EC1406 Control Systems Engineering 2022-2023

UNIT V
CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING STATE VARIABLE METHODS
State variable representation-Conversion of state variable models to transfer functions-
Conversion of transfer functions to state variable models-Solution of state equations-Concepts of
Controllability and Observability-Stability of linear systems-Equivalence between transfer
function and state variable representations- control design using state feedback

Introduction to State Variable Model: Concept of state variables

Transfer function approach of system modeling provides final relation between output variable
and input variable.

However, a system may have other internal variables of importance. State variable representation
takes into account of all such internal variables. Moreover, controller design using classical
methods, e.g., root locus or frequency domain method are limited to only LTI systems,
particularly SISO (single input single output) systems since for MIMO (multi input multi output)
systems controller design using classical approach becomes more complex.

These limitations of classical approach led to the development of state variable approach of
system modeling and control which formed a basis of modern control theory.

State variable models are basically time domain models where we are interested in the dynamics
of some characterizing variables called state variables which along with the input represent the
state of a system at a given time.

Advantages of state variable analysis

 It can be applied to nonlinear system.

 It can be applied to tile invariant systems.
 It can be applied to multiple input multiple output systems.
 Its gives idea about the internal state of the system.

State Variable Analysis and Design

State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables called state variables such
that the knowledge of these variables at time t=to (Initial condition), together with the knowledge
of input for ≥ 𝑡0, completely determines the behavior of the system for any time 𝑡≥ 0.
State vector: If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a given
system, then these n state variables can be considered the n components of a vector X. Such a
vector is called a state vector.
State space: The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consists of the x1axis, where x2
axis… x-axis, wherex1, x2,…,xn are state variables: is called a state space
State Trajectory: It is the locus of the tips of the state vectors, with time as the implicit variable.

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State model of linear systems

Consider Multiple input Multiple output(MIMO), nth order system as shown in the figure.
Number of inputs = m
Number of outputs = p
Number of state variables = n

 U 1 (t )   X 1 (t )   Y1 (t ) 
U (t )   X (t ) Y (t ) 
U (t )   2  , X (t )   2  and Y (t )  
2 
        
     
U m (t )  X n (t ) YP (t )

U(t)=Input Vector, X(t)= Sate Vector, Y(t)=Output Vector. All are column vectors having orders
mx1,nx1 and px1 respectively.

State Model of Single input Single output system

Consider a single input single output system i.e., m=1 and p=1.But its order is ‘n’ hence n
state variable are required to define the state of the system. In such a case the state model is

X (t )  AX (t )  BU (t )
Y (t )  CX (t )  DU (t )

where,

A = n x n matrix, B = n x 1 matrix

C = 1 x n matrix, D = constant

State Diagram Representation

It is the pictorial representation of the state model derived for the given system.It forms a
close relationship amongst the state model, defferential equations of the system and its
solution.The basic advantage of state diagram is when it is impossible to select the state varaibles
as physical variables.The state diagram consists of three basic units i) Scalars ii)Adders and
iii)Integerators

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State Diagram of Standard State Model

Consider the state model and the state diagram is shown below.

X (t )  AX (t )  BU (t ) (State equation)
Y (t )  CX (t )  DU (t ) (Output equation)

Fig. State diagram of MIMO System

The thick arrow indicates that there are multiple number of input, output and state variables.

Correlation between state variable and transfer functions models

The transfer function corresponding to state variable model, when u and y are scalars, is:

Y ( s)
G( s)   C ( sI  A) 1 B  D
U ( s)

Where sI  A is the characteristic polynomial of the system.

State models for linear and time invariant Systems

State space representation of DC machine

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The equation of the electrical part is :

dia
ea (t )  Ra I a  L  eb (1)
dt

d
Where eb is mainly due to velocity of the armature, hence eb  K I (2)
dt

The equation for the mechanical part is:

d 2 d
J 2
B  Torque (3)
dt dt

Let the Torque is  I a or Torque is  K 2 I a (4)

The order of the mechanical part is two and the order of the electrical part is one.Hence we have
to consider three state variables ( X1 , X2 and X3 )

Let X1   ; X 2   ; X3  ia

Consider eqn.(1) and substitue equ.(2) in (1):

dia
ea (t )  eb  Ra I a  L
dt

d di
ea (t )  K I  Ra I a  L a (5)
dt dt

Consider eqn.(3) and substitue equ.(4) in (3):

d 2 d
J 2
B  K2 I a (6)
dt dt

Substituting the state variables in eqn.(5) and (6):

ea (t )  K I X 2  Ra X 3  LX 3 (7)

JX 2  BX 2  K 2 X 3 (8)

Simplifying eqn. (7) and (8)

K B
X 2  2 X 3 - X 2
J J

e (t ) K R
X 3  a  I X 2  a X 3
L L L

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The state equation is

 
 X 1  0
 0   
1  X1   0 
   B B   X    0  e (t )
 X 2   0  J   2 1  a
 X 3  
J 
  0  K I  X 3   
 a
R
L
 J L 

Solution of state and output equation in controllable canonical form: Time domain solution
of state equation

Let us consider the state equation

X (t )  AX (t )  BU (t ) (State equation)

Grouping the states together: X (t )  AX (t )  BU (t )

Multiplying the above equation on both sides with e  At we get:

e  At [ X (t )  AX (t )]  e  At BU (t )

e  At X (t )  Ae  At X (t )  e  At BU (t )

d d
e At ( X (t ))  (e At ) X (t )  e At BU (t )
dt dt

d  At d  At
[e X (t )]  e At BU (t ) (Since, [e X (t )]  X (t )[ Ae  At ]  e At X (t ))
dt dt

Integrating on both sides from 0 to t, we have:

t
X (t )   e  A BU (t )d
 At t
e
o
0

t
e  At X (t )  X (0)   e  A BU (t )d
0

Therefore X (t )   e  A BU (t )d e At  X (0)e At

0

t
X (t )   e A(t  ) BU (t )d  X (0)e At
0

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Let  (t )  e At
state transition matrix

t
X (t )    (t   ) BU (t )d   (t ) X (0)
0

t
Where   (t   ) BU (t )d =zero state component and
0

 (t ) X (0) = zero input component

Properties of State transition matrix

i.  (0)  e A x 0 (unit matrix)

ii.  (t )  e At  (e  At ) 1  [ (t )]1 or  1 (t )   (t )
iii.  (t1  t2 )  e A(t t )  (e At ). (e At )   (t1 ).  (t2 )   (t2 ).  (t1 )
1 2 1 2

Concepts of controllability and observability

Controllability and observability are two important properties of state models which are to be
studied prior to designing a controller.

Controllability deals with the possibility of forcing the system to a particular state by application
of a control input. If a state is uncontrollable then no input will be able to control that state. On
the other hand whether or not the initial states can be observed from the output is determined
using observability property. Thus if a state is not observable then the controller will not be able
to determine its behavior from the system output and hence not be able to use that state to
stabilize the system.

Definition of Controllability

A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state
from any initial state X(to) to any other desired state X(td) in specified finite time by a control
vector U(t).

The controllability of a state model can be tested by Kaltman’s test.

Kaltman’s method of testing Controllability.

Consider a system with state equation, X  AX  BU .For this system, a composite matrix, Qc
can be formed such that,

Qc  [B AB A 2 BAn-1B]

Where n is the order of the system (n is also equal to number state variables)

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In this case the system is completely state controllable if the rank of the composite matrix Qc is
n.

The rank of the matrix is n, if the determinant of (n x n) composite matrix Qc is non-zero.i.e.,

If the determinant of Q c is not equal to zero, then the rank of Q c is n and so the system is
completely state controllable.

Definition of observability

A system is said to be completely observable if every state X(t) can be completely identified by
measurements of the output Y(t) over a finite time interval.

Kaltman’s method of testing Controllability.

Consider a system with state model, X  AX  BU ; Y  CX  DU .For this system, a composite

matrix, QO can be formed such that,

QO  [CT AT CT (AT ) 2 CT (AT )3 CT (AT ) n-1 CT ]

Where n is the order of the system (n is also equal to number state variables)

In this case the system is completely state observable if the rank of the composite matrix Q o is
n.

The rank of the matrix is n, if the determinant of (n x n) composite matrix Qo is non-zero.

State Feedback Controller: Control system design via pole placement by state feedback

In the conventional approach to design a single-input single-output control system, a

controller or compensator is designed such that the dominant closed-loop poles have a desired
damping ratio,  and undamped natural frequency, n .In the compensated system the output
alone is used as feedback signal to achieve desired performance. In state space design any inner
parameter or variable of a system can be used for feedback. If the state variables (inner
parameters or variables of the system) are used for feedback, then the system can be optimized
for satisfying a desired performance index.

In control system design by pole placement or pole assignment technique, the state
variables are used for feedback, to achieve desired closed loop poles. The advantage in this
system is that the closed loop poles may be placed at any desired locations by means of state
feedback through an appropriate state feedback gain matrix, K. The necessary and sufficient
condition to be satisfied by the system for arbitrary pole placement is that the system to be
completely state controllable.

Consider a nth order single-input single-output system with and without state variable
feedback as shown below. The state model of the system without state feedback is given by,

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X  AX  BU (1)
y  CX (2)

Let, r = System input when state variable feedback is employed

σ = Feedback signal obtained from state variables

u = Plant input.

The feedback signal, σ is obtained from state feedback and it is related to the state
variables by the equation,

  KX (3)

Where K = State feedback gain matrix of order (1 x n) and

K  (k1 k2 k3  kn ) (4)

In system employing state variable feedback, the plant input, u is the difference between
system input, r and feedback input, σ.

 Plant input, u  r   (5)

On substituting, σ = KX in eqn.(5) we get,

u  r  KX (6)

The equ.(6) is called control law.

The state equation of the system with state variable feedback is obtained by substituting
the expression for u, for equ.(6) in equ.(1)

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X  AX  Bu  AX  B(r  KX )
 AX  Br  BKX  ( A  BK ) X  Br

Therefore, the state model of the system with state variable feedback is given by the
following equations.

  ( A  BK ) X  Br
X
y  CX

Where K  (k1 k2 k3  kn )

And r  u  KX

By choosing an appropriate gain matrix, K for state feedback, it is possible to force that
system to have closed loop poles at the desired locations, provided that the original system is
completely state controllable.

Determination of State feedback gain Matrix, K

The state model of the nth order system is given by

  AX  Bu
X
y  CX

To check for controllability of original system, determine the composite matrix nfor
controllability, Qc.

Where Qc  [B AB A2 BAn-1B]

Then calculate the determinant of Q c .If the determinant of Q c is not equal to zero, then
the rank of Q c is n and so the system is completely state controllable.

To find K

1. Determine the characteristics polynomial of the original system. The

characteristics polynomial is given by I  A  0
Let, I  A  n  a1n1  a2 n2    an1  an
2. Determine the desired characteristics polynomial form the specified closed loop
poles.
Let, the specified or desired closed loop poles be 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  n
Now the desired characteristics polynomial is given by
(  1 )(  2 )(  3 )(  n )  n  a1n1  a2n2    an1  an
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3. Determine the transformation matrix Pc which transforms the original state model
to controllable phase variable form.

 P1 
 PA 
The transfrmation matrix, Pc   1 
  
 n1 
 P1 A  and
P1  [0 0 0 1]Q -1
c
4. Determine the state feedback gain matrix, from the following equation.

K  [ n - a n  n1 - a n1  2 - a 2 1 - a1 ]Pc

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