Week 7 3. Hubs, bridges, and switches 4.

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Network Hardware are connecting units that allow multiple devices to are hardware components that enable devices to
connect to the router and enable data transfer to all connect to a network.
Network Hardware
devices on a network.
A set of physical or network devices that are essential for can be integrated into a device's motherboard or added
interaction and communication between hardware units Router as an expansion card.
operational on a computer network. complex device with the capabilities of
handle the transmission and reception of data packets
hubs, bridges, and even switches.
Network Hardware and often support various network protocols such as
plays a key role as industries grow as it supports Hubs Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
scalability. broadcasts data to all devices on a
5. Wireless Access Points (WAPs)
network. As a result, it consumes a lot of
It integrates any number of components depending on enable wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
bandwidth as many computers might not
the enterprise’s needs.
need to receive the broadcasted data. function as bridges between wireless devices and the
helps establish an effective mode of communication, wired network infrastructure, providing Wi-Fi
could be useful in linking a few gaming
thereby improving business standards. connectivity within a specific area or building.
consoles in a local multiplayer game via
also promotes multiprocessing and enables sharing of a wired or wireless LAN. support various wireless standards such as 802.11ac
resources, information, and software with ease. and 802.11ax
Bridges
Fundamental devices of computer network connects two separate LAN networks. 6. Firewall
a hardware or software device between a computer and
1. Modems It scans the receiving device before
the rest of the network open to attackers or hackers.
devices that modulate and demodulate signals to enable sending a message.
digital data transmission over analog communication allows authorized connections and data-like emails or
it avoids unnecessary data transfers if
channels. web pages to pass through but blocks unauthorized
the receiving device is not there. it also
connections made to a computer or LAN.
commonly used to connect to the internet via DSL, checks to see whether the receiving
cable, fiber optic, or satellite connections. device has already received the 7. Network Attached Storage (NAS)
message. These practices improve the NAS devices are specialized storage devices that
translate digital data from a computer into a form overall performance of the network. connect to a network, allowing multiple users and
suitable for transmission over the communication
devices to access shared files and data.
medium and vice versa. Switches
often include features such as RAID support, remote
2. Routers is more powerful than a hub or a bridge
access, and backup functionality, making them popular
essential networking devices that forward data packets but performs a similar role.
for both home and business use.
between computer networks.
stores the MAC addresses of network
8. Cables and Connectors
operate at the network layer of the OSI model and are devices and transfers data packets only
Networking hardware also includes various cables and
crucial for connecting multiple devices to the internet. to those devices that have requested.
connectors used to interconnect devices.
Common types of cables Network Cables and Connectors Types of Connectors
• Ethernet cables (Cat5e, Cat6) 1. RJ45 – the most common connector used for Ethernet
Network cables are a physical medium through which
• Coaxial cables cables. It has eight pins and is used to terminate twisted
data is transmitted between networking devices, such as
• Fiber optic cables pair cables.
computers, routers, switches, and modems.
Connectors such as RJ45, BNC, and SC are used to 2. BNC – commonly used for coaxial cables, especially
Types of Network Cables
terminate these cables and establish physical in video and radio frequency (RF) applications. They
connections between devices. 1. Ethernet Cables (Twisted Pair) provide a quick twist-lock connection.
the most common type of network cable.
Network Architecture 3. LC, SC, ST – are used for terminating fiber optic
The basic objective of any network architecture is to use twisted pairs of copper wires to reduce cables. LC and SC connectors are small form-factor
establish an efficient mechanism to transfer data from electromagnetic interference and crosstalk. connectors, while ST connectors use a bayonet-style
one hardware device to another. coupling.
The most widely used Ethernet cable categories include
Key components of network architecture Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a, each offering different levels of Uses and Application
performance and bandwidth.
1. Hardware refers to network devices that form the core 1. Local Area Networks (LANs)
of any network. User devices (laptops, PDAs, mobile 2. Coaxial Cables Ethernet cables are the primary medium for
phones), routers, servers, and gateways. consist of a central conductor, surrounded by a connecting devices within a LAN, such as
dielectric insulator, a conductive shield, and an outer computers, printers, and switches.
2. Transmission Media encompasses all physical
insulating layer.
connections between network (hardware) devices. 2. Wide Area Networks (WANs)
commonly used for cable television (CATV), broadband Fiber optic cables are often used for long-
The properties of different transmission media distance connections between LANs, providing
internet, and other applications requiring high-frequency
determine the speed of data transfer from one endpoint high-speed connectivity over longer distances.
transmission.
to another. These can be wired and wireless.
3. Fiber Optic Cables 3. Data Centers
3. Protocols refer to the rules that govern data utilize a combination of Ethernet and fiber optic
use glass or plastic fibers to transmit data using light
movement between network devices. cables to connect servers, storage devices, and
pulses.
Various machines on a network communicate with each networking equipment, often requiring high
offer high bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to bandwidth and low latency.
other using this common protocol language.
electromagnetic interference, making them ideal for
4. Topology defines how the network is wired together long-distance and high-speed connections. 4. Residential and Commercial Wiring
and highlights the network’s structure. Ethernet cables are commonly used for wiring
come in single-mode and multimode variants, with homes and offices for internet access, providing
This is important because variables such as distance single-mode cables providing longer transmission connectivity to devices such as computers,
between communicating devices can impact its data distances but higher costs. smart TVs, and gaming consoles.
transfer speed, thereby affecting overall network
performance.
 Straight Through vs Crossover Cable Straight Through vs Crossover Cable, which to Characteristics of TCP/IP – Developed by Department of
choose? Defense, ARPANET (1960s)
straight through cable (patch cable) a type of twisted
Protocol Suite
pair cable that is used in local area networks to connect
• “IP” or “TCP/IP”
a computer to a network hub such as a router.
Sub Protocols
an alternative to wireless connections where one or
• TCP, IP, UDP, ARP
more computers accesses a router through a wireless
signal. On a straight through cable, the wired pins match. Popularity
• Low cost
• Communicates between dissimilar
Straight Through – different type platforms.
Crossover Cable _ same type • Open nature
• Routable
Week 8-9
➢ Spans more than one LAN (LAN segment)
Introduction to TCP/IP Protocols
• Flexible
OSI Model ➢ Runs on combinations of network
Note: both sides should have the same end. Application Layer – human-computer operating systems or network media.
interaction layer, where applications can access ➢ Disadvantage: requires more
Crossover Ethernet cable is a type of Ethernet cable
the network services. configuration.
used to connect computing devices together directly.
Presentation Layer – Ensures that data is in a TCP/IP Core Protocols
The RJ45 crossover cable uses two different wiring
usable format and is where data encryption • TCP/IP suite subprotocols.
standards: one end uses the T568A wiring standard, and
occurs. • Operates in Transport or Network layers of
the other end uses the T568B wiring standard.
OSI model.
Session Layer – Maintains connections and is
The internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses • Provide basic services to protocols in other
responsible for controlling ports and sessions.
the transmission and receives signals. layers.
Transport Layer – Transmits data using • Most significant protocols in TCP/IP
most often used to connect two devices of the same
transmission protocols including TCP and UDP.
type. TCP
Network Layer – Decides which physical path - Transport layer protocol.
the data will take. - Provides reliable data delivery services.
Data Link Layer – Defines the former of data on • Connection-oriented subprotocol
the network. Establish connection before
transmitting.
Physical Layer – Transmit raw bit stream over the • Sequencing and checksums.
physical medium. • Flow control.
Data does not flood node
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
- Transport layer protocol. - Network layer protocol. - Problem: cannot use AR
- Provides unreliable data delivery services. - Manages multicasting. o If device does not know its own IP address
o Connectionless transport service o Allows one node to send data to a defined - Solution: RARP
• No assurance packets received in group of nodes. o Client sends broadcast message with MAC
correct sequence. • Similar to broadcast transmission address.
• No guaranteed packets received at - Point-to-multipoint method. • Receives IP address in reply.
all. - Uses. - RARP server maintains table.
• No error checking, sequencing. o Internet teleconferencing, video o Contains MAC addresses, associated IP
o Lacks sophistication conferencing, routers, network nodes. addresses.
• More efficient than TCP - RARP originally developed diskless workstations.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
- Useful situations
- Network layer protocol. BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
o Great volume of data transferred quickly.
- Obtains host (node) MAC (physical) address. - Mid-1980s.
IP (Internet Protocol) o Creates database. - Application layer protocol.
- Unreliable, connectionless protocol o Maps MAC address to host’s IP (logical) - Central list.
o No guaranteed data delivery address. o IP addresses, associated devices’ MAC
- IP is used by higher level protocol. - ARP table (ARP cache). addresses.
o Ensure data packets are delivered to the o Database on computers hard disk. o Assign client IP addresses dynamically.
correct address. • Contains recognized MAC-to-IP address - Dynamic IP address.
- Reliability component mappings. o Assigned to device upon request.
o Header checksum o Increases efficiency. o Changeable.
• Verifies routing information integrity - Two entry types
BOOTP process
in IP header. o Dynamic
• Created when client makes ARP request - Client connects to network.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) that cannot be satisfied by data in ARP - Sends broadcast message asking for IP address.
- Network layer protocol. table. o Includes client’s NIC MAC address.
o Reports on data delivery success/failure o Static - BOOTP server looks up client’s MAC address in
- Announces transmission failures to sender. BOOTP table.
• Entries entered manually using ARP
o Network congestion. - Responds to client.
utility.
o Data fails to reach destination. o Client’s IP address.
- ARP utility
o Data discarded: TTL expired. o Server IP address.
o Accessed via the ARP command.
- ICMP cannot correct errors. o Server host name.
• Windows command prompt, UNIX, or
o Provides critical network problem o Default router IP address.
Linux shell prompt.
troubleshooting information.
o Provides ARP table information.
o Provides a way to manipulate device’s ARP
table.
 - Process resembles RARP. Terminating a DHCP Lease - Disadvantage
o Difference - Lease expiration. o Computer only communicates with other
• RARP requests, responses not routable. o Automatic. nodes using addresses in APIPA range.
• RARP is only capable of issuing IP • Established server configuration. - APIPA suitable use.
addresses to client. o Manually terminated at any time o Small networks: no DHCP servers.
• BOOTP may issue additional information • Client’s TCP/IP configuration. - APIPA unsuitable use.
(client’s subnet mask). • Server’s DHCP configuration. o Networks communicating with other
- BOOTP surpassed by DHCP (Dynamic Host - Circumstances requiring lease termination. subnets, WAN.
Configuration Protocol). o DHCP server fails and replaced. - APIPA enabled by default: OK.
o More sophisticated IP addressing utility. • Windows: release of TCP/IP settings. o First checks for DHCP server.
o DHCP requires little intervention. - DHCP services run on several server types. • Allows DHCP server to assign addresses.
o BOOTP difficult to maintain on large o Installation and configurations vary. o Does not reassign new address if static.
networks. o Works with DHCP clients.
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) o Disabled in registry.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) - Client cannot communicate without valid IP
- Assigns network device unique IP address. address. Week 10-11
o Automatically. - What if the DHCP server is not running? Wireless Networking
- Application layer protocol. o Microsoft offers Automatic Private IP
Wireless networking
- Developed by IETF (BOOTP replacement). Addressing
- refers to the establishment of communication
- Operation. • Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP, Vista,
between devices without the use of physical
o Similar to BOOTP. Windows Server 2003, Windows Server
wires or cables.
o Lower administrative burden. 2008.
- It allows devices to connect to a network, such
• Administrator does not maintain table. • Provides IP address automatically.
as the internet or a local area network (LAN),
o Requires DHCP service on DHCP server. - IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
using wireless technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
- Many reasons to use it. o reserved predefined pool of addresses.
or cellular networks.
• 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255 - This technology enables mobility and flexibility in
DHCP Leasing Process
APIPA accessing network resources, making it
- Device borrows (leases) IP address.
- Assigns computer’s network adapter IP address particularly useful in environments where wired
o Devices use IP address temporarily.
from the pool. connections are impractical or inconvenient.
• Specified time limit. - operate using radio frequency (RF) technology,
- Assigns subnet default Class B network.
- Lease time. which generates an electromagnetic field when
o 255.255.0.0
o Determine when client obtains IP address at an RF current is supplied to an antenna.
- Part of operating system
log on.
o No need to register, check with central
o Users may force lease termination.
authority.
- DHCP service configuration.
o Specify leased address range.
o Configure lease duration.
Wireless Network Topologies Wired Networking Installation
- can be a time consuming and difficult operation.
The two basic modes in which wireless networks operate Wired Networks
are referred to as: - refers to any physical medium connected via Larger Infrastructures Require More Maintenance
infrastructure - requires a physical structure to wires and cables. The cables or wires can be - If you are setting up a small, wired network, it
support it. fiber optic, copper wire, or twisted pair. may or may not need a server.
Maintenance costs could increase.
ad-hoc networks - do not require a set Wired and wireless networks
infrastructure to work. - are two common ways to connect devices and Inconvenience Due to Too Many Cables
enable communication between them. - Relying on a wired network would mean dealing
Infrastructure WLAN
with a bunch of cables that won’t just be
- Stations communicate with access points. Advantages of Wired Networks:
unsightly, but also inconvenient.
o Not directly with each other
Stability and Reliability
• Access points require sufficient power Advantages of Wireless Networks:
- As soon as the hubs, switches, and cables are
and strategic placement.
installed, you can have a reliable network at High Mobility
- WLAN may include several accesses points.
your disposal. - When a wireless network is set up, all of your
o Dependent upon number of stations.
employees have access to it. Thus, they can
o Maximum number varies: 10-100. Faster Speeds and High Connectivity
access it from practically anywhere in the
- offer significantly quicker speeds, has a limited
Ad hoc WLAN business.
set of users connecting to it at any time so it is
- Wireless nodes transmit directly to each other.
rarely experiencing unexpected traffic. Lower Cost
- Use wireless NICs.
- requires fewer switches, routers, ethernet
o No intervening connectivity device. Security
cables, and other hardware, as compared to
- Poor performance - quite well-protected from unwanted and
installing wired networks.
o Many spread out users, obstacles block unauthorized access.
signals. Fewer Cables
Accessibility
- Access point (AP) - wireless networks make your workplace look
- not visible to devices on other networks, any
o Accepts wireless signals from multiple neater, since there are fewer cables to worry
device that can access the wired network can
nodes. about.
freely communicate with other devices on the
• Retransmits signals to network.
network. Easier to Install and Maintain
o Base stations, wireless routers, wireless
- - can be installed much faster and with relative
gateways
ease because it requires less equipment to set
Disadvantages of Wired Networks:
up.
Lack of Mobility
- wired networks are very inflexible when it comes
to mobility, run extra cables, and install switches
at that location.
 Disadvantages of Wireless Networks: 802.11a (1999) MIMO (multiple input-multiple output)
- Released after 802.11b - Multiple access point antennas may issue
Connectivity May Suffer Occasionally
- 5-GHz band signals to one or more receivers.
- devices nearby have a larger potential for
o Not congested like 2.4-GHz band - Increases network throughput and access point
interfering with or blocking signals. It can
• Lower interference requires more range.
compromise both the performance as well as the
transmit power.
quality of your connection. 802.11ac (2014)
- Throughput
- Up to 3.5 Gbps (gigabits per second) in the 5 GHz
Security Can Be a Concern o 54 Mbps theoretical
frequency band.
- less secure than wired networks. o 11 and 18 Mbps effective
- Similar range to 802.11n but with improved
• Attributable to higher frequencies,
Unreliable Data Transfer Speed throughput at longer distances.
unique modulating data method, more
- typically, can’t match the speed of wired - Introduced advancements such as wider
available bandwidth
networks. channel bandwidths, beamforming, and MU-
- 20-meter node limit
MIMO (multi-user MIMO), significantly boosting
Wireless networking standards - More expensive, least popular
data transfer rates and overall network
- included in the 802.11 family of standards. performance, particularly in high-density
802.11g (2003)
- developed by the Institute of Electrical and environments.
- Affordable as 802.11b
Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
- Throughput
- Specifies communication between two wireless 802.11ax Wi-Fi 6 (2021)
o 54 Mbps theoretical
nodes, or stations, and between a station and - Up to 10 Gbps in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
o 20 to 25 Mbps effective
an access point. frequency bands.
- 100-meter node range
- It does not specify how two access points - Similar to 802.11ac, with improved efficiency
- 2.4-GHz frequency band
should communicate. and coverage in dense environments.
- Compatible with 802.11b networks
- Introduces OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-
Evolution of Wi-Fi Standards division multiple access) and other
802.11n (2009)
802.11b (1999) - Draft: expected ratification in late 200 enhancements to increase network efficiency,
- 2.4-GHz band - Manufacturers capacity, and performance, particularly in
o Separated into 22-MHz channels. - Selling 802.11n-compatible transceivers scenarios with a high number of connected
- Throughput - Primary goal devices.
o 11-Mbps theoretical. - Wireless standards provide much more
o 5-Mbps actual effective throughput.
- 100 meters node limit - Maximum throughput: 600 Mbps
- Oldest, least expensive - Threat to Fast Ethernet
- Being replaced by 802.11g - Backward compatible with 802.11a, b, g
standards.
- 3 antennas
 How nodes exchange wireless signals Signal Degradation
- refers to the deterioration or reduction in the
Antennas
quality of a signal as it travels through a
- Radiation pattern
communication channel or medium.
o Relative strength over three-dimensional
- This degradation can occur due to various factors
area
and can affect different aspects of the signal,
• All electromagnetic energy antenna
including amplitude, frequency, phase, and
sends, receives.
overall integrity.
- Directional antenna
o Issues wireless signals along single direction
- Omnidirectional antenna
o Issues, receives wireless signals.
• Equal strength, clarity
• All directions
- Range
o Reachable geographical area

Signal Propagation
- refers to the transmission of signals through a
medium, such as electrical signals through a
wire, electromagnetic waves through space, or
acoustic signals through air.
- It encompasses the mechanisms by which
signals travel from a source to a destination,
often involving various physical phenomena and
constraints depending on the medium and the
type of signal.

- subject signal to three phenomena

o Reflection bounces back to source.
o Diffraction splits into secondary waves.
o Scattering diffusion in multiple different
directions.
 Quiz 1
MULTICASTING 1. It is a transmission method that allows one node to send data to
a defined group of nodes.
REVERSE ADDRESS 2. It was originally developed as a means for diskless workstations.
RESOLUTION PROTOCOL
AUTOMATIC PRIVATE IP 3. It is part of a computer’s operating software, the assignment happens
ADDRESSING without the need to register or check with a central authority.
DYNAMIC HOST 4. It is an automated means of assigning a unique IP address to every
CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL device on a network.
INTERNET GROUP 5. It operates at the network layer and manages multicasting.
MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
ADDRESS RESOLUTION 6. It obtains the MAC (physical) address of a host, or node, and then
PROTOCOL creates a database that maps the MAC address to the host’s IP (logical)
address.
SUITE 7. TCP/IP is a ____ of protocols.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL 8. It operates in the transport layer of the OSI model and provides reliable
PROTOCOL data delivery services.
LEASES 9. With DHCP, a device borrows, or ____ an IP address while it is attached
to the network.
STATIC / ARP 10. Table entries are those that someone has entered manually using the
ARP utility.
BOOTSTRAP PROTOCOL 11. It uses a central list of IP addresses and their associated devices’ MAC
addresses to assign IP addresses to clients dynamically.
INTERNET PROTOCOL 12. It provides information about how and where data should be delivered,
including the data’s source and destination addresses.
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL 13. It provides unreliable data delivery services, and it is a connectionless
transport service.
DYNAMIC / ARP 14. Table entries are created when a client makes an ARP request that
cannot be satisfied by data already in the ARP table.
INTERNET CONTROL 15. It can indicate when part of a network is congested, when data fails to
MESSAGE PROTOCOL reach its destination, and when data has been discarded because the
allotted time for its delivery (its TTL) expired.
True 16. TCP/IP core protocols, operate in the transport or network layers of the
OSI model and provide basic services to protocols in other layers.
False 17. DHCP, like BOOTP, belongs to the network layer of the OSI model.
True 18. APIPA is unsuitable for networks that must communicate with other
subnets or over a WAN.
False 19. TCP is a connectionless-oriented subprotocol.
False 20. Bootstrap Protocol was developed in the mid-1970s.
 Quiz 2
HARDWARE 1. – 4. What are the key components of network architecture? (Choose four
answers only!)
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
PROTOCOLS
TOPOLOGY
NETWORK CABLES 5. A physical medium through which data is transmitted between
networking devices, such as computers, routers, switches, and
modems.
RJ45 6. It is the most common connector used for Ethernet cables. It has
eight pins and is used to terminate twisted pair cables.
SWITCHES 7. It is more powerful than a hub or a bridge but performs a similar role.
CROSSOVER ETHERNET 8. It is a type of ethernet cable used to connect computing devices
CABLE together directly.
WIRELESS ACCESS POINTS 9. It enables wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
ROUTERS 10. It is essential in networking devices that forward data packets
between computer networks.
BRIDGES 11. It connects two separate LAN networks. It scans for the receiving
device before sending a message.
MODEMS 12. A device that modulates and demodulate signals to enable digital
data transmission over analog communication channels.
NETWORK ATTACHED 13. It is a specialized storage devices that connect to a network, allowing
STORAGE multiple users and devices to access shared files and data.
14. BONUS QUESTION: How many letters are in the alphabet?
NETWORK INTERFACE 15. ______ are hardware components that enable devices to connect to a
CARDS network.
FIREWALL 16. It is a hardware or software device between a computer and the rest of
the network open to attackers or hackers.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA 17. It encompasses all physical connections between network (hardware)
devices.
NETWORK HARDWARE 18. It is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware units operational
on a computer network.
HUBS 19. A ____ broadcasts data to all devices on a network.
STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLE 20. It is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local area networks to
connect a computer to a network hub such as a router.
 Quiz 3
DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA 1. Issues wireless signals along single direction.
802.11A 2. It provides a maximum theoretical throughput of 54 Mbps, though its
effective throughput falls generally between 11 and 18 Mbps.
INFRASTRUCTURE WLAN 3. The communication takes place between the wireless nodes (i.e.,
endpoints in the network such as your computer, your phone, etc.) and the
access points (i.e., the router) only.
RADIO FREQUENCY 4. Wireless networks operate using _________ technology.
INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL 5. What organization developed a wireless networking standard that specifies
AND ELECTRONICS communication between wireless nodes (stations) and access points?
ENGINEERS
802.11G 6. WLAN standard is designed to be just as affordable as 802.11b.
AD HOC WLAN 7. Wireless nodes, or stations, transmit directly to each other via wireless
NICs without an intervening connectivity device.
SIGNAL PROPAGATION 8. It refers to the transmission of signals through a medium, such as
electrical signals through a wire, electromagnetic waves through space, or
acoustic signals through air.
SIGNAL DEGRADATION 9. It refers to the deterioration or reduction in the quality of a signal as it
travels through a communication channel or medium.
802.11AX WI-FI 6 10. Offers speeds up to 10 Gbps across both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency
bands, with improved efficiency and coverage in crowded areas.
Reduced hardware costs 11. What is a key advantage of wireless networks over wired networks, based
on the provided information?
802.11B 12. It is the least expensive of all the 802.11 WLAN technologies.
802.11AC 13. Introduced in 2014, offers up to 3.5 Gbps in the 5 GHz band, providing
improved throughput over longer distances compared to 802.11n.
Wireless connections are 14. What is a key difference between wired and wireless connections, based
more reliable on the provided information?
WIRELESS NETWORKING 15. This technology enables mobility and flexibility in accessing network
resources, making it particularly useful in environments where wired
connections are impractical or inconvenient.