Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology

Isaac Wachira,
Department of Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics
Kenya Medical Training Centre
 TISSUES AND TISSUE

 Tissues are: TYPES

 Collections of specialized cells and cell products organized to perform a limited number of
functions
 Histology = study of tissues
 The four tissue types are:
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscular
 Nervous

 It covers the body and line cavities

 Hollow organs and tubes
 It is also found in glands.
 Includes glands and epithelium
 Glands are secretory
 It is avascular
 It forms a protective barrier that regulates permeability
 Its cells may show polarity
 Physical protection; - Protection of underlying structures from e.g. dehydration chemical
and mechanical damage.
 Secretion; - Produce specialized secretions
 Absorption;- Control permeability
 Provide sensation

 Perform secretory functions

 Perform transport functions
 Maintain physical integrity
 Ciliated epithelia move materials across their surface
Classification of epithelia
 This is done based on Number of cell layer as well as the shape of the cells.
 Number of cell layers
 Simple- Simple (single layer)
 Stratified (multiple layers of cells)
 Shape of apical surface cells
 Squamous
 Cuboidal
 Columnar
i
ii. Cuboidal Epithelium
• Has cube shaped cells. It forms kidney tubules and is found in some glands e.g. thyroid gland.
• They are actively involved in secretion absorption and on excretion.
iii. Columnar epithelial

• They are rectangular in shape.

• It lines many organs and often adapted to a specific function e.g. stomach lining intestine lining (has
micro villi) trachea (has cilia and goblet cells) to secrete mucus.
 Classification of Epithelia

 Stratified epithelial tissue

 Consist of several layers of cells of various shapes.
 The main function of stratified epithelial is to protect underlying structure from mechanical wear and tear.
 They are of two types
i. Stratified squamous epithelial

ii. Transitional epithelial.

Classification of epithelia

 Stratified epithelial tissue

i. Stratified squamous epithelial
- it is in the deepest layer, the cells are mainly columnar as they grow towards the surface they become
flattened and are then shed. They include: -

a) Keratinized stratified epithelial

b) Non-keratinized stratified epithelial

 Classification of epithelia

 Stratified epithelial tissue

i. Stratified squamous epithelial
a) Keratinized stratified epithelial; - They are found on dry surface subjected to wear and tear
that is skin, hair and nails. They consist of dead epithelial cells that has lost their nuclear and
contain the protein keratin, this form tough relatively water prove protective layer that prevent
drying of the life cells underneath.

Classification of epithelia

 Stratified epithelial tissue

i. Stratified squamous epithelial
b) Non-keratinized stratified epithelial; - protect moist surfaces subjected to wear and tear and prevent them from
drying out e.g. conjunctiva of the eye, mouth lining, the pharynx, esophagus and the vagina.
Columnar Epithelia
 Classification of epithelia

 Stratified epithelial tissue

ii. Transitional epithelial.

• Composed of several layers of pear shaped cells.

• Lines several parts of the urinary truck including the bladder and allows stretching as the bladder fills.
 Connective Tissue
 They are most abundant tissue on the body. The connective tissue cells are more widely
separated from each other than epithelial tissues and intercellular substances (matrix) is present
in considerable large amounts.
 The fibers form a supporting network for the cells to attach to.

 Establishing a structural framework

 Transporting fluids and dissolved materials

 Protecting delicate organs

 Supporting, surrounding and interconnecting tissues

 Storing energy reserves

 Defending the body from microorganisms

A Classification of Connective Tissues
 Contains varied cell populations
 Contains various fiber types
 A syrupy ground substance
 Two types
 Loose
 Dense
 2. Fluid connective tissue Connective tissue proper
 Contains fibers, a viscous ground
 Contains a distinctive cell population substance, and a varied cell population
 Fibroblasts
 Watery ground substance with dissolved proteins  Macrophage
 Adipocytes
 Two types  Mesenchymal cells
 Melanocytes
 Blood
 Mast cells
 Lymph  Lymphocytes
 Microphages
 Connective tissue proper
 Classified as loose or dense
 Loose
 Embryonic mesenchyme, mucous connective tissues
 Areolar tissue
 Adipose tissue
 Reticular tissue
 Dense
 Dense regular CT
 Dense irregular CT
The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper
Adipose and Reticular Tissues
 Fluid connective tissues

 Distinctive collections of cells in a fluid matrix

 Blood
 Formed elements and plasma
 Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
 Arteries carry blood away, veins carry to the heart
 Capillaries allow diffusion into the interstitial fluid
 Lymph
 Interstitial fluid entering the lymphatic vessels
 Supporting connective tissues

 Cartilage and bone support the rest of the body

 Cartilage
 Grows via interstitial and appositional growth
 Matrix is a firm gel containing chondroitin sulfate
 Cells called chondrocytes
 Cells found in lacunae
 Perichondrium separates cartilage from surrounding tissues
 Three types: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage
The Perichondrium and Types of
Cartilage
 Has osteocytes

 Depend on diffusion through canaliculi for nutrients

 Little ground substance

 Dense mineralized matrix

 Surrounded by periosteum
 Membranes

 They are simple organs

 Forms a barrier
 Composed of epithelium and connective tissue
 Four types
 Cutaneous
 Synovial
 Serous
 Mucous
Types of Membranes
 Tissue regeneration

 The extent to which regeneration is possible depends on the normal rate of turnover of
particular types of cells.
 Tissue regeneration

 They are three general categories.

• Tissues in which cell replication is a continuous process regenerate quickly.
This includes epithelial cells of e.g. the skin, mucous membrane, secretory
glands, uterine lining and lymphoid tissues.

UIOIU

Tissue regeneration
 Extensively damaged tissues are usually replaced by fibrous tissues
meaning that the functions carried out by original tissues are lost.
 Vascular Vs Avascular Tissues

 Vascular tissues in the human body have blood vessels like veins, arteries and capillaries,
while avascular tissues do not.
 Vascular tissue is a tissue with vessels. Here, two types of vessels occur in these tissues. They
are blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The three types of blood vessels found in a tissue are
arteries, veins, and blood capillaries.
 Avascular tissue is a tissue that does not contain vessels. Some examples of avascular tissues
are the cornea of the eye, the epithelial layer of the skin, and cartilages. Moreover, some
connective

Vascular Vs Avascular Tissues

 Vascular tissue is a tissue with vessels. Here, two types of vessels occur in these
tissues. They are blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The three types of blood
vessels found in a tissue are arteries, veins, and blood capillaries.
 Avascular tissue is a tissue that does not contain vessels. Some examples of
avascular tissues are the cornea of the eye, the epithelial layer of the skin, and
cartilages. Moreover, some connective tissues that contain elastic fibers are also
avascular. The main function of the epithelial tissue of the skin is to protect the
underneath tissues from mechanical abrasion.
Vascular Vs Avascular Tissues
 Blood
 Fluid connective tissue that circulate constantly around the body allowing constant communication between the tissues
distance from each other.
 It makes 7% of body weight (about 5-6 liters in an adult of 70 kilos)
 The blood transport: -
 i. Oxygen  vi. Gases
 ii. Nutrients
 iii. Hormones


Components of blood
 Plasma- It is clear, straw colored
watery fluid which suspends
blood cells  iv. Heat
 It constitutes 55% of the volume  v. Protein
of blood.  vi. Clotting factors
 Plasma consists of: -
 i. Water 90-92%
 ii. Plasma protein
 iii. Inorganic salts
 iv. Nutrients principally from the
digested food
 v. Waste materials
 They are big to escape through the capillary to pores into the tissue hence create the
osmotic pressure of the blood which keep plasma fluid within circulation.

Plasma protein

Albumin

• It is the most abundant plasma protein approximately 60% of the total plasma
proteins. Their function
• 1. To maintain normal plasma osmotic pressure
• 2. To carry molecules for free fatty acids some drugs and steroids hormones.
 Plasma protein
 Globulin main function: -
 Act as antibodies (immunoglobulins) – they are complex proteins produced by
lymphocytes and has a great role in the immunity. They bid to and neutralize
foreign materials (antigen) micro- organisms
 Transport hormones and minimal salts e.g. thyroglobulin which carries thyroxin
hormone transferring carries mineral iron.
 Inhibit some proteolytic enzymes e.g. α- macroglobulin inhibit trypsin
activity.

Organs and systems are interconnected

 Network of connective tissue proper consisting of
 Superficial fascia
 Deep fascia
 Subserous fascia
The Fasciae
 Muscle tissue

 Specialized for contraction

 Three types
 Skeletal
 Cardiac
 Smooth
 Skeletal muscle
 Cells are multinucleate
 Striated voluntary muscle
 Divides via satellite cells

Cardiac muscle
 Cardiocytes occur only in the heart
 Striated involuntary muscle
 Relies on pacemaker cells for regular contraction

Smooth muscle tissue

 Non-striated involuntary muscle

 Can divide and regenerate

Neural tissue

 Conducts electrical impulses

 Conveys information from one area to another

 Neural tissue cells
 Neurons
 Transmit information

 Neuroglia
 Support neural tissue
 Help supply nutrients to neurons

Neural Tissue
 Neural anatomy
 Cell body

 Dendrites

 Axon (nerve fiber)

 Carries information to other neurons

Inflammation and regeneration

 Injured tissues respond in coordinated fashion

 Homeostasis restored by inflammation and regeneration

Inflammatory response

 Isolates injured area

 Damaged cells, tissue components and dangerous microorganisms removed

 Infection avoided

 Regeneration restores normal function

An Introduction to Inflammation
 Aging and tissue repair

 Change with age

 Repair and maintenance less efficient

 Structure altered

 Chemical composition altered

Aging and cancer incidence

 Incidence of cancer increases with age

 70-80% of all cases due to exposure to chemicals or environmental factors
Changes in a Tissue under Stress