WEEK 2 Pascaline - also known as Arithmetic Machine or

Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642

FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER
and 1644 by a French mathematician-
A computer has four main functions; they are: philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it
was the first mechanical and automatic
- Input - Processing calculator.
- Output - Storage Difference Engine - In the early 1820s, it was
Input is the data entered in to a computer from designed by Charles Babbage who is known as
the input devices like keyboard, mouse, scanner "Father of Modern Computer". It was a
etc. Input data can be a character, word, mechanical computer which could perform
number, or image. simple calculations. It was a steam driven
calculating machine designed to solve tables of
Processing is the task of performing the logical numbers like logarithm tables.
and arithmetic operations is called processing.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) will perform Analytical Engine - This calculating machine was
all types of calculations based on the instructions also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It
given. It is then send to the storage unit. was a mechanical computer that used punch-
cards as input. It was capable of solving any
Output is the process of producing the useful mathematical problem and storing information
information for the user after processing input as a permanent memory.
data is called output.
Tabulating Machine - It was invented in 1890, by
Storage is the process of storing instructions and Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It
data permanently is called storage. This stored was a mechanical tabulator based on punch
data can be retrieved whenever needed. cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS sort data or information. This machine was used
in the 1890 U.S. Census.
Abacus - The history of computer begins with the
birth of abacus which is believed to be the first Differential Analyzer - It was the first electronic
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus computer introduced in the United States in
around 4,000 years ago. It was a wooden rack 1930. It was an analog device invented by
which has metal rods with beads mounted on Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes
them. The beads were moved by the abacus to switch electrical signals to perform
operator according to some rules to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few
arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in minutes.
some countries like China, Russia and Japan. Mark I - The next major changes in the history of
Napier's Bones - It was a manually-operated computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken
calculating device which was invented by John planned to develop a machine that could
Napier (1550-1617). In this calculating tool, he perform calculations involving large numbers. In
So, the tool became known as used 9 different 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership
ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to between IBM and Harvard. It was the first
multiply and divide. "Napier's Bones. It was also programmable digital computer.
the first machine to use the decimal point.
Eniac - The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Fifth Generation Computers - In fifth generation
Integrator and Calculator) machine was (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology
developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Eckert, Jr. at the University of Pennsylvania. It Integration). It made possible the production of
used 18, 000 vacuums, punch-card input, microprocessor chips with ten million electronic
weighed thirty tons and occupied a thirty-by- components. This generation computers used
fifty-foot space. parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. used real time, time
WEEK 3
sharing and distributed operating system.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
Some of the popular fifth generation computers
First Generation Computers - The first are;
generation (1946-1959) computers were slow,
-Desktop -Laptop
huge and expensive. In these computers,
vacuum tubes were used as the basic -NoteBook -UltraBook
components of CPU and memory. These
-ChromeBook
computers were mainly depended on batch
operating system and punch cards. Magnetic THE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF COMPUTERS
tape and paper tape were used as output and
input devices in this generation. 1. Supercomputer 2. Mainframe Computer

Second Generation Computers - The second 3. Minicomputer 4. Microcomputer

generation (1959-1965) was the era of the Supercomputer - The most powerful computers
transistor computers. These computers used in terms of performance and data processing are
transistors which were cheap, compact and the Supercomputers. These are specialized and
consuming less power; it made transistor task specific computers used by large
computers faster than the first generation organizations. These computers are used for
computers. research and exploration purposes, like NASA
Third Generation Computers - The third uses supercomputers for launching space
generation computers used integrated circuits shuttles, controlling them and for space
(ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC can pack exploration purpose. The supercomputers are
huge number of transistors which increased the very expensive and very large in size.
power of a computer and reduced the cost. The Mainframe computer - Although Mainframes
computers also became more reliable, efficient are not as powerful as supercomputers, but
and smaller in size. certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless,
Fourth Generation Computers - The fourth and many large firms & government
generation (1971-1980) computers used very organizations uses Mainframes to run their
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip business operations. The Mainframe computers
containing millions of transistors and other can be accommodated in large air-conditioned
circuit elements. These chips made this rooms because of its size. Super-computers are
generation computers more compact, powerful, the fastest computers with large data storage
fast and affordable. These generation computers capacity, Mainframes can also process & store
used real time, time sharing and distributed large amount of data. Banks educational
operating system. institutions & insurance companies use
mainframe computers to store data about their constitute a personal computing environment
customers, students & insurance policy holders. are laptops, mobiles, printers, computer
systems, scanners etc.
Minicomputer - Minicomputers are used by
small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are TIME SHARING COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT
also called as “Midrange Computers”. These are
The time sharing computing environment allows
small machines and can be accommodated on a
multiple users to share the system
disk with not as processing and data storage
simultaneously. Each user is provided a time slice
capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes.
and the processor switches rapidly among the
These computers are not designed for a single
users according to it. Because of this, each user
user.
believes that they are the only ones using the
Microcomputer - Desktop computers, laptops, system. that constitute a personal computing
personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & environment are laptops, mobiles, printers,
smartphones are all types of microcomputers. computer systems, scanners etc.
The micro-computers are widely used & the
CLIENT SERVER COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT
fastest growing computers. These computers are
the cheapest among the other three types of In client server computing, the client requests a
computers. The Micro-computers are specially resource and the server provides that resource.
designed for general usage like entertainment, A server may serve multiple clients at the same
education and work purposes. time while a client is in contact with only one
server. Both the client and server usually
communicate via a computer network but
sometimes they may reside in the same system.

DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT

A distributed computing environment contains

multiple nodes that are physically separate but
linked together using the network. All the nodes
in this system communicate with each other and
handle processes in tandem. Each of these nodes
OTHER COMPUTING DEVICES contains a small part of the distributed operating
TYPES OF COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS system software.

A computer system uses many devices, arranged CLOUD COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT

in different ways to solve many problems. This The computing is moved away from individual
constitutes a computing environment where computer systems to a cloud of computers in
many computers are used to process and cloud computing environment. The cloud users
exchange information to handle multiple issues. only see the service being provided and not the
PERSONAL COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT internal details of how the service is provided.
This is done by pooling all the computer
In the personal computing environment, there is resources and then managing them using a
a single computer system. All the system software.
processes are available on the computer and
executed there. The different devices that
CLUSTER COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT KEYBOARDS TO GIVE COMMANDS TO THE
COMPUTER
The clustered computing environment is similar
to parallel computing environment as they both BAR CODE READER
have multiple CPUs. However a major difference
-IT IS A KIND OF AN OPTICAL SCANNER
is that clustered systems are created by two or
more individual computer systems merged -IT CAN READ BAR CODES
together which then work parallel to each other.
-A SOURCE OF LIGHT IS PASSED THROUGH A BAR
WEEK 4 CODE, AND ITS ASPECTS AND DETAILS ARE
DISPLAYED ON THE SCREEN
COMPUTER HARDWARE
JOY STICK
Computer hardware - is a collective term used to
describe any of the physical components of an -IT IS A DEVICE WHICH COMPRISES A STICK
analog or digital computer. The term hardware WHICH IS ATTACHED AT AN ANGLE TO THE BASE
distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing SO THAT IT CAN BE MOVED AND CONTROLLED
device from software, which consists of written,
machine-readable instructions or programs that -MOSTLY USED TO CONTROL THE MOVEMENT IN
tell physical components what to do and when to VIDEO GAMES
execute the instructions. -APART FROM A COMPUTER SYSTEM, A JOYSTICK
INPUT DEVICES IS ALSO USED IN THE COCKPIT OF AN
AEROPLANE, WHEELCHAIRS, CRANES, TRUCKS,
- Keyboard - Barcode Reader ETC. TO OPERATE THEM WELL
- Joy Stick - Microphone MICROPHONE
- Mouse -USING A MICROPHONE, SOUND CAN BE STORED
IN A DEVICE IN ITS DIGITAL FORM
Input devices - are hardware components used
to enter data, instructions, or commands into a - IT CONVERTS SOUND INTO AN ELECTRICAL
computer system. They allow users to interact SIGNAL
with the computer, enabling it to receive and
process data from the outside world. -TO RECORD OR REPRODUCE A SOUND CREATED
USING A MICROPHONE, IT NEEDS TO BE
KEYBOARD CONNECTED WITH AN AMPLIFIER
-A SIMPLE DEVICE COMPRISING KEYS AND EACH MOUSE
KEY DENOTES EITHER AN ALPHABET, NUMBER
OR NUMBER COMMANDS WHICH CAN BE GIVEN -IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS A POINTING DEVICE
TO A COMPUTER FOR VARIOUS ACTIONS TO BE -USING MOUSE WE CAN DIRECTLY CLICK ON THE
PERFORMED VARIOUS ICONS PRESENT ON THE SYSTEM AND
-IT HAS A MODIFIED VERSION OF TYPEWRITER OPEN UP VARIOUS FILES AND PROGRAMS
KEYS -A MOUSE COMPRISES 3 BUTTONS ON THE TOP
-THE KEYBOARD IS AN ESSENTIAL INPUT DEVICE AND ONE TRACKBALL AT THE BOTTOM WHICH
AND COMPUTER AND LAPTOPS BOTH USE HELPS IN SELECTING AND MOVING THE MOUSE
AROUND, RESPECTIVELY
OUTPUT DEVICES PRINTERS

- Monitor - Printer -A DEVICE WHICH MAKES A COPY OF THE

PICTORIAL OR TEXTUAL CONTENT, USUALLY
- Projector - Headphones
OVER A PAPER IS CALLED A PRINTER
- Speakers
-FOR EXAMPLE, AN AUTHOR TYPES THE ENTIRE
The output devices take care of displaying the BOOK ON HIS/HER COMPUTER AND LATER GETS
result after data processing by the input device. A PRINT OUT OF IT, WHICH IS IN THE FORM OF
It may be in image, graphic, textual or audio PAPER AND IS LATER PUBLISHED
form. These devices show the visual elements on
-MULTIPLE TYPES OF PRINTERS ARE ALSO
the display
AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET, WHICH CAN SERVE
MONITOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES

-THE DEVICE WHICH DISPLAYS ALL THE ICONS, TYPES OF PRINTERS

TEXT, IMAGES, ETC. OVER A SCREEN IS CALLED
- Dot Matrix Printer - Laser Printers
THE MONITOR
- Chain Printer - Inkjet Printers
-WHEN WE ASK THE COMPUTER TO PERFORM
AN ACTION, THE RESULT OF THAT ACTION IS - Non-Impact Printers
DISPLAYED ON THE MONITOR
SPEAKERS - AN OUTPUT DEVICE THAT
-VARIOUS TYPES OF MONITORS HAVE ALSO PRODUCES SOUND AFTER RECEIVING A
BEEN DEVELOPED OVER THE YEARS COMMAND FROM THE COMPUTER. THEY
SUPPORT THE COMPUTERS AS WELL AS OTHER
TYPES OF MONITORS
HARDWARE DEVICES. NOW WE ALSO HAVE
CATHODE-RAY TUBE - The pixels make up the WIRELESS SPEAKERS WITH BLUETOOTH
image on the CRT display. The smaller pixels TECHNOLOGY.
mean the image is more clear. Even a single
PROJECTOR - This is an optical device that
character like ‘k’ is made of numerous pixels on
presents visuals on the screen, stationary and
the screen. A screen can have limited pixels at
moving both. They are present at movie
once, it is usually 80 by 20 characters horizontally
theatres, auditoriums, etc. It connects to the
and vertically.
computer and displays the image on it on a larger
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY - Flat-Panel Display screen.
Monitor These are high-level video devices with
HEADPHONES - Similar to speakers, this device
low volume, lightweight, and low power
has a lower sound frequency. They can’t be
requirements. From wall hanging to
easily heard in large areas like grounds and parks
smartwatches, they are everywhere. There are
but are only accessible to a single person using
either emissive displays or non-emissive
the device. A headset is another name for them.
displays. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) are a type
of non-emissive display. STORAGE DEVICES

COMPONENTS USED TO STORE, RETRIEVE, AND

MANAGE DIGITAL DATA. THEY ALLOW
COMPUTERS AND OTHER DIGITAL DEVICES TO
SAVE INFORMATION FOR BOTH SHORT-TERM
(TEMPORARY) AND LONG-TERM (PERMANENT) RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is used to
USE. STORAGE DEVICES HOLD EVERYTHING store data that is actively being processed by the
FROM OPERATING SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS CPU. The more RAM a system has, the more data
TO USER FILES LIKE DOCUMENTS, PHOTOS, AND it can handle at once.
VIDEOS.
SRAM (Static RAM): This is faster than DRAM
KEY FUNCTIONS OF STORAGE DEVICES: because it doesn't need to be refreshed
regularly, but it is more expensive. SRAM is
DATA STORAGE - They hold data permanently or
typically used in cache memory.
temporarily, depending on the device type.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM): This is slower and needs
DATA RETRIEVAL - Users can access and retrieve
to be refreshed thousands of times per second,
data when needed.
but it is less expensive and is the most common
DATA BACKUP - Important data can be stored in type of RAM used in computers.
secondary or external devices for protection
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM): This type
against loss.
of RAM is synchronized with the system clock,
TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES: which improves performance by reducing
waiting times for synchronization with the CPU.
PRIMARY STORAGE - It is also known as internal
memory and main memory. This is a section of ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is a non-
the CPU that holds program instructions, input volatile memory, meaning it retains its contents
data, and intermediate results. It is generally even when the power is off. ROM stores the
smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) firmware (basic instructions) that allows the
and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of computer to boot up and perform basic
primary storage. functions.

SECONDARY STORAGE - Secondary storage is a PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be

memory that is stored external to the computer. programmed once by the user, but after
It is mainly used for the permanent and long- programming, the data cannot be changed.
term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks,
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be
CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are
erased using UV light and reprogrammed.
examples of secondary storage.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
TERTIARY STORAGE - a type of Memory that is
ROM): Can be erased and rewritten using
rarely used in personal computers and due to
electrical signals, allowing for easier updates to
this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an
firmware.
important one. Tertiary memory works
automatically without human intervention. MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES - use magnetism
to store data. These devices store data as tiny
CATEGORIES OF STORAGE DEVICES
magnetized regions on a disk or tape. They are
PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES - used to generally slower than other forms of storage but
temporarily hold data that the computer is offer a large amount of storage capacity.
actively using. These devices are directly
Floppy Disk: An older storage device with a small
accessible by the CPU, making them extremely
capacity (usually 1.44 MB). It’s rarely used today
fast. However, the data is typically volatile,
due to its low capacity and slow access times.
meaning it’s lost when the device is powered off.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): A popular magnetic Memory Card: Similar to SD cards, memory cards
storage device that stores large amounts of data are used in various portable devices like gaming
on spinning platters. It’s widely used for storing consoles and phones.
files and applications on computers. The access
Multimedia Card (MMC): An older type of
time is slower compared to SSDs, but HDDs
memory card that was used in devices like digital
provide larger capacities at lower costs.
cameras and mobile phones, though it has
Magnetic Card: Often used for financial largely been replaced by SD cards.
transactions, these cards store small amounts of
OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES
data that can be read by card readers. Examples
include credit cards and hotel keycards. Optical storage devices use lasers to read and
write data. Data is stored as tiny pits and lands
Tape Cassette: Used for data backup and
on the surface of the disc, which are interpreted
archiving. While tapes are slow to access and
by a laser.
read, they offer enormous capacity and are
commonly used in enterprise settings for long- CD (Compact Disc): A widely used optical storage
term data storage. format, primarily for music and software. CDs
store around 700 MB of data.
SuperDisk: A high-capacity alternative to floppy
disks, offering larger storage (around 120 MB) CD-R (Recordable): Can be written to once.
though it’s largely obsolete now.
CD-RW (Rewritable): Can be erased and
FLASH MEMORY DEVICES rewritten multiple times.
Flash memory is a non-volatile type of storage, DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): Similar to CDs but
meaning that it retains data even when the with more capacity (up to 4.7 GB for a single-
power is turned off. Flash memory is faster and layer DVD). DVDs are commonly used for movies
more durable than magnetic storage because it and larger software programs.
has no moving parts.
DVD-R (Recordable): Can be written to once.
Pen Drive (USB Flash Drive): A small, portable
device used to store and transfer data. It DVD-RW (Rewritable): Can be erased and
connects via a USB port and is highly portable, rewritten multiple times.
making it ideal for transferring files between Blu-ray Disc: Offers much larger storage capacity
computers. (25 GB for a single- layer disc) and is primarily
SSD (Solid State Drive): A storage device that used for high-definition video and data storage.
uses flash memory to provide faster data access Blu-ray discs are commonly used for HD movies
speeds compared to traditional hard drives. SSDs and large data backups.
are faster and more reliable than HDDs, as they CLOUD AND VIRTUAL STORAGE
have no moving parts. They are widely used in
laptops and servers. Cloud and virtual storage store data remotely
and can be accessed from anywhere with an
SD Card (Secure Digital Card): A small, portable internet connection. Cloud storage is provided
memory card used in cameras, smartphones, by companies that host servers, allowing users to
and other electronic devices for storage. upload and download files as needed.
Cloud Storage: This involves storing data on All computing devices runs an operating system.
servers hosted by third party service providers For personal computers, the most popular
like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsof operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows,
OneDrive. Cloud storage is flexible allowing users Apple’s OS X, and different versions of Linux.
to access their data from anywhere with an Smartphones and tablets run operating systems
internet connection. as well, such as Apple’s iOS, Google’s Android,
Microsoft’s Windows Mobile, and Unix.
Virtual Storage: Virtual storage uses software to
pool resources from multiple physical storage Application software is the category of
devices, making it appear as a single storage programs that do something useful for the user.
device. This is commonly used in enterprise It is not needed by the computer to operate but
environments for scalability and data is needed by the end-users to use.
management. Virtual storage allows for efficient
Application software developers used different
data management and backup solutions.
kinds of computer languages such as C#, Java,
WEEK 5 PHP, Ruby, Unity, etc.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE For computer based software, we call it

Programs. While for mobile based software, we
Software is the set of instructions that tell the
call it Applications.
hardware what to do. Software is created
through the process of programming. Without Common Application Software
the software, the hardware would not be
1.Word processing - This class of software
functional.
provides for the creation of written documents.
Types of Software Functions include the ability to type and edit
text, format fonts and paragraphs, and add,
Software can be broadly divided into two
move, and delete text throughout the
categories:
document.
1. Systems Software
2. Spreadsheet - This class of software provides
2. Application Software.
a way to do numeric calculations and analysis.
Systems Software manages the hardware and The working area is divided into rows and
create the interface between the hardware and columns, where users can enter numbers, text,
the user. This is needed in order to operate and or formulas.
use our computer.
3. Presentation - This class of software provides
Functions of System Software for the creation of slideshow presentations.
Harkening back to the days of overhead
The operating system provides several essential projectors and transparencies, presentation
functions, including: software allows its users to create a set of slides
1.managing the hardware resources of the that can be printed or projected on a screen.
computer; 4. Image editing - Image editing software
2.providing the user-interface components; encompasses the processes of altering images,
whether they are digital photographs, traditional
3.providing a platform for software developers photo-chemical photographs, or illustrations.
to write applications.
5. Video editing - Software used for performing execute itself and spreads by infecting other
the post-production video editing of digital video programs or files.
sequences on a non-linear editing system. It has
-when executed, replicates itself by modifying
replaced traditional flatbed celluloid film editing
othercomputer programs and inserting its own
tools and analogue video tape-to-tape online
code.
editing.
2. Worm –I s a type of malware that can self-
Kinds of Software Uses
replicate without a host program.
1.Open Source 2. Freeware
-worms typically spread without any human
3.Shareware 4. Commercialized/Licensed interaction or directives from the malware
authors
Harmful Software
3. Trojan Horse - A Trojan horse is a malicious
1.The Malware (Malicious Software)
program that is designed to appear as a
2.Malware creation is on the rise due to the legitimate program; once activated following
sheer volume of new types created daily and the installation.
lure of money that can be made through
-The term comes from the a Greek story of the
organized Internet crime.
Trojan War, in which the Greeks give a giant
3. Malware was originally created as wooden horse to their foes, the Trojans,
experiments and pranks, but eventually led to ostensibly as a peace offering.
vandalism and destruction of targeted computer
4. Spyware -Spyware is a kind of malware that is
machines.
designed to collect information and data on
4. Today, much of malware is created for profit users and observe their activity without users'
through forced advertising, stealing sensitive knowledge.
information, spreading email spam,
-Spyware is often hidden from the user in order
pornography, or to extort money.
to gather information about internet interaction,
Harmful Software keystrokes (also known as keylogging),
passwords, and other valuable data.
1.Virus
5. Adware - Adware is any software application
2.Worm in which advertising banners are displayed while
3.Trojan Horse a program is running. The ads are delivered
through pop-up windows or bars that appear on
4.Spyware the program's user interface. Adware is
5.Adware commonly created for computers, but may also
be found on mobile devices.
6.Zombie Computers
6. Zombie Computers - A zombie (also known as
7.Ransomware a bot) is a computer that a remote attacker has
accessed and set up to forward transmissions
Types of Malware
(including spam and viruses) to other computers
1. Virus - the most common type of malware and on the Internet.
it is defined as a malicious program that can
7. Ransomware - Is a malware designed to infect Control over system performance - Recording
a user's system and encrypt the data. delays between request for a service and
Cybercriminals then demand a ransom payment response from the system.
from the victim in exchange for decrypting the
Job accounting - Keeping track of time and
system's data.
resources used by various jobs and users.
WEEK 6
Error detecting aids - Production of dumps,
OPERATING SYSTEM traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error detecting aids.
An operating system (OS) is a collection of
software that manages computer hardware Coordination between other software and
resources and provides common services for users - Coordination and assignment of
computer programs. The operating system is a compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other
vital component of the system software in a software to the various users of the computer
computer system. systems.

An Operating System (OS) is an interface Programming Languages - The computer system

between a computer user and computer is simply a machine and hence it cannot perform
hardware. An operating system is a software any work; therefore, in order to make it
which performs all the basic tasks like file functional different languages are developed,
management, memory management, process which are known as programming languages or
management, handling input and output, and simply computer languages.
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives
Over the last two decades, dozens of computer
and printers.
languages have been developed. Each of these
Important Functions of an OS languages comes with its own set of vocabulary
and rules, better known as syntax. Furthermore,
•Memory Management
while writing the computer language, syntax has
•Processor Management to be followed literally, as even a small mistake
will result in an error and not generate the
•Device Management required output.
•File Management Following are the major categories of
•Security Programming Languages:

•Control over system performance •Machine Language

•Job accounting •Assembly Language

•Error detecting aids •High Level Language

•Coordination between other software and •System Language

users •Scripting Language
Application of the OS Security - By means of Machine Language or Code - This is the language
password and similar other techniques, it that is written for the computer hardware. Such
prevents unauthorized access to programs and language is affected directly by the central
data. processing unit (CPU) of a computer system.
Assembly Language - It is a language of an Real-time Processing - This technique facilitates
encoding of machine code that makes simpler the user to have with the computer system. This
and readable. technique eases data processing. This technique
is also known as the direct mode or the
Data Processing - Collection, manipulation, and
interactive mode technique and is developed
processing collected data for the required use is
exclusively to perform one task. It is a sort of
known as data processing. It is a technique
online processing, which always remains under
normally performed by a computer; the process
execution.
includes retrieving, transforming, or
classification of information. Online Processing - This technique facilitates the
entry and execution of data directly; so, it does
However, the processing of data largely
not store or accumulate first and then process.
depends on the following: The technique is developed in such a way that
reduces the data entry errors, as it validates data
•The volume of data that need to be processed at various points and also ensures that only
•The complexity of data processing operations corrected data is entered. This technique is
widely used for online applications.
•Capacity and inbuilt technology of respective
computer system Time-sharing Processing - This is another form of
online data processing that facilitates several
•Technical skills users to share the resources of an online
•Time constraints computer system. This technique is adopted
when results are needed swiftly. Moreover, as
Methods of Data Processing the name suggests, this system is time based.
the different methods of data processing. Distributed Processing - This is a specialized data
processing technique in which various
•Single user programming
computers (which are located remotely) remain
•Multiple programming interconnected with a single host computer
making a network of computer.
•Real-time processing
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) -
•Online processing
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a
•Time sharing processing process used by the software industry to design,
develop and test high quality software. The SDLC
•Distributed processing aims to produce a high-quality software that
Single User Programming - It is usually done by meets or exceeds customer expectations,
a single person for his personal use. This reaches completion within times and cost
technique is suitable even for small offices. estimates.

Multiple Programming - This technique provides

facility to store and execute more than one
program in the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
simultaneously. Further, the multiple
programming technique increases the overall
working efficiency of the respective computer.