 cm × 1.0 cm × 50 cm.

(a) What is the resistance measured between the two square ends?

(b) What is the resistance measured between two opposing rectangular faces

/ Resistivity of carbon at 20°C is 3.5 × 10−5 Ω − m.

Solution

L
R=ρ
A
(a) Here, A = 1 × 1 = 1 cm2 = 10−4 m2 ; L = 0.5 m

3.5 × 10−5 × 0.5

R = = 0.175 Ω
10−4
(b) Here, A = 1 × 50 = 50 cm2 = 5 × 10−3 m2 ; L = 0.01 m

3.5 × 10−5 × 0.01

R = −3
= 7 × 10−5 Ω
5 × 10
4-3-1 Conductance and Conductivity
Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance. the conductance measures
the inducement which it offers to the flow of current. The unit of conductance
is siemens (S).

1 A A
G= = =𝜎
𝑅 ρL L
where 𝜎 is called the conductivity of a conductor. 𝜎 is the reciprocal of
resistivity ρ. The unit of conductivity is siemens/meter (S/m).

L
𝜎=G
A

1
𝜎=
ρ

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 Electric Current and Resistance
4-3-2 Effect of Temperature on Resistance

(i) Increase the resistance of pure metals. In a conductor, which already has

a large number of free electrons flowing through it, the vibration of the

atoms causes many collisions between the free electrons and the captive

electrons. Each collision uses up some energy from the free electron and

is the basic cause of resistance.

(ii) Decrease the resistance of insulators. In an insulator, there are so few

free electrons that hardly can cause current flow. Heating insulating

material vibrates the atoms and shake some of their captive electrons free,

creating free electrons to become carriers of current.

(iii) Decrease the resistance of semiconductors. Heating semiconductor

provides more thermal energy for electrons to absorb, and thus will increase

the number of conduction electrons.

4-3-3 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

The resistivity of material varies with temperature for many materials.

The relation between the resistivity and temperature is nearly linear over a large

temperature range. An empirical approximation is given by:

ρ = ρo [1 + α(T − To )]

Where ρo is the resistivity of material at the reference temperature To (is usually

taken to be 20℃), α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity appropriate to

the particular range of temperatures. The unit of α is (°C −1 ). Then α can be

expressed as

1 Δρ
α=
ρo ΔT

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Where Δρ = ρ − ρo and ΔT = T − To . Since the resistance of a conductor

with uniform cross-sectional area is proportional to the resistivity, you can find

the effect of temperature on resistance.

R = R o [1 + α(T − To )]

Figure 4-3 shows resistance variation with temperature.

Figure 4-3

Resistivities and temperature coefficients of resistivities for various materials

at 20℃ are shown in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-4:

A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.146 Ω at 40°C and 3.767 Ω at 100°C. Find

the resistance at 0°C and the temperature-coefficient of resistance at 40°C.

Solution

R100 = R o [1 + 100 α𝑜 ]

R 40 = R o [1 + 40 α𝑜 ]

3.767 1 + 100 α𝑜
=
3.146 1 + 40 α𝑜

α𝑜 = 0.00379 ℃−1

3.767 = R o [1 + 100 × 0.00379]

R o = 2.732 Ω

α𝑜 0.00379
α40 = = = 0.00328 ℃−1
1 + 40 α𝑜 1 + 40 × 0.00379

4-4 Ohm’s Law

What drives current? When a voltage source is connected to a conductor,

it applies a potential difference V that creates an electric field E. The electric

field E in turn exerts force on charges, causing current. The current that flows

through most substances is directly proportional to the voltage V applied to it.

I∝V

This important relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

So, Ohm's Law states that, “at constant temperature, the electric current flowing

in a conducting material is directly proportional to the applied voltage, and

inversely proportional to the Resistance.

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 Electric Current and Resistance
In other words,

V
R=
I
where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered as

shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4

Current density,
I
J=
A
The potential difference,

V = EL

Also, the resistance,

L L
R=ρ =
A σA
Then,
L EL
=
σA JA

1 E
=
σ J

Or,
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 Electric Current and Resistance
J
σ=
E
So, we can define Ohm’s law as for many materials, the ratio of the current

density to the electric field is a constant σ that is independent of the electric field

producing the current.

4-4-1 Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Conductors

Electrical conductors can be classified as either ohmic or non-ohmic
based on how they follow the ideal Ohm’s law characteristic of a linear
relationship between voltage and current.
Ohmic conductors follow Ohm's law, meaning the voltage vs current graph has

a linear relationship. Non-Ohmic conductors do not follow Ohm's law, and

have a non-linear relationship between current and the applied V as shown in

Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5

The following Table 4-1 highlights the major differences between Ohmic

Conductors and Non-Ohmic Conductors

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 Electric Current and Resistance

Characteristics Ohmic Non-Ohmic

constant electrical resistance over resistance changes in response

Definition
a broad range of applied voltages to the applied voltage.

Metals, resistors, and nichrome Diodes, semiconductors,

Examples
wires. transistors, and lamps.

The relationship between the The relationship between the

Relationship current and voltage is linear. current and voltage is not

linear.

4-4-2 Resistors in series and parallel combination

(A) Resistors in Series

A series circuit or series-connected circuit is a circuit having just

one current path. Thus, Figure 4-6 is an example of a series circuit in

which a battery of constant potential difference V volts, and two resistances,

are all connected in series.

R1 R2

I I

Figure 4-6

In a series circuit, the total resistance, R T , that the battery sees is equal to

the sum of the individual resistances. Thus, the total resistance,

R T = R1 + R 2
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 Electric Current and Resistance
while in the general case of n resistances connected in series the battery sees a

total resistance of

R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ⋯ R n

By Ohm’s law, it follows that the current I in a series circuit is equal to

V V
I = =
R T R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ⋯ R n

The voltage drops across a resistance of R Ω carrying a current of I ampere is.

V = IR T

V = I(R1 + R 2 + ⋯ + R n ) = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn

In a series circuit, the applied voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drops.

(B) Resistors in Parallel

A parallel circuit is one in which the battery current divides into a

number of parallel paths. This is shown in Figure 4-7, in which a battery, of

constant V volts, delivers a current of I amperes to a load consisting of any

number of n resistances connected in parallel.

R1

I1 R2

I I2

Figure 4-7

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 Electric Current and Resistance
The currents in the individual resistances are called the branch currents

and the battery current I is often called the line current. In a parallel circuit, the

battery current I is equal to the sum of the branch currents.

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ⋯ + In

If the battery voltage V is applied equally to all n resistances; that is, the

same voltage V is applied to all the parallel branches. Hence, by Ohm’s law, the

individual branch currents in Figure 4-7 have the values:

V V V
I1 = , I2 = , … . ., In =
R1 R2 Rn

Then, we have:

1 1 V
I = V( + + ⋯+ )
R1 R 2 Rn

Now let R T be the total resistance as seen by the battery. Then, by Ohm’s

law, it has to be true that:

V
I=
RT

Since the left-hand sides of the last two equations are equal, the two right-

hand sides are also equal. Setting the two right-hand sides equal gives

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
R T R1 R 2 Rn

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-5:

In the following circuit calculate the total current IT taken from the 12 V supply.

Solution

R A = R 2 + R 3 = 8 Ω + 4 Ω = 12 Ω

1 1 1 1
R eq = + = + = 0.1667 Ω
RA R4 12 12
1 1
R combination = = = 6Ω
R eq 0.1667

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 Electric Current and Resistance

R AB = R comb + R1 = 6 Ω + 6 Ω = 12 Ω

V 12
I= = = 1A
R 12

4-5 Electrical power

Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric

circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second (Figure 4-8).

I
Current

Figure 4-8
Voltage R Power

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Electric power, like mechanical power, is the rate of doing work,

measured in watts, and represented by the letter P. The electric power in watts

produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every

t seconds passing through an electric potential (voltage) difference of V is

W QV
P = work done per unit time = = = IV
t t

2
V2
P = IV = I R =
R

where

Q is electric charge in coulombs

t is time in seconds

I is electric current in amperes

V is electric potential or voltage in volts

Example 4-6:

The accompanying illustration shows how power can be calculated using any

of the power formulas.

I=2A

Current

V = 12 Volt
R=6Ω

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 Electric Current and Resistance
Solution

P = IV = 2 × 12 = 24 W

P = I 2 V = 22 × 6 = 24 W

V2 122
P= = = 24 W
R 6

4-6 Electromotive Force

A constant current can be maintained in a closed circuit through the use of a

source of emf, (such as a battery or generator) that produces an electric field and

thus may cause charges to move around a circuit.

The electromotive force is defined as the work done per unit charge and it

is the maximum voltage that produced by the energy source. The SI unit of emf

is the volt.

In the Figure 4-9, As we pass from the negative terminal to the positive

terminal, the potential increases by an amount ℇ.

As we move through the resistance r, the potential decreases by an amount Ir,

where I is the current in the circuit.

V = ℇ − Ir

ℇ: is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage, the terminal voltage when the

current is zero. The emf is the voltage labeled on a battery.

The terminal voltage V must equal the potential difference across the external

resistance R, often called the load resistance.

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 Electric Current and Resistance
The resistor represents a load on the battery because the battery must supply

energy to operate the device. The potential difference across the load resistance

is

V = IR
ℇ = IR + Ir = I (R + r)
ℇ
I=
(R + r)
The total power output Iℇ of the battery is delivered to the external load

resistance in the amount I 2 R and to the internal resistance in the amount I 2 r.

Iℇ = I 2 R + I 2 r

ε
a r b

I I
R
d c

V
ε r R

ε
IR Ir

a b c d

Figure 4-9
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 Electric Current and Resistance
Example 4-7:

A battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal resistance of 0.05 Ω. Its terminals

are connected to a load resistance of 3 Ω.

(a) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.

(b) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to

the internal resistance of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.

(c) What If? As a battery ages, its internal resistance increases. Suppose the

internal resistance of this battery rises to 2 Ω toward the end of its useful

life. How does this alter the ability of the battery to deliver energy?

Solution

(a)
ℇ 12
I= = = 3.93 A
(R + r) 3.05

V = ℇ − Ir = 12 − (3.93 × 0.05) = 11.8 V

To check this result, we can calculate the voltage across the load resistance R:

V = IR = 3.93 × 3 = 11.8 V

(b) The power delivered to the load resistor is

PR = I 2 R = (3.93)² (3) = 46.3 W

The power delivered to the internal resistance is

Pr = I 2 r = (3.93)² (0.05) = 0.772 W

Hence, the power delivered by the battery is the sum of these quantities, or

47.1 W. You should check this result, using the expression

P = Iℇ = 3.93 × 12 = 47.1 W

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 Electric Current and Resistance
(c)Let us connect the same 3 Ω load resistor to the battery. The current in the

battery now is

ℇ 12
I= = = 2.4 A
(R + r) (3 + 2)

and the terminal voltage is

V = ℇ − Ir = 12 − (2.4 × 2) = 7.2 V

Notice that the terminal voltage is only 60% of the emf. The powers delivered

to the load resistor and internal resistance are

PR = I 2 R = (2.4)² (3) = 17.3 W

Pr = I 2 r = (2.4)² (2) = 11.5 W

Notice that 40% of the power from the battery is delivered to the internal

resistance. In part (B), this percentage is 1.6%. Consequently, even though the

emf remains fixed, the increasing internal resistance significantly reduces the

ability of the battery to deliver energy.

4-7 Kirchhoff's rules

The procedure for analyzing more complex circuits is greatly simplified

if we use two principles called, called Kirchhoff’s rules.

Circuit Definitions

• Node: any point where 2 or more circuit elements are connected together.

Wires usually have negligible resistance. Each node has one voltage

(w.r.t. ground).

• Branch: a circuit element between two nodes.

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 Electric Current and Resistance
• Loop: a collection of branches that form a closed path returning to the

same node without going through any other nodes or branches twice.

Example 4-8:

How many nodes, branches & loops in the following circuit?

R1

R2 R3

R1

R2 R3
Three nodes

R1

R2 Five branches
R3

R1

R2 R3 Three loops

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 Electric Current and Resistance
4-7-1 Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero. Currents directed

into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and those leaving as −I as

shown in Figure 4-10.

Mathematically,

∑ I=0
junction

I1 − I2 − I3 = 0

I1 = I2 + I3

Required by Conservation of Charge.

Figure 4-10

4-7-2 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any

closed-circuit loop must be zero, as illustrated in Figure 4-11. A statement of

Conservation of Energy

Mathematically,

∑ ∆V = 0
junction

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 Electric Current and Resistance

Figure 4-11

Traveling around the loop from a to b

• In (a), the resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential

across the resistor is – IR.

• In (b), the resistor is traversed in the direction opposite of the current, the

potential across the resistor is + IR.

• In (c), the source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from – to

+), and the change in the potential difference is +ℇ.

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 Electric Current and Resistance
• In (d), the source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite of the emf

(from + to -), and the change in the potential difference is −ℇ.

Example 4-9:

A single-loop circuit contains two resistors and two batteries, as shown in

Figure. (Neglect the internal resistances of the batteries.)

Ɛ1 = 6 V
I
a b

R2 = 10 Ω R1 = 8 Ω

d c
Ɛ2 = 12 V

(a) Find the current in the circuit.

(b) What power is delivered to each resistor? What power is delivered by the

12 V battery?

Solution

(a)

∑ ∆V = 0

ℇ1 − IR1 − ℇ2 − IR 2 = 0
ℇ1 − ℇ2 6 − 12
I= = = −0.33 A
R1 + R 2 8 + 10

(b)

P1 = I 2 R1 = (0.332 )(8) = 0.87 W

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 Electric Current and Resistance

P2 = I 2 R 2 = (0.332 )(10) = 1.1 W

Hence, the total power delivered to the resistors is 2.0 W.

Example 4-10:

Find the currents I1 , I2 , and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure

14 V

e f

4Ω I2
10 V I1
b c
6Ω
I3

a d
2Ω

Solution

I1 + I2 = I3

abcda

10 V − (6 Ω)I1 − (2 Ω)I3 = 0

befcb

−14 V + (6 Ω)I1 − 10 V − (4 Ω)I2 = 0

10 V − (6 Ω)I1 − (2 Ω)(I1 + I2 ) = 0

10 V = (8 Ω)I1 + (2 Ω)I2

−12 V = −(3 Ω)I1 + (2 Ω)I2

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 Electric Current and Resistance
22 V = (11 Ω)I1

I1 = 2 A

(2 Ω)I2 = (3 Ω)I1 − 12 V = (3 Ω)(2 A) − 12 V = −6 V

I2 = −3 A

I3 = I1 + I2 = −1 A

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