Chapter 15

The electromagnetic spectrum

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

• describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum
• describe some uses of different electromagnetic waves
• consider how electromagnetic waves can be used safely.

GETTING STARTED

Think about what you have learnt so far about waves.

Write down five bullet points which sum up what you know about waves –
including light and sound.
Pair up and agree five points from your combined lists. You can change or
combine them.
Join with another pair and write out five points that the group agrees on.
Display these points to the class.

RADIATION – FRIEND OR FOE?

Figure 15.1a: This artist’s impression shows how high energy gamma
radiation can be finely targeted to kill tumour cells. b: Jocelyn Joyce
Burnell was one of the first astrophysicists to observe light from pulsars.
Pulsars emit pulses of light at very regular intervals, making them
enormously accurate clocks. Pulsars can be used to measure astronomical
distances very accurately.

The light waves we see are part of a bigger family of waves called the
electromagnetic spectrum. These range from gamma rays (seen killing a
cancer cell in Figure 15.1a) to the radio waves used in radio astronomy by
astronomers such as Jocelyn Joyce Burnell (Figure 15.1b). In this chapter
you will learn about these waves: what they have in common and the
differences that make them useful in a huge variety of ways.
All these forms of radiation have useful applications, but many can also
cause harm.
Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can cause skin cancer. However, in
trying to avoid skin cancer by staying indoors and covering skin whilst
outside, we risk vitamin D deficiency. Our bodies create vitamin D when
exposed to sunlight. Lack of it can cause a range of health problems,
including rickets.
Gamma radiation released in nuclear disasters has been shown to cause
cancers, and yet when used correctly, the same radiation can be directed on
to cancer cells to kill them.
Decisions about the use of potentially harmful radiation have to balance
risk with benefit. Consider a pregnant woman involved in a car crash who
appears to have sustained a serious spinal injury. X-rays could damage the
developing fetus, but without X-ray images to inform treatment, the woman
could be paralysed.
Decisions like this have no easy answers. Whichever decision is made, the
doctors will aim to minimise risk; for example, if they decide to use X-rays,
they will shield the fetus with lead shields which block X-rays as much as
they can.
As you will see in this chapter, electromagnetic radiation is all around us.
Decisions about how to use these waves have to be taken by everybody, not
just the scientists.
Discussion questions
A large sports arena concerned about security is considering installing X-
ray scanners to check supporters and their bags for dangerous items.
1 Discuss the risks and benefits of installing this system.
2 Consider who should make the final decision: the arena managers,
supporters or scientists?
15.1 Electromagnetic waves
William Herschel was an astronomer. In 1799 he was investigating the spectrum
of light from the Sun. He used a prism to create a spectrum then placed a
thermometer at different parts of the spectrum. The thermometer reading
increased when the light fell on it. The light energy was absorbed, creating a
heating effect. Herschel noticed this effect was greatest for red light and smallest
for violet.
Herschel then placed his thermometer past the red end of the spectrum. The
temperature rise was even greater. He concluded that there must be some type of
radiation, invisible to the human eye, beyond the red end of the spectrum. He
called this infrared radiation (‘infra’ means below). Infrared radiation is the
thermal radiation described in Chapter 11. It is the heat you can feel radiating
out from any hot object.

Figure 15.2: A modern version of Herschel’s experiment. The spectrum of light

from the Sun extends beyond the visible region, from infrared to ultraviolet. The
thermometer placed beyond the red light detects more thermal radiation than any
of the others.

Beyond the violet end of the spectrum

The discovery of radiation beyond the red end of the spectrum encouraged
people to look beyond the violet end. In 1801, a German scientist called Johan
Ritter used silver chloride to look for ‘invisible rays’. Silver salts are blackened
by exposure to sunlight (this is the basis of film photography). Ritter directed a
spectrum of sunlight onto paper soaked in silver chloride solution. The paper
became blackened and, to his surprise, the effect was strongest beyond the violet
end of the visible spectrum. He had discovered ultraviolet radiation (‘ultra’
means beyond).
Both infrared and ultraviolet radiation were discovered by looking at the
spectrum of light from the Sun. However, they do not have to be produced by an
object like the Sun. Imagine a lump of iron that you heat in a Bunsen flame. At
first, it looks dull and black. Take it from the flame and you will find that it is
emitting infrared radiation. Put it back in the flame and heat it more. It begins to
glow, first a dull red colour, then more yellow, and eventually white hot. It is
emitting visible light. When its temperature reaches about 1000 °C, it will also
be emitting ultraviolet radiation.
This experiment suggests that there is a connection between infrared, visible and
ultraviolet radiation. A cool object emits only radiation at the cool end of the
spectrum. The hotter the object, the more radiation it emits from the hotter end.
The Sun is a very hot object (Figure 15.3). Its surface temperature is about 5500
°C, so it emits a lot of ultraviolet radiation. Most of this is absorbed in the
atmosphere, particularly by the ozone layer. A small amount of ultraviolet
radiation does get through to us. The ozone layer is depleted (decreased) by
chemicals used in aerosols and refrigerants. Depletion lets more ultraviolet
through, increasing the risk of skin cancer. In 1985, an international agreement
called the Montreal Protocol regulated, then banned, the use of CFCs – the main
chemicals involved in the depletion. In 2019, NASA reported a 20% decrease in
ozone depletion. While there is still work to be done, this is an example of what
global cooperation on climate issues can achieve.
Figure 15.3: The Sun is examined by several satellite observatories. This image
was produced by the SOHO satellite using a camera that detects the ultraviolet
radiation given off by the Sun. You can see some detail of the Sun’s surface,
including giant prominences looping out into space. The different colours
indicate variations in the temperature across the Sun’s surface.

Electromagnetic waves
We have seen that a spectrum is formed when light passes through a prism
because some colours are refracted more than others. The violet end of the
spectrum is refracted the most. Now we can deduce that ultraviolet radiation is
refracted even more than violet light, and that infrared radiation is refracted less
than red light.
To explain the spectrum, and other features of light, physicists developed the
wave model of light.
Just as sound can be thought of as vibrations or waves travelling through the air
(or any other material), so we can think of light as being another form of wave.
Sounds can have different pitches – the higher the frequency, the higher the
pitch. We can think of a piano keyboard as being a ‘spectrum’ of sounds of
different frequencies. Light can have different colours, according to its
frequency. Red light has a lower frequency than violet light. Visible light occurs
as a spectrum of colours, depending on its frequency.
A Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell, described light as small oscillations
in electric and magnetic fields which he called electromagnetic waves. His
theory allowed him to predict that they could have any value of frequency. In
other words, beyond the infrared and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum, there
must be even more types of electromagnetic wave (or electromagnetic radiation).
By the early years of the 20th century, physicists had discovered or artificially
produced several other types of electromagnetic wave to complete the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a family of transverse waves. Like all waves,
they can be reflected, refracted or diffracted. They all travel at the same speed as
light in a vacuum. The waves have different frequencies, and this means they
have different effects on the materials with which they interact. These waves
have many very important uses, and some can be hazardous.

The speed of electromagnetic waves

All types of electromagnetic wave have one thing in common: they travel at the
same speed in a vacuum. They travel at the speed of light, which has a value
close to 300 000 000 m/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s) in a vacuum and approximately the same
speed in air. Like light, the speed of electromagnetic waves depends on the
material through which they are travelling.

Wavelength and frequency

We can represent light as a transverse wave. Figure 15.4 compares red light with
violet light. Red light has a greater wavelength than violet light. This means that
there is a greater distance from one wave crest to the next. This is because both
red light and violet light travel at the same speed, but violet light has a greater
frequency, so it goes up and down more often in the same length.
Figure 15.4: Comparing red and violet light waves. Both travel at the same
speed, but red light has a longer wavelength because its frequency is lower. The
wavelength is the distance from one crest to the next (or from one trough to the
next). Think of red light waves as longer, lazy waves. Violet light is made up of
shorter, more rapidly vibrating waves.

The waves that make up visible light have very high frequencies: over one
hundred million million hertz, or 1014 Hz. Their wavelengths are very small,
from 400 nm (nanometres) for violet light to 700 nm for red light. (1 nm is one-
billionth or one-thousand-millionth of a 400 mn = 1 000400
000 000
m. million
waves of visible light fit into a metre.
Figure 15.5 shows the complete electromagnetic spectrum, with the wavelengths
and frequencies of each region. In fact, we cannot be very precise about where
each region starts and stops. This is similar to the light spectrum: it is hard to say
where red finishes and orange begins. Even the ends of the visible light section
are uncertain, because different people can see slightly different ranges of
wavelengths, just as they can hear different ranges of sound frequencies.
Figure 15.5: The electromagnetic spectrum. Remember all waves travel at the
same speed and because v = f λ. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases.

Questions
1 Draw and label two waves to show the difference between red light and
violet light.
2 Write the names of the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum:
a in order of increasing wavelength
b in order of increasing frequency.
3 Describe and explain what happens when monochromatic green light of
wavelength 540 nm passes through a prism.
4 Use the equation v = f λ to calculate the frequency of the green light in
question 15.3.

Uses of electromagnetic waves

The different frequencies of the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum give
them different properties and this means that they are useful in different ways.
Here are some important examples.
Radio waves
Radio waves are used to broadcast radio and television signals. These waves are
sent out from a transmitter a few kilometres away to be captured by an aerial on
the roof of a house. Radio astronomy can be used to detect radio waves from
objects such as stars, galaxies and black holes. Radio frequency identification
(RFID) chips are microchips inserted underneath the skin. These can store vital
medical information and could be used instead of a passport, or as a contactless
bank card.
An RFID tag stores data. It transmits the data as radio waves, which is read by
an electronic reader.
Figure 15.6: Tiny RFID tags can store and transmit data. A tag inserted in your
body could be used to open doors or pay for shopping to track for your
movements.

Microwaves
Used in satellite television broadcasting, because microwaves pass easily
through the Earth’s atmosphere. They travel up to a broadcasting satellite,
thousands of kilometres away in space. Then they are sent back down to
subscribers on Earth. Microwaves are also used to transmit mobile phone
(cellphone) signals between masts, which may be up to 20 km apart.
Microwaves ovens emit microwaves, which are absorbed by molecules in food,
causing heating.
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is used in remote controls for devices such as televisions. A
beam of radiation from the remote control carries a coded signal to the
appliance, which changes the settings on the television; for example, changing
channel, increasing the volume. You may be able to use a smartphone camera to
observe this type of radiation, which would otherwise be invisible to our eyes.
Point a remote control at your phone and record what happens as you press
buttons. Grills and toasters also use infrared radiation to cook food. Security
alarms send out beams of infrared radiation and detect changes in the reflected
radiation, which may indicate the presence of an intruder. Infrared red light is
also used together with optical fibres. In Figure 15.9b an endoscope allows the
doctor to see inside the patient. Visible light is passed down an optical fibre to
illuminate the lungs of this COVID-19 patient. Reflected light travels back up to
the doctor’s eye. Infrared radiation can also be used in medicine to detect heat
which may indicate infection, or to speed up healing and reduce pain.
Visible light
Visible light provides us with information about the world, both directly through
our eyes and via optical instruments such as cameras, telescopes and
microscopes. Visible light is also vital for photosynthesis.

Figure 15.7: Microwaves allow signals to be transmitted around the curve of the
earth’s surface.
Figure 15.8: Using an infrared scanner allows a doctor to see a patient’s veins.
This means injections can be targetted much more precisely.
Figure 15.9a: This leaf has used visible light to grow. It is illuminated by the
microscope lamp, and the reflected light is focused by the microscope lenses. b:
An endoscope allows the doctors to see inside the patient. Visible light is passed
down an optical fibre to illuminate the lungs of this COVID-19 patient.
Reflected light travels back up to the doctor’s eye.
Ultraviolet (UV) light
UV light causes some chemicals to emit visible light. This includes body fluids
such as sweat and saliva. Forensic scientists use this to find evidence at crime
scenes which is invisible to the human eye.
Chemicals which glow in UV light can be used for security marking of valuable
equipment and banknotes.
Ultraviolet light can be used to sterilise water. Exposure to UV radiation
destroys DNA within any bacteria and viruses contained in the water. This
makes the bacteria and viruses harmless and the water much safer to use.

Figure 15.10: Many banknotes have markings which are only visible in
ultraviolet light. This helps in the detection of forged banknotes.

X-rays
X-rays can penetrate solid materials and so they are used in security scanners at
airports. They are also used in hospitals and clinics to see inside patients without
the need for surgery. The X-rays are detected using electronic detectors. Bone
absorbs X-rays more strongly than flesh, so bones appear as a shadow in the
image. Similarly, a metal gun will appear as a shadow because it absorbs X-rays
more strongly than the items around it in Figure 15.11.

Figure 15.11: X-ray scanners allow airport security to quickly detect hidden
items.

Gamma rays
Gamma rays can damage or kill living cells. A targeted beam of gamma rays can
be used to kill cancerous cells.
Surgical instruments can be sterilised by using gamma rays to kill any bacteria.
Gamma rays can also be used in the detection of cancer. You will learn more
about gamma rays and how they are used in Chapter 23.
Figure 15.12: A nurse demonstrates a radiation helmet. The holes in the helmet
allow the gamma rays to be targeted exactly on to a tumour.

Questions
5 Name two types of electromagnetic radiation that are used to cook food.
6 Name three types of electromagnetic radiation that have medical uses.
7 A girl phones her friend on her mobile phone while watching TV by a log
fire. Explain how infrared radiation, microwaves, visible light and radio
waves are involved in this.
15.2 Electromagnetic hazards
All types of radiation can be hazardous. Even bright light shining into your eyes
can blind you. Infrared radiation can cause burns. UV radiation from the Sun can
damage skin cells which may lead to sunburn and skin cancer. Sunbeds can also
damage skin cells and should be used with care. UV radiation can also damage
eye cells which is why is important to protect your eyes in bright sunlight by
wearing sunglasses or a hat. In general, the higher the frequency of the
wavelength, the greater the harm it can cause.
X-rays and gamma rays are the most dangerous part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They can cause cell mutations which may lead to cancer. People who
work with X-rays and gamma rays are in danger of being exposed to too much
radiation. They can protect themselves by standing well away when a patient is
being examined, or by enclosing the equipment in a metal case, which will
absorb rays.
Longer waves such as microwaves are much less harmful, but as we use them a
lot more frequently in everyday life, we are exposed to much larger amounts of
these waves. Microwaves are used to cook food in microwave ovens. This shows
that they have a heating effect when absorbed. Telephone engineers, for
example, must take care not to expose themselves to excessive amounts of
microwaves when they are working on the masts of a mobile phone (cellphone)
network. Domestic microwave ovens must be checked to ensure that no radiation
is leaking out.
Mobile phones use radio waves and microwaves. Many people are concerned
that these could be harmful. Scientists have researched this and the only effect
they have found consistent evidence for is a slight heating effect. This is not
believed to be harmful. If any risks are found, they would have more effect on
children, as they are still developing. Any harm would be increased by using the
phone for longer.
Figure 15.13a: The radiographer operates the machine from a separate room.
Figure 15.13b: All areas where X-rays or gamma rays are used have hazard
warning labels.

Questions
8 The radiographer must leave the room before operating an X-ray machine.
Why is it considered too dangerous for the radiographer but not for the
patient?
9 A headline reads, ‘Scientists prove mobile phones are safe’. Explain why
this headline is misleading.

ACTIVITY 15.1

Electromagnetic waves – friend or foe?

Each of the pictures in Figure 15.14 represents a use or a danger of a type
of electromagnetic radiation. Identify the wave involved and discuss what
the use or danger is.
Figure 15.14: Uses and dangers of electromagnetic radiation.

Find or draw as many pictures as you can showing the uses and dangers of
electromagnetic waves.
Use your pictures to make a poster. Include a representation of the
electromagnetic spectrum similar to Figure 15.5.
15.3 Communicating using electromagnetic
waves
Satellites
Satellites are objects which orbit the Earth. Earth has one natural satellite – the
Moon. Earth also has many artificial satellites, many of which are used in the
transmission of information carried by electromagnetic waves. Most artificial
satellite communication uses microwaves.
Some of the satellites used for communication are in geostationary orbits. This
means that they orbit at the same rate as the Earth turns and so they stay above
one point on the Earth’s surface. They are about 35 000 km above the Earth’s
surface and are positioned above the Equator. These satellites are powerful and
can transmit large amounts of data. This makes them suitable for satellite
television and some satellite phones. The waves travel a long distance to the
satellite, meaning there is a slight delay, making it more difficult to have a
conversation.
Low Earth orbits are much closer. They can be as low as 2000 km above the
Earth’s surface. This means there is no delay in conversation. These satellites
orbit the Earth in as little as two hours. A lot more of these are needed than for
geostationary orbits as they only cover a small area of the Earth’s surface (see
Figure 15.15). They cannot transmit data as fast as geostationary satellites and so
are not suitable for television transmission.
Figure 15.15: Low Earth orbits require many more satellites.

The right wave for the job

Mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves, because they can pass
through most walls and only a small aerial is needed.
Figure 15.16: This laptop is connected to the internet using microwaves.

Bluetooth – used for short range communication – uses radio waves. The signal
is weakened when it passes through walls. This short range signal is useful for
communication between electronic devices such as in hands-free mobile phone
systems.
Figure 15.17: A woman wearing a bluetooth headset.

Optical fibres (for cable television and high speed internet) use infrared radiation
and visible light. Optical fibres are made of glass which is transparent to light
and infrared radiation. These waves have a higher frequency and can carry more
data. This is vital for high speed broadband connections.

Figure 15.18: Optical fibres.

Analogue and digital signals
In telephone communication, the signal being transmitted starts off as a sound
wave. This varies in amplitude and frequency as the people talk. A sound wave
is an analogue signal – it can vary continuously. In traditional telephones, the
sound wave is converted by a microphone to an electrical signal, which varies in
the same way as the sound wave. The electrical signal is transmitted via copper
wires to a receiver, where a speaker converts it back to a sound wave. The
transmission process for analogue signals causes the wave to become distorted
and unwanted vibrations are often heard as noise. This means the signal is not
always clear.
A digital system is a sequence of pulses. Digital signals are either on or off.
Digital systems using optical fibres give a much clearer signal. They are also
faster and optical cables can carry much more data than a copper cables.

Figure 15.19: An analogue signal varies continuously while a digital signal is

either on or off.
Figure 15.20: The use of regenerators means that digital signals can be
transmitted over hundreds of kilometres without being distorted.

Making a digital phone call

The analogue sound wave from a caller is encoded by a converter which turns
the sound wave to a series of pulses. The digital signal is carried along optical
fibres by visible pulses or infrared waves. The signal passes through one or more
regenerators which clean up the signal, removing any distortion. The
regenerators also boost the signal if it has lost power. A second converter
switches the signal back to an analogue signal which can be converted to a sound
wave.
Digital signals can transmit data much more rapidly and accurately than
analogue signals. Digital signals can also communicate directly with computers
which only use digital data.

ACTIVITY 15.2

Guess who?
 Work in a group of about four students. Write the names of different waves
on identical cards (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultra
violet, X-rays, gamma rays, red light, violet light, sound, ultrasound, water
and seismic waves).
Place the cards face down in the middle. One player takes a card and looks
at it without letting the others see. The other players then try to find out
what the wave is by asking questions to which the answer can only be ‘yes’
or ‘no’. Each player can only ask one question.
When the wave has been identified, the next player takes their turn.

REFLECTION
There are two spectra which you need to remember in order: visible light
and the electromagnetic spectrum. How easily can you remember them?
What helps you with this? Mnemonics can be very useful here. The colours
of the visible spectrum can be remembered using Richard Of York Gave
Battle In Vain. The first letters of the words correspond to the first letters of
the colours. Try to make a mnemonic to remember the order of the waves
in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Questions
10 There are two types of communication satellite: geostationary and low
 earth orbit. Explain which type:
a is best suited to transmitting TV signals
b gives the shortest delay for phone conversations
c takes least time to orbit the Earth.
11 State two benefits of converting a phone signal from analogue to digital.

PROJECT

Rainbow balloon debate

Balloon debates usually involve discussing which person should be thrown
out of an overloaded hot air balloon basket, so that it does not crash. Each
passenger explains why they should stay and then a vote is taken. In this
activity, the passengers are the different waves of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Seven different wavelengths of radiation are travelling in a hot air balloon.
• Radio wave
• Microwaves
• Infrared radiation
• Visible light
• Ultraviolet radiation
• X-rays
• Gamma rays
The balloon can only manage six waves, and so one of the waves must be
thrown overboard, or the balloon will crash. As a class you will debate
which wave should be sacrificed. Each wave will have a team who prepare
to speak in favour of their wave and look at arguments why the other waves
should go.
You will need to divide the class into seven teams (you could have fewer
teams and leave some waves out if necessary). Your teacher will assign
each team a wave.
You will need to prepare arguments why your given wave is so important
that it must stay in the balloon. Think about what it is used for – medical or
communication uses for example – and why losing this would be bad.
Think about the harmful aspects of your wave – you will have to answer
questions about these, so be prepared to defend your wave.
You will also need to prepare questions for the other waves. Your aim is to
make them seem either harmful or not particularly useful so that they are
more likely to be voted off.
Your teacher will tell you how long each team can speak for and how long
the question portion will last.

PEER ASSESSMENT

After every team has spoken and has been questioned, you will all vote for
which wave must go. To help with this, record your impressions of each
group on a sheet similar to this.
Use your scoring and notes to decide how you will vote.
SUMMARY

The electromagnetic spectrum is a group of waves which have similar

properties to light.
In order of increasing frequency, the waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum are: radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet,
X-rays and gamma rays.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed – the speed of light.
The speed of light is 300 000 000 m/s.
Electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and this gives them
different properties and makes them suitable for different uses.
High frequency electromagnetic radiation can be hazardous. It can damage
cells and cause cells to mutate.
Radio waves, microwaves, visible light and infrared are used in
communication systems.
Signals can be analogue or digital. Digital signals transmit data more
accurately and faster.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

1 Which statement is correct when comparing gamma rays and

microwaves?
[1]
A Microwaves have a higher speed in air and the same frequency.
B Microwaves have a higher frequency and the same wavelength.
C Microwaves have a longer wavelength and the same speed.
D Microwaves have a higher frequency and the same speed.
2 This is part of the electromagnetic spectrum:

Which row correctly describes the labels P, Q and R? [1]

P Q R
A X-rays infrared radiation wavelength
B infrared radiation X-rays frequency
C X-rays infrared radiation frequency
D infrared radiation X-rays wavelength

3 Which of the following statements is true for electromagnetic

waves?
[1]
A They all have the same frequency.
B They cannot be refracted.
C They all travel at the same speed.
D They are harmless.
4 This diagram shows white light being dispersed by a prism. The
dispersed light hits a screen.

a What will be seen at B? [1]

b What will be seen at C? [1]
c What might be detected at A? [1]
d What might be detected at D? [1]
e State one way in which the waves at A, B, C and D are
alike. [1]
f State one way in which the four waves differ from each
other. [1]
[Total: 6]
5 These are some waves on the electromagnetic spectrum:
blue yellow
X-rays
light light

a Copy the diagram and add these labels in the correct

order: radio waves, ultraviolet, infrared, gamma rays,
microwaves, red light. [2]
b Name two of the waves which can be used for cooking. [2]
c Name the wave with the highest frequency. [1]
d Name two waves our senses can detect from the Sun. [2]
 [Total: 7]

6 A student shines a beam of monochromatic red light at a prism.

a The red light has a wavelength of 700 nm. Use the

equation v = f λ to calculate the frequency of the red light. [3]
b Is the wavelength of infrared waves longer or shorter than
700 nm? [1]
[Total: 7]