Rise of Indian Nationalism

The rise of national consciousness in India took place towards the latter half of the
19th century only. Before that, there were struggles and battles against British
colonialism but they were all confined to smaller areas and in any case, did not
encompass the whole of India. In fact, some scholars at the time did not consider
India to be a country. Though political union had occurred in the past under great
kings like Ashoka and Akbar and under the Marathas to an extent, they were not
permanent. However, cultural unity was always seen and foreign powers always
referred to the subcontinent as India or Hind as being one entity, despite being ruled
by many rulers.

It can be said that the national movement, with the political and social emancipation
of the people as its aim, arose in India in 1885, with the formation of the Indian
National Congress.

Causes of the rise of the National Movement in India

 Western education

Macaulay had instituted a western educational system in India with the sole aim of
creating a class of educated Indians who could serve their colonial masters in the
administration of the ‘natives’. This idea sort of backfired because it created a class of
Indians who became exposed to the liberal and radical thoughts of European writers
who expounded liberty, equality, democracy and rationality. Also, the English
language united Indians from various regions and religions.

 Vernacular languages

The 19th century also saw the revival of vernacular languages. This helped the
propagation of the ideas of liberty and rational thought to the masses.

 End of the old social order

British imperialism put an end to the old social order of the country. This was
resented by many Indians.

 Socio-religious reform movements

Socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century helped a great deal in the rise
of nationalism in India. These movements sought to remove superstition and societal
evils prevalent then, and spread the word of unity, rational and scientific thought,
women empowerment and patriotism among the people. Notable reformers were
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and so on.

 Economic policies of the British

The oppressive economic policies of the British led to widespread poverty and
indebtedness among the Indians especially farmers. Famines which led to the deaths
of lakhs were a regular occurrence. This led to a bitter sense of suppression and
sowed the seeds of a yearning for liberty from foreign rule.

 Political unity

Under the British, most parts of India were put under a single political set-up. The
system of administration was consolidated and unified throughout all regions. This
factor led to the feeling of ‘oneness’ and nationhood among Indians.

 Communications network

The British built a network of roads, railways, post and telegraph systems in the
country. This led to increased movements of people from one part of the country to
another and increased the flow of information. All this accelerated the rise of a
national movement in India.

 Growth of the modern press

This period also saw the rise of the Indian press, both in English and in the regional
languages. This also was an important factor that helped in the dissemination of
information.

 Lord Lytton’s policies

Lord Lytton was the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. In 1876, there was a famine
in south Indian which saw the deaths of almost 10 million people. His trading policies
were criticised for having aggravated the famine. Also, he conducted the grand Delhi
Durbar in 1877 spending huge amount of money at a time when people were dying
of hunger.

Lytton also passed the Vernacular Press Act 1878 which authorized the government
to confiscate newspapers that printed ‘seditious material’. He also passed the Arms
Act 1878 which prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without
licenses. The act excluded Englishmen.

 Legacy of the Revolt of 1857

After the Revolt of 1857 and its bitter crushing by the British, there was deep racial
tension between the British and the Indians.

 Ilbert Bill controversy

In 1883, the Ilbert Bill was introduced which gave Indian judges the power to hear
cases against European, by the then Viceroy Lord Ripon and Sir Courtenay Ilbert, the
legal advisor to the Council of India. But there was a huge outcry against this bill
from Britishers in India and in Britain. Arguments made against this bill displayed the
deep racial prejudice the English had for Indians. This also exposed the true nature of
British colonialism to the educated Indians.

 National movements outside the country

There were many national movements outside the country that inspired the Indian
nationalists like the French Revolution, the American War of Independence and so on.

TIMELINE 1885-1947

1885 – Formation of INC 1911 – Delhi Durbar, Annulment of

1891 – 2nd Factory Act Partition of Bengal

Age of Consent Act 1912 – Delhi Conspiracy Case

1892 – Indian Councils Act 1913 – Formation of Ghadr Party

1893 – Chicago Speech of Vivekananda 1914 – Komagata Maru Incident

1897 – Famine Commission 1915 – MK Gandhi returned to South

1900 – Land Alienation Act Africa, Defense of India Act,

1904 – Ancient Monuments Act Hindu Mahasabha formed

Official Secrets Act 1916 – Home Rule League by BG Tilak

Indian Universities Act & Annie Besent

Cooperative Society Act Lucknow session of INC

1905 – Partition of Bengal Lucknow Pact

Swadeshi Boycott Movement 1917 – Champaran satyagraha

1906 – Foundation of Muslim League Montagu’s Statement /

1907 – Surat Split August Declaration

Seditious Meetings Act 1918 – Ahmedabad Mill Strike

1908 – Indian News papers Act Kheda Satyagraha

Criminal Law Amendment Act 1919 – Rowlatt Act

Alipore Conspiracy Case Jallian Walla Bagh Massacre

Barrah Dacoity Montague- Chelmsford

1909 – Nasik Conspiracy Case Reforms / GOI, 1919

Minto-Morley Reforms /

Indian Councils Act

1920 – Khilaphat Movement non- 1935 – GOI Act

Cooperate movement 1936 – Temple Entry Proclamation

CPI formed in Tashkent 1937 – Provincial elections

AITUC Fomed 1939 – INC Ministries resigned

1921 – Moplah Rebellion 1940 – Pak Resolution by ML

1922 – Chauri Chaura Incident August Offer by Linlithgow

Swarajya Party Individual Satyagraha

1924 – Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy case Forward Bloc formed

1925 – Vaikom satyagraha in Kerala 1942 – Cripps Mission

Kakori Conspiracy case Quit India Movement

1927 – Appointment of Simon Commission INA formed

1928 – Simon Commission reached India 1943 – Bengal famine

Nehru Report Pakistan Day observed

Lala Lajpat Rai died 1944 – Rajaji Formula

Bardoli Satyagraha 1945 – Desai – Liaqat Pact

1929 – Lahore Conspiracy case Wavell Plan

Lahore Session of INC INA Trails

1930 – Civil Disobedience Movement General Elections in India

Dandi March 1946 – Cabinet Mission

Chittagong Armory raid Interim govt.

1st Round table Conference 1947 – Attlee’s statement

 Sarada Act Mountbatten Plan

1931 – Gandhi Irwin Pact Indian Independence Act

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru & Sukhdev hanged Free India

2nd RTC

1932 – Communal Award

Poona Pact

1933 – All India Anti Untouchability League by Gandhi

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS PRIOR TO INC

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha (1836)- The Zamindari Association ( Popularly known

as The Land Holders Association ) (1837) - The Bengal British India Society 1843- The
British Indian Association 1851 – The East India Association 1866 , Dadabhai Naoroji,
London – India League , Bengal, 1875, Sisir Kumnar Ghose – The Indian Association
of Culcutta (Indian national association) , SN Banerjee & AM Bose, 1876 , Indian
Civil Service Agitation , Organized All India Conference in Calcutta in 1883 – The
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, MG Ranade & GV Joshy, Bombay, 1867 – The Bombay
Presidency Association, Tyabji & Firozshah Mehta, Bombay, 1885 – The Madras
Mahajan Sabha, M. Viraraghavachari, Ananda Charlu & Subramania Iyer, Madras,
1884

FORMATION OF INC founded by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired officer of ICS-

original name of the association was Indian National Union- DD Naoroji suggested
the name Indian National Congress- First session of INC at 28th December, 1885 at
Gokuldas Sanskrit College, Bombay – 72 delegates- WC Banerjee presided- Lord
Dufferin was the viceroy-

Objectives of INC –

 Found a democratic national movement

 Politicize and politically educate people
 Establish a headquarters for the movement
 Promote friendly relation among nationalists’ political workers from different
parts of the country
 develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology
 Formulate and present popular demands before the government
 Develop and consolidate a feeling of national unity
 Theories regarding the formation of INC – The safety valve theory – INC as a
‘safety valve to release the growing discontent of the Indians- Lala Lajpat rai-
Young India in 1916- Product of the brain of Lord Dufferin – The safety valve
theory originated after the publication of William Wedderburn’s biography of
Hume in 1913- The Marxist Conspiracy theory – Offspring of safety valve
theory – RP Dutt – Bipan Chandra – Hume as a lightning conductor – GK
Gokhale Lightning conductor theory – SN Banerjee – outcome of those
civilizing influences which Macaulay and his coadjusters were instrumental in
implanting in the government of the country – Dr. Nanda Lal- INC was
founded as a precautionary move against an apprehended Russian invasion
of India- Early nationalists leaders – DD Naoroji, Pheroz Shah Mehta,
Baddaruddin Tyabji, RC Dutta, SN Banerjee, GK Gokhale, MG Ranade, AM
Bose, Madan Mohan Malaviya, G. Subramaniah Iyer, Dinshaw E Wacha –
Contributions of the moderates – economic critique or British imperialism –
Drain Theory – DD Naoroji – Poverty and UnBritish rule in India, 1867 – RC
Dutt – Economic History of India , 1893 – constitutional reforms and
propaganda in legislature – campaign for general administrative reforms-
defence of civil rights- The political strategy was 3Ps – Prayer, Petition and
Protests – Official response – Disloyal babus, Seditious Brahmins, Violent
Villains – Lord Dufferin “ A factory of sedition” –“INC is a microscopic minority”
-Lord Curzon “Congress is a movement with which neither govt. nor govt.
servants, and if so, much less the heads of govt should feel or show any
sympathy. In so far as it is innocent, it is superfluous and in so far as it is
hostile to govt or seditious, it is a national danger. My policy ever since I
came to India, has been to reduce the congress to impotence, by never taking
any notice of it”- In 1900, Curzon wrote to the secretary of India “Congress is
lottering to its fall, and one of my great ambitious, while in India is to assist it
to a peaceful demise”-British Govt promoted anti-Congress movements –
United India Patriotic Association – Sir Syed Ahmed Khan & Raja shiv prasad
of Benaras, 1888

SESSIONS OF INC 1885 – 1947

Year Place President Importance

1885 Bombay WC Banerjee  72 delegates

 1st session
1886 Calcutta DD Naoroji  436 delegates

1887 Madras Syed Badruddin Tyabji  607 delegates

 1st Muslim president

1888 Allahabad Gorge Yule  1248 delegates

 1st English president

1889 Bombay William Wedderburn

1890 Calcutta Pheroze shah Mehta

1891 Nagpur P. Ananda Charlu

1892 Allahabad WC Bannerjee

1893 Lahore DD Naoroji

1894 Madras Alfred Webb

1895 Poona SN Banerjee

1896 Calcutta Rahmatulla Sayani

1897 Amaravati C Sankaran Nair  1st Malayali president

1898 Madras AM Bose

1899 Lucknow RC Dutt

1900 Lahore NG Chandavarkar

1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E Wacha

1902 Ahmadabad SN Banerjee

1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh

1904 Bombay Henry Cotton

1905 Benaras GK Gokhale  Resentment against partition

of Bengal

1906 Calcutta DD Naoroji  The word ‘Swaraj’ mentioned

for the first time

1907 Surat Rash Bihari Ghosh  Surat split

1908 Madras Rash Behari Ghosh  Constitution of INC drawn

1909 Lahore Madan Mohan
Malaviya

1910 Allahabad William Wedderburn

1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dutt

1912 Bankipur RN Mudholkar

1913 Karachi Syed Muhammed

1914 Madras Bhupendranath Basu

1915 Bombay SP Sinha

1916 Lucknow AC Majumdar  Reunion of INC

1917 Calcutta Annie Besent  1st lady president

1918 Delhi Madan Mohan

Malaviya

1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru  Strongly condemned the

Jallian Wallabagh Massacre

1920 Nagpur C Vijayaraghavachari  A new constitution for the

Congress framed

 Non-co-operation
movement

 Call for the removal of

untouchability

1921 Ahmedabad CR Das (in prison)

Hakim Ajmal Khan

(Acting president)

1922 Gaya CR Das

1923 Kakinada Maulana Muhammed

Ali

1924 Belgaum MK Gandhi  Resolution against

untouchability

1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu  Second lady president

  1st Indian lady as president

1926 Guwahati S. Srinivasa Iyengar

1927 Madras Dr. MA Ansari  Boycott Simon Commission

1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru  Formation of All India Youth

Congress

1929 Lahore Jawahar Lal Nehru  Purna Swaraj

1930 --------------- Session Couldn’t be --------------------------

--- held

1931 Karachi Vallabhai Patel  Endorsement of Gandhi-

Irwin Pact

 Resolution on fundamental
rights and national economic
program

1932 Delhi Amrit Ranchchordass

Seth

1933 Calcutta Nellie Sengupta

1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad

1935 --------------- Session couldn’t be --------------------------

--- held

1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru  Adopted socialism as its

goal

1937 Faizpur Jawahar Lal Nehru  Session in a village for the 1st
time

1938 Haripura Subash Chandra Bose

1939 Tripuri Subash Chandra Bose  Netaji resigned

 Rajendra prasad as the

president

1940 Ramgarh Moulana Abul Kalam  5 years president

Azad

1946 Meerut JB Kripalani

1948 Jaipur Pattabhi Sitaramayya  First session after
independence

NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1905 – 1918

CAUSES FOR THE GROWTH OF MILITANT NATIONALISM IN INDIA:

 Recognition of the true nature of British rule- The Indian councils act was
criticized (1892) – Chapekar brothers were deported and BG Tilak imprisoned
on charges of sedition (1897) – Number of Indian members in Calcutta
corporation was reduced (1899)- official secrets Act, 1904- Indian Universities
act, 1904 – Lord Curzon “Only the English should be appointed on higher
posts”
 Reaction to increasing westernization
 International influences and events – emergence of Japan as an industrial
power – Battle of Adwa, 1896 and Ethiopia’s victory over Italy – Boer Wars
(1899-1902)- Japan’s victory over Russia, 1905(Russo-Japanese war) -
nationalist movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey, Persia, China etc...
 Dissatisfaction with moderates – Political mendicancy – Aurobindo Ghosh
called INC as Begging Institute
 Reactionary policies of Curzon- 1899-1905 – Calcutta Corporation act, 1899 –
reduced the number of Indian members in Calcutta corporation – official
secrets act, 1904 – curbed the freedom of press – Indian universities act, 1904
– described Indian universities as factories producing political revolutionaries
– Bengal partition, 1905
 Existence of militant school of thought – Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal –
Vishnusasthri Chiplunkar and BG Tilak in Bombay- Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab –
Rajnarain Bose, Aswinikumar Dutta, Aurobindo Ghosh

Difference between moderates and extremists

Moderates Extremists

 Believed in loyalty of the English  British rule in India is a curse

throne
 They didn’t believe in the loyalty
of English Throne at all

 Strictly constitutional methods for  Direct political action and self-

agitations sacrifice
  Believed in reasoned and emotional  Policy of passive resistance
appeals, irresistible statements of
facts, presenting petitions etc...

 Policy of conciliation and  Didn’t bother about the petty

compromise concessions given by the British
govt.

 Swaraj as the final goal

 Depended for the success on the  Believed in the capacity of

goodwill and sympathy of the masses
English Men
 Believed that the people of
India were the masters of their
own destiny

 Believed that the people of India are  People of India are fit to rule for
still unfit for self govt themselves

 Believed that they would get what  Believed that the salvation of
they asked for without any India was not possible without
sufferings sufferings and self-sacrifices

Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Boycott Movement – Govt. decision to partition

Bengal had been made public in December, 1903- The govt. argued that Bengal is
too big to be administered- population was about 73 million- real motive was to
weaken Bengal, the center of Indian nationalism- partition based on religion- Hindu
dominated western Bengal- 42/54 million hindus – Muslim dominate Eastern Bengal-
18/31 million are muslims- the new province Eastern Bengal will be consisted of
Dacca, Chitagong, Assam, Rajshahi divisions of Bengal, the district of malda and the
state hill of Tipperah- offered Dacca as the capital- Swadeshi Boycott movement as a
reaction against the British decision to partition Bengal- the boycott was the negative
and the Swadeshi was the positive of the same- The idea of boycott was not
unknown in India- in 1874, it was advocated for the revival of Indian industries which
were ruined by the commercial policies of the Britain – it was again advised against
the Ilbert bill controversy and the passing of Age of consent bill- Anti- partition
campaign during 1903 to 1905 was led by moderate leaders like SN Banerjee, KK
Mitra and Prithwish Chandra Ray- they wrote in the newspapers like Hitabadi,
sanjibani and Bengalee- the govt. announced the partition in July 1905- passage of
boycott resolution at a large public meeting held at Calcutta Town hall on 7th August,
1905- Four fold programs of Boycott,
1. Social boycott of persons purchasing foreign articles

2. Boycott of Manchester cloth, Liverpool Salt etc...

3. Boycott of English speech

4. Resignation of honorary offices under the govt.

The partition took in effect on 16th October,1905 – Mourning day in Bengal – the
people of Bengal took fasting- they bathed in Ganga – walked in barefoot singing
Vande mataram – huge meetings were held all over Bengal-SN Banerjee and AM
Bose addressed the gatherings- shops selling foreign goods were picketed- foreign
goods burnt- the day celebrated as ‘Rakhi Bandhan Day’- Movements in other parts
of the country – BG Tilak (Poona and Bombay) – Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai
(Punjab)- Syed Hyder Raza (Delhi)- O Chidambaram Pillai (Madras) – Position of INC
on Bengal partition – Benaras Session , 1905 (GK Gokhale) showed strongest
resentment against partition and declared solidarity to the anti-partition movements
in Bengal- Calcutta session,1906(DD Naoroji) declared swaraj as the goal of INC due
to the strong demands of extremists in INC- Surat Session, 1907 ( Rash Bihari Ghosh )
resulted in the bifurcation of INC – Surat Split – New forms of struggles – boycott of
foreign goods – mobilization of public opinion through the formation of samitis-
Swadesh Bandhab Samiti by Aswini Kumar Dutta – traditional festivals used as a
medium of swadeshi propaganda – BG Tilak organized Ganapati and Sivaji festivals-
Swadeshi education -Bengal National College established on the lines of Santi
Niketan of Tagore and Aurobindo Ghosh as the principal – National council of
Education formed on 15th August , 1906 – Bengal Institute of Technology – Swadeshi
in cultural sphere – poets like Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanth Sen, Dwijendra Lal
Ray, Mukunda Das and Syed Abu Muhammed etc.. Had great influence over the
youngsters- Abanindanath Tagore in painting, Nandalal Bose in art, Jagadish
Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Roy in science and research etc... Propagated
swadeshi politics- Mass participation – generally Muslims stayed away from swadeshi
boycott movement since the Muslims were offered Muslim dominated Eastern
Bengal with its capital in Dacca – Nawab Salimullah of Dacca supported the partition
– Barrister Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, Guznavi, Maulana Azad etc... Were the few
Muslim leaders of the Swadeshi movements- Partition of Bengal was declared by
Lord Curzon in 1905 – Annulment of Partition was by Lord Hardinge II in 1911.

Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Boycott Movement

Govt. The decision to partition Bengal had been made public in December, 1903-
The govt. argued that Bengal is too big to be administered- population was about 73
million- real motive was to weaken Bengal, the center of Indian nationalism- partition
based on religion- Hindu dominated western Bengal- 42/54 million hindus –
Muslim dominate Eastern Bengal- 18/31 million are muslims- the new province
Eastern Bengal will be consisted of Dacca, Chitagong, Assam, Rajshahi divisions of
Bengal, the district of malda and the state hill of Tipperah- offered Dacca as the
capital- Swadeshi Boycott movement as a reaction against the British decision
to partition Bengal- the boycott was the negative and the Swadeshi was the
positive of the same- The idea of boycott was not unknown in India- in 1874, it was
advocated for the revival of Indian industries which were ruined by the commercial
policies of the Britain – it was again advised against the Ilbert bill controversy and the
passing of Age of consent bill- Anti- partition campaign during 1903 to 1905 was
led by moderate leaders like SN Banerjee, KK Mitra and Prithwish Chandra Ray- they
wrote in the newspapers like Hitabadi, sanjibani and Bengalee- the govt. announced
the partition in July 1905- passage of boycott resolution at a large public meeting
held at Calcutta Town hall on 7th August, 1905- Four fold programs of Boycott- 1.
Social boycott of persons purchasing foreign articles-2. Boycott of Manchester cloth,
Liverpool Salt etc... - 3. Boycott of English speech- 4. Resignation of honorary offices
under the govt. – the partition took in effect on 16th October,1905 – Mourning day
in Bengal – the people of Bengal took fasting- they bathed in Ganga – walked in
barefoot singing Vande mataram – huge meetings were held all over Bengal-SN
Banerjee and AM Bose addressed the gatherings- shops selling foreign goods were
picketed- foreign goods burnt- the day celebrated as ‘Rakhi Bandhan Day’-
Movements in other parts of the country – BG Tilak (Poona and Bombay) – Ajit
Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)- Syed Hyder Raza (Delhi)- O Chidambaram Pillai
(Madras) – Position of INC on Bengal partition – Benaras Session , 1905 (GK
Gokhale) showed strongest resentment against partition and declared solidarity to
the anti-partition movements in Bengal- Calcutta session,1906(DD Naoroji) declared
swaraj as the goal of INC due to the strong demands of extremists in INC- Surat
Session, 1907 ( Rash Bihari Ghosh ) resulted in the bifurcation of INC – Surat Split –
New forms of struggles – boycott of foreign goods – mobilization of public opinion
through the formation of samitis- Swadesh Bandhab Samiti by Aswini Kumar Dutta –
traditional festivals used as a medium of swadeshi propaganda – BG Tilak organized
Ganapati and Sivaji festivals- Swadeshi education -Bengal National College
established on the lines of Santi Niketan of Tagore and Aurobindo Ghosh as the
principal – National council of Education formed on 15th August , 1906 – Bengal
Institute of Technology – Swadeshi in cultural sphere – poets like Rabindranath
Tagore, Rajanikanth Sen, Dwijendra Lal Ray, Mukunda Das and Syed Abu Muhammed
etc.. Had great influence over the youngsters- Abanindanath Tagore in painting,
Nandalal Bose in art, Jagadish Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Roy in science and
research etc... Propagated swadeshi politics- Mass participation – generally
Muslims stayed away from swadeshi boycott movement since the Muslims were
offered Muslim dominated Eastern Bengal with its capital in Dacca – Nawab
Salimullah of Dacca supported the partition – Barrister Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain,
Guznavi, Maulana Azad etc... Were the few Muslim leaders of the Swadeshi
movements- Partition of Bengal was declared by Lord Curzon in 1905 –
Annulment of Partition was by Lord Hardinge II in 1911.

The Muslim League

The Simla deputation (Muslims) led by the spiritual leader of the Khoja Muslim
community, Aga Khan met Lord Minto at Simla on 1, October 1906. The
deputationists demanded separate Muslim electorates which was accepted by Lord
Minto.

The All-India Muslim League was formerly founded on 30 December 1906 by a group
of big zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims like the Aga Khan,
the Nawab of Dacca Salimullah and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk with three main
objectives:

a) To promote among Indian Muslims feelings of loyalty towards the British

government.

b) To protect and advance the political and other rights of the Indian Muslims.

c) So far as possible, without prejudice to the objects (a) (b), to promote friendly
relations between Muslims and other communities of India.

For about a decade after 1913, the Muslim League came under the influence of
progressive Muslim leaders like Maulana Mohammad Ali, Maulana Mazhar-ul-Haq,
Syed Wazir Hussain, Hasan Imam and M.A. Jinnah.

The unity between the Congress and the League was brought about by the signing
of the Congress-League Pact, known popularly as the Lucknow Pact (1916) and both
put forward common political demands before the government.

The Pact accepted separate electorates and the system of weightage and reservation
of seats for the minorities in the legislatures (the Congress thus formally recognized
communal politics). From 1920-1923 the activities of the Muslim League remained
suspended.

The Two-Nation Theory and the Pakistan Movement

Inspired by the spirit of Pan-Islamism poet and political thinker Mohammad Iqbal
gave the idea of a separate Muslim State for the Indian Muslims at the Allahabad
session of the Muslim League (1930).

The idea of a separate homeland for Indian Muslims to be called Pakistan took a
definite shape in the mind of a Cambridge student Rahmat Ali in 1933. The most
unequivocal declaration of the Hindus and Muslims as separate nationalities was
made by M.A. Jinnah at the Lahore session of the League in March 1940.

THE SURAT SPLIT, 1907

In 1907 the Surat session was held at the bank of the Tapti River in Surat. The
Extremist camp was led by Lal Bal Pal and the moderate camp was led by Gopal
Krishna Gokhle. Here congress met in an atmosphere of anger and resentment. Dr.
Rash Behari Ghosh was elected in the session but extremists had an objection to this
election. Initially the extremists protested against the election but soon they
accepted Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh as the president and offered to cooperate. But the
session was suspended. Congress got split. By the time, the next session of Congress
was held in Madras in 1908 under Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh, it was the extremist camp
that was facing the Lathis and arrest by the British Government who was now in its
comfortable position as Congress was divided.

Benaras Session of INC, 1905- the issues in between the moderates and extremists of
INC was visible from Benares session onwards- Extremists demanded to expand
Swadeshi movement as a nationwide movement and to include all forms of boycott
like judicial courts, legislative councils, schools, English Education etc… - Moderates
opposed the boycott of courts and legislative bodies- Finally the Benares session
passed a resolution condemning the partition of Bengal and repressive policies of
Lord Curzon as a compromise between the moderates and extremists- The
extremists wanted BG Tilak or Lala Lajpat Rai as the president of INC during the
Calcutta Session in 1906 – but the moderates who possessed majority in INC elected
DD Naoroji as the president – But passed 3 resolutions to dilute the extremists
resistance- Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education – The extremists wanted the
next session of INC(1907) at Nagpur and BG Tilak as the president - but the
moderates chose the session to be held at Surat to exclude BG Tilak from
presidentship- Rash Behari Ghosh elected as the president of INC- thus it resulted in
the bifurcation of INC – The Surat Split – the British introduced very repressive
methods to suppress the extremists after Surat split- They introduced 5 repressive
legislations to curb the militant nationalism namely :

1. The Seditious Meetings Act, 1907

2. The Explosive Substances Act, 1908

3. Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908

4. Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908

5. Indian Press Act, 1910 – BG Tilak sent to Mandalay Jail in Burma for 6 years –
Aurobindo Ghosh and Bibin Chandrapal retired from active politics and Aurobindo
Ghosh opted spiritual life in Pondicherry- Lala Lajpat Rai went to US – After 1908,
national movement declined for a while.

GROWTH OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM IN INDIA

Revolutionary terrorism was a byproduct of militant nationalism in India- the failure

of swadeshi boycott movement caused the rapid growth of revolutionary terrorism-
the young men turned to revolutionary activities for political independence- their
methods were different from extremists and moderates- they believed in the violent
overthrow of the British Raj – The programs of revolutionary terrorists were

1. Creating a violent mass revolution

2. Follow in the footsteps of Russian Nihilists or the Irish nationalists

3. Individual heroic actions

4. Organizing assassinations of unpopular British officials and of traitors and

informers among the revolutionaries themselves

5. Swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities

6. Organizing military conspiracies with expectation of help from the enemies of

Britain

7. Strike terror in the hearts of the rulers

8. Intended to inspire the people by appealing to their patriotism

Anushilan Samiti was founded by Pramotha Mither, Jatindranath Banerjee and

Barindrakumar Ghosh in 1902 in Calcutta – Yugantar weekly was started in April 1906
by Barindrakumar Ghosh and Bhoopendranath Dutta – Unsuccessful attempt to kill
Mr. Fuller, Lt. Governor of West Bengal – Rash Bihari Bose and Sachin Sanyal
organized secret societies in Punjab, Delhi and United Province- Hemachandra
Kanungo went abroad for military training- Alipore conspiracy case , 1908 – Prafulla
Chaki and Khudiram Bose tried to kill the white judge of Muzzafarpur, Mr.Kingsford –
Failed- Prafulla Chaki shot himself dead – Khudiram Bose hanged – Ghosh Brother
tried – Barindra Kumar Ghosh transported for life – Aurobindo Ghosh acquitted due
to the brilliant pleading of CR Das- Barrah Dacoity, 1908 – Dacca Anusilan Samiti by
Pulin Das – Sachin Sanyal and Rash Behari Bose attempted to kill Lord Hardinge II in
December 1912 at Delhi – Ramosi Peasant force by Balwant Phadke in 1879 in
Maharashtra – BG Tilak organized Ganapati and Sivaji festivals in 1893 & 1894 – his
journals are Kesari (Maratha) and Maratha (English) – Chapekar Brothers , Damodar
and Balkrishna Chapekar, two disciples of Tilak killed Mr. Rand, Plague Commissioner
Poona and Lt. Ayerst- VD Savarkar established Mitra mela in 1899 and merged it with
Abhinav Bharat in 1904 – Savarkar translated the life of Italian revolutionary Mazzini
in Marathi – Nasik Conspiracy Case, 1909 – Anant Laxman Kanhere killed Jackson ,
the district magistrate of Nasik – VD Savarkar was sent to Andaman and Nicobar –
The revolutionary activities in Punjab was led by Lala Lajpat Rai- Ajit Singh organized
Anjuman – I – Mohisban – I – Watan
Revolutionary Activities in abroad

Syamji Krishnavarma founded ‘India House’ in 1905 and issues a journal The
Sociologist – Madam Bhikaji Cama and Sardar Singh Rana were the associates of
Krishna Varma – Most important act of this group is the murder of Sir Curzon Wyllie
by Madanlal Dhingra at the Imperial Institute in England in 1909- Tarak Nath Das
founded Indian Independence League in California in 1907- Madam Bikaji Cama lead
revolutionary activities in Paris and Geneva – Virendranath Chattopadhyaya lead
activities in Berlin

Revolutionary activities during 1st world war

The nationalist response to British participation in 1st world war was threefold: 1.
Moderates supported as a matter of duty – 2. Extremists supported the war on the
believe that Britain would repay India’s loyalty after war in the form of a self-
government- 3. Revolutionary terrorists in India decided to wage a war against
Britain and to liberate the country – Pre-Ghadr Activities – leaders are Ramnath Puri,
GD Kumar, Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Lala Hardayal etc… - Ramnath puri
issued a journal Circular-e-azadi ( circular of liberty) in 1907 – Tarak nath Das
published Free Hindustan in 1908 – GD Kumar established Swadesh Sevak House in
Vancouver in Canada on the lines of India House in London – GD Kumar and
Taraknath Das expelled from Vancouver by 1910- they started United India House in
Seattle (US) in 1910- Lala Hardayal and Ajit singh started Hindi Association in
Portland in US – the first meeting was at the house of Kanshiram – it was attended by
Bhai Paramanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Harnam Singh Tundilat etc.. “Do not fight
Americans, use the freedom available in US” – THE GHADR- formed in 1913 at San
Francisco – attempted a violent overthrow of British rule – Ghadr means Rebellion –
the party started a weekly paper ‘Ghadar’ in 1913 in Urdu and later in Gurumukhi -
Komagatamaru Incident – 1914 – Gurdit Singh chartered a ship from Singapore to
Vancouver with about 370 passengers – most of them were Punjabi and Muslim
immigrants – Ghadr activists visited the ship in Yokohoma, Japan – Mounting
Oriental Invasion – The ship was forced to return to India by the Canadian authorities
– the ship was docked at Budge Budge Harbour at Calcutta- but the 370 inmates
refused to reach the land by the British authorities- 18 killed, 202 arrested, few
escaped – The Ghadr party send Kartar Singh Saraba and Raghubar Dayal Gupta to
revenge the British to India and they sought the help of Sachin sanyal and Rash
Behari Bose- The Ghadr Movement crushed in 1915 – The British enforced Defence
of India Act, 1915 to crush the Ghadr Movement – The Berlin Committee was formed
in 1915 by Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta and Lala Hardayal-
they aimed to mobilize Indian settlers abroad to send volunteers and arms to India
and to organize an armed invasion of British India to liberate the country- Delegation
to Kabul – Raja Mahendra Pratap singh, Barkatullah and Obaidullah Sindhi send as
mission to Kabul to organize a provisional Indian Govt. with the help of crown prince
Amanullah.

THE HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT

The home rule league was more effective than revolutionary terrorists’ activities- It
was organized on the lines of Irish Home Rule League. Annie Besent and BG Tilak
organized Home rule leagues in India- Tilak was released from Mandaly Jail in 16th
June 1914- Tilak and extremists sought re admission in the INC- Pheroze shah Mehta
and Bombay moderates succeeded in winning over Gokhale and Bengal group in
keeping the extremists away from INC- Annie Besent, a British Social reformer,
greatly influenced by Free Thought, Radicalism, Fabianism and theosophy- she
started her political career in India in 1914 at the age of 66- she propagated her
political thoughts through two newspapers New India and Commonweal- Tilak’s
League – established in Belgaum in April,1916 – Besent’s League – established in
Madras in September 1916- George Arundale was the organizing secretary- other
leaders were Jamnadas Dwarakadas, Shankarlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, BP Wadia, CP
Ramaswamy Iyer etc.. Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, CR Das,
Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Lala Lajpat Rai
etc... joined HRL- But Anglo Indians, Muslims and Non- Brahmin from the South India
didn’t join HRL – Government Response – 1916 Lucknow session of INC witnessed
the reunion of Congress – The two home rule leagues had a joined session at
Lucknow – then the govt. harsh methods to deal the home rule leagues- Tilak barred
from Punjab and Delhi- Annie Besent, BP Wadia, George wadia etc.. arrested by the
British Police in Madras – Sir S Subramania Iyer renounced his knighthood as a
protest- Besent released from the jail in September 1917 – by the time, her
popularity reached its zenith – Annie Besent elected as the president of INC in
Calcutta session in 1917- Tilak went to England to file a libel against Valentine Chirol,
author of Indian Unrest, in 1918- Home rule lost its significance by 1919 due to lack
of leadership

LUCKNOW SESSION OF INC, LUCKNOW PACT & MONTEGUE’s STATEMENT

Lucknow session of INC, 1916 witnessed the reunion of INC and AC Majumdar
elected as the president – Factors for the reunion – 1. Old controversies become
meaningless – 2. Realization that split lead to political inactivity – 3. Efforts by Annie
Besent and BG Tilak – 4. The death of Pherozshah Mehta who resisted the
readmission of extremists – Lucknow Pact –the agreement signed by INC and Muslim
League after Lucknow Session- it was joined constitutional demands submitted to
the British Indian Govt. by Muslim League and INC – Provisions – 1. Self Govt. to the
Indians at the earliest date- 2. The legislative councils should be further expanded
with an elected majority and more powers be given to them – 3. Half the members of
Viceroy’s executive council should be Indians – Montagu’s Statement- 1917 August –
1. Increasing participation of Indians in every branch of administration – 2. Gradual
development of self-governing institutions – 3. Progressive realization of responsible
govt. 4. India will be an integral part of British Empire – Indians rejected the
statement for two factors – 1. No specific time frame was given – 2. The govt. alone
was to decide the nature and the timing of advance towards a responsible govt.

The Rise of Gandhi in the Indian Freedom Struggle

M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for more than 20 years)
to India in 1915. There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination
meted out to Indians and had emerged as a respected leader. It was in South Africa
that he developed his brand of Satyagraha. In India, he first used this tool against the
British government at Champaran in Bihar.

He lead 3 struggles in India in between 1917-1918 – Champaran Satyagraha – 1917

– First strike by Gandhi in India – Gandhi was invited by Rajkumar Shukla to
Champaran in Bihar to see the miseries facing by the indigo planters – Tinkathia
System – A peasant should cultivate indigo in 3/20 of his land – the introduction of
German synthetic dye decreased the demand of Indigo – but the European planters
levied high rents and illegal dues – the European planters fixed the rates of Indigo –
Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul Haq, Mahadev Desai, Narahari Parekh, JB Kripalani etc..
accompanied Gandhi in Champaran – Gandhi reached Champaran in 1917- Govt.
ordered Gandhi to leave the place- Gandhi resisted – finally a committee was
constituted and Gandhi was a member – he was successful in convincing the
committee regarding the issues of peasants – tinkatia system abolished and 25%
compensation allotted to the indigo cultivators.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike – 1918- first hunger strike of Gandhi in India – Mill owners
decided to stop the plague bonus – Gandhi advised the workers to stop the work
and to demand wage hike – the mill owners offered 20% increase- Gandhi
demanded 35% increase and started indefinite hunger strike – finally the mill owners
agreed to 35% increase in the wages –

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat due to droughts. As
per law, the farmers were entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter
of the normal output. But the government refused any remission from paying land
revenue. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in
protest against the collection of taxes in the wake of the famine. People from all
castes and ethnicities of the district lend their support to the movement. The protest
was peaceful and people showed remarkable courage even in the face of adversities
like confiscation of personal property and arrest. Finally, the authorities gave in and
gave some concessions to the farmers.

ROWLATT ACT & JALLIAN WALA BAGH MASSACRE

In February 1919, Gandhiji used this reservoir of goodwill and experience to call for a
nationwide protest against the unpopular legislation that the British were threatening
to enact. Two bills, dubbed the Rowlatt Bills after the man who chaired the
Committee that recommended their introduction, were introduced in the Legislative
Council with the goal of severely restricting Indian civil liberties in the name of
combating terrorist violence.

Rowlatt Act introduced in March, 1919- Provisions – 1. Imprison any person without
the trail and conviction in any court of law- 2. Enabling the govt. to suspend the right
of Habeas Corpus – Gandhi started mass satyagraha on 6th April,1919 – Dr. Satypal
and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested under the provisions of Rowlatt Act on 9th April,
1919 – the govt. imposed martial law in Punjab to curb the protests – on 13th April,
1919, huge crowd gathered in Jillian Walla Bagh without any arms – 1000s were
killed by the British police without any provocation – Indian response – Tagore
renounced his Knighthood – Gandhi gave up the title Kiaser-i-hind – INC appointed a
committee consisted of Motilal Nehru, CR Das, Abbas Tyabji, MR Jayakar and Gandhi
– Non-co-operation movement – Hunter Commission – committee appointed by
British Govt. to enquire about the Jallian Walla Bagh Massacre- 7 members including
3 Indians – Sir Chimanlal Sitalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, Sardar Sultan Ahmed Khan.

LOCAL STRUGGLES DURING NO-CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT

Awadh Kisan Movement – under the influence of non-cooperation movement and

Home rule league – UP Kisan Sabha was founded in 1918 by Gaurisankar Misra, Indra
Narain Dwiwedi and Madan Mohan Malaviya- Nai-dhobi band – Social boycott by
the barbers and washerman in Pratapgarh district in Awadh under the leadership
Jhinguri Singh and Durgapal Singh- Baba Ramachandra, a wandering monk, rose as
the leader and led a tenants march to Allahabad to meet J. Nehru and requested to
visit their village – but Baba Ramchandra and 33 peasants were arrested in a
fabricated case- by august 1920, rumor spread that Gandhi is visiting Awadh – The
Govt. implemented Oudh Rent Amendment Act – Eka Movement –
Thekdedars(Revenue collectors) collected 50% excess revenue from the recorded
rent by oppressive means- Madari Pasi was the leader – Vows of Eka Movement – 1.
Would pay only recorded rent- 2. Pay it on right time – 3. Wouldn’t leave when
ejected – 4. Refused to do forced labour – 5. No help to the criminals – 6. Abide by
the panchayath decision – Mappila Rebellion – Manjeri Congress held in April 1920-
great influence of Khilaphat movement – Yaakub Hassan , U Gopala Menon, P
Moideen Koya, K Madhavan Nair etc… were arrested – Thirurangadi Masjid was
raided and Ali Musaliar was arrested – Mappilas assembled at Tirurangadi – The
movement crushed by December 1921 – The Struggle for Gurudwara Reform – Akali,
a religious movement, contributed to the freedom movement – their aim was free
gurudwara from the Mahants- in 1920, Golden temple issued a Hukumnamah
against the Ghadarites and honoured general Dyer as a Sikh – Agitation to hand over
the control of gurudwara to the local devotees – Akal Takth was formed – in
November 1920, Siromani Gurudwara Prabandh Council formed – Nankana Tragedy
– Akali march to Nankana Gurudwara under the leadership of Kartar Singh Jabbar –
attacked by mahants and many killed – Akalis liberated Nankana Gurudwara- Govt.
efforts to keep the keys of toshakhana of Golden Temple in 1921- arrested Baba
Kharak singh and Master Tara singh – later Govt. withdrew from the stand – Guru Ka
Bhag Satyagraha – Punjab beaurocrazy was irritated- the mahants handed over the
possession of Gokuwala Gurudwara to the Akalis – but Mahants claimed the personal
possession of attached land- Akalis cut trees from the attached land for kitchen
purpose- the situation worst – Akalis tortured by police – nationwide attention –
Hakkim Ajmal Khan and Swami Shraddanand attended strikes – Govt. step back –
awakening of the Punjab peasantry.
KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

All India Khilaphat Committee – 1919 – by Ali Brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad,
Hakkim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani – All India Khilaphat Conference held at the
Delhi in Novemeber, 1919 – presided by Gandhi- call was made to boycott the British
goods – The Non-Coopeartion Movement – All party conference was held at
Allahabad in June 1920 and decided to boycott schools, colleges, law courts etc… -
Gandhi declared as the leader – The movement was formally launched on 31st August,
1920- Clash in INC regarding Khilaphat Issue – Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Annie Besent,
GS Kharpade, BC Pal left INC – SN Banerjee founded Indian National Liberal
Foundation – spread of the movement- surrender of British titles and honors, Boycott
of British courts, legislative assemblies, Education institutions and foreign made
goods – nationwide tour by Gandhi and Ali Brothers – National Education –
educational institutions organized by Acharya Narendra Dev, CR Das, Lala Lajpat Rai,
Zakir Hussain, Subash Bose etc… Jamia Millia, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarath Vidyapeeth,
Bihar Vidyapeeth etc… - Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, CR Das, Rajagopalachari,
Saifuddin Kitchlew, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T Prakasham, Rajendra Prasad
etc… gave up legal profession- Ali Brother gave the call to the Muslims to resign
from the army in July 1921- No tax Movement in Midnapore and Guntur – non-
coopeartion strikes in tea plantations, steamer services, Assam Bengal railways in
Assam under the leadership of JM Sengupta- last phase of the movement – Gandhi
threatened British govt. to launch Civil Disobedience movement by 1st February 1922
– Non-Cooperation movement withdrawn due to Chauri Chaura Incident on 5th
Febraury 1922 – Disagreement by CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Subash Chandra Bose,
Jawahar Lal Nehru etc.… Gandhi sentenced for 6 years in March 1922 – Khilaphat lost
its political relevance – Caliphate was abolished by 1924.

Swaraj Party

The naming of the Swaraj Party (Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party) was done with a
great deal of thought. At the time of its formation, many people within the Congress
had misgivings about the party. They considered it as anti-Congress and pro-British.
The first task of the party after its formation was to remove these misunderstandings.
They had full agreement with Congress-Khilafat alliance and they also did not project
their party as an alternative to Congress.

How the party came into the picture can be understood by the following points
mentioned below:
  After the Chauri Chaura incident, Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-
Cooperation Movement in 1922.

 This was met with a lot of disagreements among leaders of the Congress Party.

 While some wanted to continue non-cooperation, others wanted to end the

legislature boycott and contest elections. The former were called no-changers
and such leaders included Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, C
Rajagopalachari, etc.

 The others who wanted to enter the legislative council and obstruct the British
government from within were called the pro-changers. These leaders included
C R Das, Motilal Nehru, Srinivasa Iyengar, etc.

 In 1922, in the Gaya session of the Congress, C R Das (who was presiding over
the session) moved a proposal to enter the legislatures but it was defeated.
Das and other leaders broke away from the Congress and formed the Swaraj
Party.

 C R Das was the President and the Secretary was Motilal Nehru.

 Prominent leaders of the Swaraj Party included N C Kelkar, Huseyn Shaheed

Suhrawardy and Subhas Chandra Bose.

Left Wing Politics

In India in the late 1920s and 1930s, a powerful left-wing group emerged,
contributing to the radicalization of the national movement. The goal of political
independence has taken on a more social and economic focus. The streams of
national independence struggle and the stream of social and economic emancipation
struggle of the oppressed and exploited began to merge. Socialist ideas took root in
Indian soil, and socialism became the accepted religion of Indian youth, whose
aspirations were symbolized by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. The
Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) became
powerful left-wing parties over time (CSP).

CPI was formed in 1920 in Tashkant by MN Roy and Abani Mukharjee- the 1st
meeting of CPI in India was at Kanpur in 1925 – SV Ghate elected as GS – in 1934, CPI
declared as illegal – Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy case- British Movement to cripple
the communists in 1924 – Muzaffar Ahammed, SA Dange, Shaukat Usmani, Nalini
Gupta, Sringaravelu Chetiyar, Ghulam Hussain etc... – Meerut Conspiracy Case –
British movement to cripple the communists in 1929- 31 communist leaders
including 3 English men were arrested – Muzaffar Ahmed, SA Dange, SV Ghate, dr. G
Adhikari, PC Joshy, SS Mirajkar, Shaukat Usmani, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradly, Hutchinson
etc.…. – defense of the prisoners was taken by Nehru, MA Ansari and MC Chagla –
Dutt Bradley Thesis – CPI was reorganized under PC Joshy in 1935 – they decided to
participated in the national movement along with INC - Trade Unionism – AITUC in
1920 by Lala Lajpat Rai and Dewan Chaman Lal – 1st May Day was celebrated in
Madras in 1923 under Sringaravelu Chettiyar.

Founder Trade Union

Madras Labour Union BP wadia

Textile Labour Union NM Joshy

Krishak Praja Party Fazlul Haq, Akram Khan and Abdur Rahim

Bombay Mill Owners Association Homi Mody

Bombay Millhands Association NM Lokhandey

All India Trade Union Federation NM Joshy

Hindustan Mazdoor Sabha Vallabhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, JB Kripalani

AITUC Lala Lajpat Rai, Dewan Chaman Lal

Ahmedabad Mazdoor Mahajan MK Gandhi

INTUC Vallabhai Patel

Caste Movements

Justice party in Madras by C Natesa Mutaliar, TM Nair and Thyagaraja Chetty – Self
Respect Movement in 1925 by EVR in Tamilnadu- Satyasodhak activities in
Maharashtra – Bahujan Samaj in 1920 in Bhaskar Rao Jadhav in Maharashtra –
Mahars under BR Ambedkar in Maharashtra – Movements under K Ayyappan and
C Kesavan in Kerala – Yadavs in Bihar for improvement in social status – Unionist
Party in Punjab by Fazl -i- Hussain.
ANTI- SIMON COMMISION UPSURGE

The govt. of India Act, 1919 contained the clause to appoint a royal commission to
enquire into further constitutional developments at end of 10 years – Indian
Statutory Commission / Simon commission appointed on 8th November, 1927 –
appointed by Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of state- All white , 7 member commission –
exclusive English commission – the British argued that the committee had to submit
its report to the British Parliament- Two Indian members in British parliament are
Lord Sinha and Saklatwala- Boycott- Madras Session of INC in 1927 presided by MA
Ansari – “At every stage and in every form” – Boycott Simon commission – Jawaharlal
Nehru presented a snap resolution declaring Complete independence as the goal of
INC – INC, Liberals of Hindu Mahasabha and a fraction of ML under Jinnah opposed
Simon Commission – Muhammed Shafi faction of ML, Unionists in Punjab, Justice
Party, Central Sikh Sangh, All India Achut Federation didn’t oppose the commission –
on 3rd feb, 1928 , Simon Commission reached Bombay – Go Back Simon – Anti Simon
Protests lead by Lala Lajpat Rai in Lahore and Nehru and GB Pant in Lucknow – Lala
Lajpat Rai killed – Commission visited India twice – 1928 February to March and
October 1928 to April 1929 – Nehru Committee was appointed to draft a constitution
as per decision of All Parties Conference held in February, 1928 – Calcutta session of
INC, 1928 declared complete independence as the goal – Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash
Chandra Bose and Satyamurti arose as the young leaders of INC – Nehru Report –
Members are Motilal Nehru as chairman, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, MS Aney,
Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi and GR Pradhan – the problem confronted
by the committee was that of princely states – formed All India State Peoples
Conference in 1927 – Butler Commission – Preservation of princely states under
British paramountcy- Recommendations of Nehru Committee – 1. The same
constitutional status in the British Empire as other dominions- 2. Define citizenship
and fundamental rights – 3. Hierarchy of courts with SC as apex court – 4.
Responsible govt. in the provinces with governors and executive councils – Delhi
Proposals – held a ML session at Delhi in December, 1927 – ML submitted 4
proposals to include in the draft constitution – 1. Joint electorates in the place of
separate electorates with reserved seats for the Muslims – 2. One third
representation of the Muslims in the CLA – 3. Representation to Muslims in Punjab
and Bengal in proportion to their population – 4. Formation of 3 Muslim majority
provinces – Sindh, Baluchistan and NWFP- Amendments proposed by Jinnah – 1/3
representation of the Muslims in the CLA was rejected by INC – Jinnah joined with
Shafi and Aga Khan and organized All India Muslim Conference on 1st January, 1929
– in March, 1929, 14 points Jinnah – It was complete rejection of Nehru report –
Independence for India League was set up by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subash Chandra
Bose in April, 1928 – in May 1929 , Ramsay McDonald become Labor PM in Britain –
on October, 1929, declared Irwin’s statement and promised round table conferences-
Delhi Manifesto – prominent leaders met at Delhi in November , 1929 and submitted
two proposals to Irwin – 1. Explain the purpose of RTC- 2. Not to discuss dominion
status, but to formulate scheme for its implementation – Lahore Congress 1929 –
Jawaharlal Nehru as President – Declared Purnaswaraj – decided to boycott RTC –
decided to launch Civil obedience – 26th January 1930 fixed as first independence day
– Nehru hoisted newly adopted tricolor flag on the banks of River Ravi on 31st
December , 1929- Simon commission submitted its report in May, 1930 –
Recommended neither responsible govt. nor diarchy at the center- separate
electorates retained – proposed reservation of seats for the depressed classes –
establishment of responsible unitary govt. in the provinces- A greater India consisted
of British India and princely states as a federal association with British paramountcy.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT -1930

11 demands of Gandhi – gave an ultimatum of 31st January, 1930 to the British for
implementation – 1. Reduce expenditure on army and civil service by 50% - 2.
Introduce total prohibition – 3. Reforms in criminal investigation department– 4.
Change Arms Act - 5. Release political prisoners – 6. Accept postal Reservation Bill –
7. Reduce Rupee-Sterling Exchange ratio – 8. Introduce textile protection – 9.
Reserve coastal shipping for Indians – 10. Reduce land Revenue – 11. Abolish Salt Tax
and Govt.s Salt monopoly – On Febraury 1930, CWC invested Gandhi with to launch
CDM – Salt was declared as the formula for CDM – Dandi March – 12th March to 6th
April , 1930 – Gandhi and 78 inmates of Sabarmati Ashram walked 240 miles from
Ahmadabad to Dandi – Violated salt law – Spread of Disobedience – C.
Rajagopalachari led march from Thiruchirappilly to Vedaranyam in Tamilnadu – K.
Kelappan from Calicut to payyannur in Kerala – Nehru arrested in April, 1930 –
Gandhi Arrested on 4th May 1930 – Khan Abdul Gaffer Khan led the movement in
Peshawar – Raid to Darsana Salt Work – 21st may, 1930 – by Sarojini Naidu, Imam
Sahib, Abul Kalam Azad, Manilal Gandhi – New form of Salt Satyagraha was adopted
by the people in Wadala (Bombay), Karnataka (Sannikatta Salt Work), Andhra,
Midnapore, Balasore, Puri and Cuttack, Rani Gaidinliu led the movement in Nagaland
and Manipur

Bihar Anti Chowkidari Tax campaign

Bengal Anti chowkidari tax campaign

Gujarat No tax movement

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Defiance of forest laws

Provinces

United province No rent campaign

Assam Agitation against the Cunningham

Circular

The Viceroy suggested RTC in 1930 – Tej Bahadur Sapru and MR Jayakar allowed to
explore the possibility of peace between INC and Govt. – Motilal and Jawaharlal
Nehru met Gandhi in Yervada Jail in August, 1930 – they put forward 3 demands – 1.
Right of secession from Britain – 2. Complete national govt. with control over defense
and finance- 3. Independent tribunal to settle Britain’s financial claims

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES

1st RTC at Royal Gallery, House of Lords, London – November 1930 to January 1931-
Chaired by Ramsay Macdonald- INC Boycotted – BR Ambedkar, Mohammed Ali
Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Sir Muhammed Zafrulla Khan, VS Srinivasa Sastri, KT paul
and Mira Behn attended 1st RTC from India – Participants – 58 political leaders from
British India – 16 delegates from native princely states – 16 delegates from the three
British Political parties – Muslim league, Hindus, Justice party, Sikhs, Liberals, Parsis,
Christians, Anglo Indians , Europeans, landlords, labor, women, universities, Sindh,
Burma, other provinces, and the representatives from the govt. of India - Gandhi-
Irwin Pact- the British wanted to ensure the participation of INC in 2nd RTC – released
Gandhi from the jail on 25th Jan, 1931- Delhi pact/Gandhi Irwin pact formed on 14th
Feb, 1931- Gandhi assigned with the duty to conduct discussions with British – Irwin
turned down two demands of Gandhi – 1. Public inquiry into police excesses – 2.
Commutation of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev’s death sentence- Gandhi
agreed two pints – 1. To suspend the CDM – 2. To participate in the next RTC –
Karachi Session of INC – March, 1931 – a special session- Vallabhai Patel as
president- decisions - The Delhi Pact was endorsed by INC – The Goal of purnaswaraj
was reiterated – Two resolutions adopted – 1. Fundamental rights – 2. National
economic program – 2nd RTC – September 1931 to December 1931 – Chaired by
Macdonald – Sarojini Naidu as Women representative – Minorities Pact – Separate
electorates were demanded by Muslims, Christians, depressed class and Anglo
Indians – the proposal of communal award was presented – 3rd RTC – November
1932 to December 1932 – only 46 delegates – INC and labor party decided not to
attend – White paper was published in 1933 – later it was ratified by the British
Parliament as Govt. Of India Act, 1935 – Communal Award & Poona Pact – British PM
Ramsay Macdonald declared Communal award in August, 1932- Minority status was
offered to depressed classes and separate electorates too – Gandhi considered it as
an attack against the Indian Unity and nationalism – He started indefinite hunger
strike on 20th September, 1932 – BR Ambedkar, MC Rajah and Madan Mohan
Malaviya tried for mediation talks with Gandhi – Finally Poona Pact was signed by
Ambedkar – Poona Pact was accepted as an amendment on Communal Award by the
British.

SATYAGRAHAS

Nagpur Flag Satyagraha/ Jhanda Satyagraha – 1923 in Jabalpura and Nagpur –

led by Vallabhai Patel, Jamnalal Bajaj, C Rajagopalachari, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and
Vinoba Bhave – Borsad Satyagraha in Kheda district, Gujarat in 1923-24 – Against
the imposition of poll tax on every adult to pay for police reinforcements to suppress
dacoities – led by Vallabhai Patel - Jaita Satyagraha in Punjab in 1924 for the
reinstatement of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh in Nabha Princely state – Vaikkom
Satyagraha in 1924-25 in Kerala – TK Madhavan presented a report citing the
discrimination that the depressed caste people were facing in Kerala in the Kakinada
Session of INC in 1923 – A committee consisted of K Kelappan, TK Madhavan,
Velayudha Menon, K Neelakandan Namboothiri and TR Krishnaswamy Iyer was
formed to fight against untouchability in Kerala – satyagraha started on 30th march
1924 – Mannath Padmanabhan led Savarnajadha to meet the Rani of Travancore on
1st October , 1924 – Gandhi visited Kerala in 1925 – The temple of Vaikkom was
opened for all Hindus on 23rd November, 1925 – Guruvayur Satyagraha in 1931 – K.
Kelappan , AK Gopalan, P Krishna Pillai, Mannath Padmanabhan and NP Damodaran
Nair – Temple Entry Proclamation on November, 1936 – Bardoli Satygraha in 1928
in Surat under Vallabhai Patel – two class of people in Bardoli – Kaliparaj and
Uajliparaj- Kaliparaj are tribal inhabitants – nobody tried for their upliftment –
existence of Hali System (Bonded Labor) – Gandhian leaders Narahari parekh and
Jugatram Dave conducted an enquiry regarding Hali System, exploitations of money
lenders, sexual abuses suffered by lower caste women etc… Jayakar Committee
suggested 30 % increase in land revenue – Bardoli Enquiry Committee considered
it as an unjust hike – Govt. reduced the hike into 21.97%- People sought the help of
Vallabhai Patel – Women activists – Mithuben Petit, Maniben Patel, Bhaktiba,
Sharadaben Saha, Sharada Mehta – Gandhi reached Bardoli on 2nd August, 1928 –
Broomfield -Maxwell Committee appointed and reduced the enhancement to
6.03%.

INDIAN PROVINCIAL ELECTIONS, 1937

As per the provisions of Govt. of India Act, 1935 – election in 11 provinces such as
Madras, Central Province, Bihar, Orissa, United Province, Assam, Bombay Presidency,
NWFP, Bengal, Punjab and Sindh – INC contested in 716/1161 – Congress formed
ministries in Bombay, Madras, Central Province, Orissa, United Province, Bihar and
later in NWFP and Assam (8 provinces) – Congress had no majority in Bengal,
Punjab and Sind – In Punjab, ML + Unionist Party – Sikander Hayat Khan till 1947 –
In Bengal , ML + Krishak Praja Party under Fazlul Haq- In Sind, two leaders Ghulam
Hussain Hidayatullah and Alla Baksh till 1947 – Resignation of Congress ministries
– On 3rd September, 1939, Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany – INC
objected the declaration of war without consulting the Indians – Provincial
Congress ministries resigned on 22 October, 1939 – the same day was observed
as Deliverance Day by ML – All India Depressed Classes Association, Independent
Labour Party, Justice Party, BR Ambedkar and EVR joined with ML.

Towards Independence and Partition

Second World War and Nationalist response: INC was against fascism, Nazism,
Militarism etc. Even though, INC put forward two demands to cooperate in the war –
1. Constituent assembly – 2. Some form of responsible govt. in the center – both
rejected by Linlithgow – CWC meeting held at Wardha in September, 1939 to discuss
about war – Gandhi argued for Unconditional support to the Allied powers – Bose
and Socialists argued to take advantage of the situation and to start CDM
immediately – Nehru argued for no participation till India is free – CWC condemned
the fascist aggression – Govt. response - Linlithgow waged to use ML and princely
states against INC – British tried to provoke congress to a confrontation – Defense
of India Ordinance enforced – Draft Revolutionary Movements Ordinance
(DMRO) prepared- British tried to paint INC as pro-Japan and pro-Germany – in
October, 1939 , provincial congress ministries resigned – in January,1940 , Linlithgow
stated that “Dominion status of Westminster variety, after the war, is the goal of
British policy in India”- Debate on Mass Satygraha – Gandhi was not in favor of
mass satyagraha – lack of Hindu Muslim Unity, political shrinkage of INC etc.… raised
as reasons by Gandhi – Ramgarh Session of INC,1940 passed a resolution
“ Congress would resort to CDM as soon as the Congress organization is
considered fit enough or if circumstances precipitate a crisis” – The leftists
( Bose+ FB+ CSP+ Royists + CPI ) urged INC to launch a mass satyagraha – Lahore
Session of ML in March, 1940 passed Pakistan resolution – August Offer, 1940 –
Lin Lithgow offered dominion status , expansion of viceroy’s executive council,
setting up of CA, No future constitution without the consent of the minorities – it was
rejected by INC – Nehru stated “Dominion status concept is dead as a door nail” –
ML reiterated their position on partition and welcomed August offer – in July 1941,
Viceroy’s executive council was expanded with 8/12 Indians – but defense, finance
and home was with viceroy – National development council formed as a advisory
body only – Individual Satyagraha – INC urged Gandhi to take the command –
Gandhi suggested Limited Satyagraha / individual satyagraha – Aims – to show that
nationalist patience not due to weakness – not interested in war – no distinction
between Nazism and Imperialism – Delhi Chalo Movement – freedom of speech
against war through an anti-war declaration – If not arrested, march towards Delhi –
Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the 1st satyagrahi – 2nd was Nehru – by May 1941, 25000
people were convicted for individual disobedience – INC leaders released from jails
by December 1941 – CWC passed a resolution to cooperate with Britain on two
conditions – 1. Full independence given after the war – 2. Transfer of substance of
power immediately.

CRIPPS MISSION

Reached India by March 1942 to obtain Indian cooperation for the British war
efforts in the 2nd world war – headed by Sir Stafford Cripps – Nationalists agreed to
support Britain on two conditions – 1. Immediate transfer of substantial power – 2.
Complete independence after war – Main proposals of Cripps Mission: 1. Indian
union with dominion status – 2. Free to decide to join with the Commonwealth / UN/
any other international bodies – 3. After the war, CA to be convened to frame a new
constitution – 4. Members of CA will be partly elected by the provincial assemblies
and partly nominated by the princes – 5. Any province not willing to join the union
could have a separate constitution and a form of separate union – 6. Defense of India
would remain in the British hands – 7. GG’s powers would remain intact – Objections
of INC – offer of dominion status instead of complete independence –
representation of states by nominees – provision for secede – no plan for immediate
transfer of power – no real share in defense – Supremacy of GG retained – Nehru
and Maulana Azad were official negotiators of INC – Objections of ML : opposed
single union – didn’t like the method of creation of CA and procedure to accession –
thought that the proposal denied the creation of Pakistan – Liberals and Hindu
Mahasabha criticized the provision to secede – Sikh’s feared Punjab’s division – “A
Postdated cheque some quipped in a crashing bank” – Gandhi – Nehru stated
that “existing structure and autocratic powers would remain and a few of us will
become the VR’s liveried camp followers and look after canteens and the like” .
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT: AICC Meeting held at Gowalia Tank in Bombay on 8th
August, 1942 – Provisions of QIR – An immediate end to British rule in India – Free
India to defend from fascism and imperialism – form a provisional govt. of India after
British withdrawal – sanction CDM against British rule – Gandhi named as the leader
of the struggle – Gandhi’s instructions – Government servants don’t resign ,
declare allegiance to INC – Soldiers don’t leave army, not to fire the patriots –
Students if confident leave studies and join QIM – Peasants , If Zamindars are anti-
govt. pay mutually agreed rent. If they are pro-govt. don’t pay rent – princes support
the people and accept the sovereignty of them – people of the princely states,
support the ruler only if he is anti-government, declare themselves as part of the
Indian Union – Gandhi gave the famous call “DO or DIE “- all the senior leaders were
arrested on 9th August, 1942 – Underground activities led by socialists, FB, Gandhi
Ashramites and RTs – emergence of secondary leadership such as Ram Manohar
Lohia, JP, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Sharma, Biju Patnaik, Chottubhai Puranik, Achyut
Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani and RP Goenka – parallel govt.s – Chittu Pandey in
Ballia – Bidyut Bahinis in Tamluk – YB Chavan and Nana Patil in Satara – Major
centers of the movement are UP, Maharashtra, Midnapore and Karnataka –
Opposition to the QIM – ML observed 23rd March, 1943 as Pakistan Day – Hindu
Mahasabha , CPI opposed QIM – Subash Chandra Bose outside the country – C
Rajagopalachari resigned from INC

RAJAJI FORMULA & DESAI – LIAQAT PACT

– In order to remove the deadlock between INC and ML, some initiatives were taken
individuals – Rajagopalachari Formula/ Rajaji formula/ CR Plan – formula for INC
and ML cooperation – provisions – ML to endorse INC demand for independence –
ML to cooperate with INC for provisional govt. at the center – after the war, a
plebiscite in NW + NE India whether or not to form a separate sovereign state – in
case of partition, agree to jointly safeguard defense, commerce and communication –
if only British transferred full powers to India – Jinnah’s objections – INC to accept
two nation theory – Only Muslims to participate in the plebiscite – opposition to the
idea of common center – Desai – Liaqat Pact – Bhulabhai Desai was the INC leader
of CLA – Liaqat Ali Khan was the deputy leader of ML in CLA – Draft proposal for the
formation of an interim govt. at the center – no settlement reached .

WAVELL PLAN
– by May 1945, war in Europe ended – but Japanese threat remained – England was
administered by Winston Churchill (Conservative govt.), who was keen to reach
solution in India – assigned Lord Wavell to start negotiations – By June, 1945, INC
leaders were released from jails – The Proposals – 1. All the members of the EC will
be Indians except GG and C-in-C – 2. Hindu + Muslim equal representation – 3. This
council to function as an interim govt. within GOI, 1935 – 4. GG with veto on the
advice of the ministers – 5. Reps of d/f parties were to submit a joint list to Viceroy
for nomination to the EC. If a joint list is not possible, submit separate lists – 6.
Negotiations for new constitution once the war finally won – Shimla Conference- 21
prominent political leaders invited to Shimla to discuss the Wavell Plan on 25th June,
1945 – it failed – The Wavell Plan dissolved – Objections of ML – All Muslim
members to be ML nominees – Wavell wanted Khizr Hayatt Khan as Muslim rep from
W. Punjab – ML claimed a kind of veto – INC also objected

THE CABINET MISSION

Atlee Govt. sent a mission of 3 British Cabinet Members to find out ways and means
for a peaceful transfer of power in February, 1946 – members were Pathick
Lawrence, Stafford Crips and AV Alexander – they reached Delhi on 24th March,
1946 – Discussions held on the issues of interim govt., and principles and procedures
for framing a new constitution giving freedom to India – The Cabinet Mission Plan in
May,1946 – ML accepted CM on 6th June, 1946 – INC accepted CM on 24th June,
1946 – elections were held in provincial assemblies for CA in July, 1946 – ML
withdrawn its acceptance on 29th July, 1946 – they observed Direct Action Day on
16th August, 1946 – Interim Govt. under Jawaharlal Nehru took power on 2nd
September, 1946 – ML entered into interim govt. on 26th October, 1946 – Nehru
became its Vice President and served as the de facto prime minister – 14 members in
interim Govt.

ATTLEE’S STATEMENT, MOUNTBATTEN PLAN AND INDIAN INDEPENDENCE

ACT – Attlee’s statement – on 20th Feb, 1947- 30th June, 1948 was fixed as deadline
for transfer of power – the British would relinquish power - British powers and
obligations would lapse with transfer of power – Mountbatten would replace Wavell
as Viceroy – Dickie Bird Plan / Balkan Plan in May, 1947 – the provinces be
declared independent successor states – then be allowed to choose whether to join
the constituent assembly or not – Nehru opposed it – Mountbatten thrown Balkan
plan on the advice of Nehru- Mountbatten Plan/ June 3 Plan – provisions – 1.
British India was to be partitioned into two dominions -India and Pakistan – 2. The
constitution framed by CA wouldn’t be applicable to the Muslim majority areas (as
these would become Pakistan) – 3. Bengal and Punjab decided to partition along
religious lines – 4. Sind would decide whether to join the Indian CA or not – 5.
Referendum was to be held on NWFP to decide which dominion to join – 6. The date
for the transfer of power was to be August 15th, 1947 – 7. Appointment of Radcliffe
Commission – 8. The princely states were given the choice to either remain
independent or accede to India or Pakistan – 9. The British monarch would no longer
use the title ‘Emperor of India’- 10. British parliament couldn’t enact any law in the
territories of the new dominions – 11. The GG would assent any law passed by the
CAs of the dominions in His Majesty’s name until new constitutions came into
existence – The British parliament ratified Mountbatten Plan on 18th July, 1947 –
thereafter, it came to be known as Indian Independence Act, 1947- The Act
implemented on 15th August, 1947 – formation of India and Pakistan.

BOOKS AND JOURNALS

BOOKS AUTHOR

Poverty and Un British Rule in India DB Naoroji (1867)

Economic History of India RC Dutt (1893)

New Lamps for Old Aurobindo Ghosh (1893)

Ananth Math Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1882)

Indian Unrest Valentine Chirol

India : A nation Annie Besent

How India Wrought Her Freedom Annie Besent

Civil Disobedience Henry Thoreau

Un to This Last John Ruskin

The Kingdom of God is Within You Leo Tolstoy

Glimpses of World History Jawaharlal Nehru

India Wins Freedom Abul Kalam Azad

Roses in December MC Chagla

Why Socialism JP

Bandi Jivan Sachin Sanyal

Pather Dabi Sharath Chandra Chatterjee

The Philosophy of Bomb Bhagavati Charan Vohra

Why I Am an Atheist? Bhagat Singh

Journal / news paper Founder / editor Year

Young India Lala Lajpat Rai (English) 1916

Harijan MK Gandhi (English) 1933

Harijan Bandhu MK Gandhi (Gujarati)

Harijan Seva MK Gandhi (Hindi)

Indian Opinion MK Gandhi 1903

Navjeevan MK Gandhi (Gujarati)

Bengalee SN Banerjee (English) 1879

Sanjibani KK Mithra (Bengali) 1883

Yugantar Barindrakumar Ghosh & Bhoopendranath Dutta 1906

Kesari BG Tilak (Marathi) 1881

Marathi BG Tilak (English) 1881

Hitabadi Dwijendranath Tagore (Bengali)

The Sociologist Syamji Krishnavarma (English) 1905

Bandemataram Madam Bhikaji Cama (English) 1909

Bandemataram Weekly BC Pal (English) 1905

Bharat Mata Ajit Singh

Punjabee Lala Lajpat Rai

Circular-e-Azadi Ramnath Puri 1907

Free Hindustan Taraknath Das 1908

Ghadar Sohan Singh Bhakna 1913

New India Annie Besent

Commonweel Annie Besent

Al Hilal Maulana Azad (Urdu) 1912

Comrade Muhammed Ali (English) 1911

The Socialist SA Dange 1922

Navyuga and Langal Muzafar Ahammed and Nazrul Islam

Inquilab Ghulam Hussain 1923

Labor Kissan Gazette Singaravelu (Tamil) 1923

Pukhtoon Khan Abdul Gaffer Khan

Mook Nayak BR Ambedkar (Marati) 1920

Bahishkrit Bharat BR Ambedkar 1927

The Independent Motilal Nehru 1919

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY : 1942- founder was Mohan Singh – Netaji arrived in
Singapore in July, 1943- Netaji elected as the president of INC in 1938 & 1939- then
he resigned from INC and formed Forward Bloc in 1940 – He escaped from India in
March, 1941 – reached Japan in February, 1943 – he was received at Singapore by
Rash Behari Bose in Singapore in July,1943 – In October, 1943, Provisional Indian
Govt. was set up with the headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore – SC Bose, Capt.
Lakshmi, SA Iyer, AC Chatterjee, AM Sahay and Rash Behari Bose were the members
– INA had 4 regiments initially – Gandhi, Nehru, Azad and Bose – on 6th July, 1944 ,
Rani Jhansi regiment (women regiment) started –Post war national upsurge-
localized struggles with militant nature in between June 1945 to February 1946 – INA
release movement- RIN Revolt – Tebhaga Movement ( Bengal ) – Worli Revolt
( Maharashtra ) – Punjab Kisan Morchas – Travancore People’s Struggles – Telegana
Peasant revolt – INA Trails – First trail at Red fort in November, 1945 – trails of
Premkumar Sehgal, Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurbaksh Singh Dillon – Defense of INA
prisoners were by Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju,
Nehru and Asaf Ali – 12th November, 1945 observed as INA Day – 5th to 11th
November, 1945 observed as INA Week – INC, ML, CPI, Unionists, Akalis, Justice
Party, Ahrars in Rawalpindi, RSS, Hindu Mahasabha and Sikh League supported INA
Cause- India Versus British – Three Upsurges – 1. Student Procession of FB, SFI and
Islamia College students in Calcutta on 21st November 1945 – 2. Against the 7-year
sentence to INC officer Rashid Ali in Calcutta on 11th February, 1946 – 3. RIN mutiny
on 18th February, 1946 in Bombay – Naval Central Strike Committee was appointed
under MS Khan – Election Results, 1945 – INC – 91% non-Muslim Votes – 57/102
seats in CLA – Majority in most provinces except Bengal, Sind and Punjab – ML –
86.6% of the Muslim votes – 30 reserved seats in the CLA – Majority in Bengal and
Sind – in Punjab – Unionist + INC + Akali – led by Khizr Hayatt Khan.

INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES

British India = Princely states + provinces, there were about 565 princely states while
India got freedom. Paramountcy of British crown over PS lapsed by the enforcement
of Indian Independence Act, 1947- PS were free to join either India or Pakistan or
remain Independent – the decision will be taken by rulers of princely states- the
integration of princely states led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel and VP Menon –
Concept of Privy Purse – Bikaner and Baroda were the first PS to join Indian
Union – Resistance – Travancore – the dewan Sir CP Ramaswamy Iyer decided to
remain independent- a member of Kerala Socialist Party tried to assassinate Sir CP on
July, 1947 – Sir CP fled from Travancore – Then Travancore joined IU on 30th July,
1947 – Jodhpur – Rajput Prince Hanvant Singh had a tilt towards Pakistan – Jinnah
offered free access to Karachi port – Immediate interference by Patel – Jodhpur
signed instrument of accession on 11th August , 1947 – Bhopal – a Hindu majority
state – but ruler was a Muslim – Hamidullah Khan declared independence – finally
Bhopal decided to join IU in July, 1947 – Hyderabad – largest and richest princely
state in British India – Large Hindu Population and Muslim ruler – Nizam Mir Usman
Ali declared independence – Razakars started to attack the Hindu residents of
Hyderabad – India govt. initiated Operation polo on 13th September, 1948- Indian
Army gained full control over the state – Hyderabad Joined IU – Junagadh – large
Hindu population and Muslim Ruler – Nawab Muhammed Khanji III chose to accede
to Pakistan on 15th September 1947 – Mangrol and Babariawad reacted by declaring
their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India – India govt. called for a
plebiscite – nawab and his family fled to Pakistan on 26th October, 1947 – on 7th
November, 1947 , Junagadh’s Court invited Indian Govt. to Junagadh – Plebiscite in
favor of accession to India in February 1948 – Kashmir – Hindu king ruling over a
predominant Muslim Population – Maharaja Hari Singh offered a standstill
agreement to both India and Pakistan – Pakistan tried to invade Kashmir – Maharaja
sent his representative Sheikh Abdulla to Delhi to seek India’s help – on 26th October,
1947 , Maharaja Fled from Srinagar and arrived Jammu and signed an ‘instrument
of accession’ of J&K state – on 5th March, 1948, Maharaja announced the formation
of an interim popular govt. with Sheikh Muhammed Abdulla as the PM. On 31st
October, 1951, state CA met for the first time in Srinagar – Delhi agreement in 1952
in between J&K and IU – On 6th Febraury, 1954, J&K CA ratified the accession of
the state to the Union of India

MAKING OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Election to the CA in July, 1946 – 385 members – formed a separate CA for Pak after
partition – then 299 members in the CA of IU – CA become fully sovereign by the
enforcement of Indian Independence Act, 1947 – It functioned as the
parliament till 1952 – 13 committees for framing the constitution under CA –
Dr.BN Rao was the constitutional advisor- He drafted a constitution with 240 clauses
and 13 schedules by the end of October, 1947 – Dr. BR Ambedkar was appointed as
the chairman of Drafting committee to consider the draft of the constitution – Indian
Constitution came into force on 26th November, 1949 with 315 articles and 9
schedules – The rest of the constitution came into force on 26th January, 1950 –
Members of the Drafting Committee are Dr.BR Ambedkar, Sir P Krishnaswamy
Ayyankar, N Gopalaswamy Ayyankar, KM Munshi, Sayyed Muhammed Sadulla, Sir BL
Mitter (N Madhava Rao), DP Khaitan – Dr. Sachidananda Sinha was the first
temporary president of CA – the first meeting held on 9th December, 1946 – Dr.
Rajendra Prasad elected as the permanent president of CA on 11th December,
1946

Features borrowed from other constitutions

Fundamental Rights American

Judicial Review

DPSP Irish

Emergency German

Federation Canadian

Concurrent List Ausis

Fundamental duties USSR

Amendment South Africa

Parliamentary Govt. UK

Bicameralism

Rule of Law
Cabinet System

Single citizenship

Features of Indian constitution : The preamble – incorporated the terms “Socialist,

Secular and Integrity” through the 42nd Amendment, 1976 – Written Constitution –
Parliamentary form of Govt. – Both rigid and flexible – democratic state – republican
state – socialist- secular – universal adult franchise – quasi federal – independence of
judiciary – fundamental rights – DPSP- Fundamental duties

NEW EDUCATION POLICY

University Education Commission, 1948 under Dr. S Radhakrishnan – First

commission on education in independent India – major suggestion was the
formation of UGC – UGC came into existence on 28th December 1953 and
inaugurated by Maulana Azad – Parliament passed the UGC Act in 1956 – Kothari
Commission in July, 1964- Advice the govt. on the national pattern of education
and on general principle and policies for the development of education at all stages
and in all aspects – the education system at the national level was aligned in 10+2+3
pattern

Commission Chairman Year

Secondary Education Commission Dr.Lakshmanaswami Mudaliyar 1952

The education Commission Dr. DS Kothari 1964-66

National Knowledge Commission Sam Pitroda 2005

National Policy on education (1968) - National Policy on education (1986)- New

education policy, 2020

LINGUISTIC REORGANISATION OF STATES

Linguistic Provinces Commission in June, 1948- SK Dhar – they opposed the

formation of linguistic provinces – JVP Committee in December, 1948 appointed
by INC – members of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhai Patel and Pattabhi
Sitaramyyah – they were against the creation of linguistic states – agitations against
the JVP report – Formation of Andhra – demand for the Telugu speaking region of
Andhra – 35 days of fasting by Swamy Sitaram in August, 1951 – Potti Sriramulu
died on the 56th day of fasting in December 1952 – Finally Separate state of Andhra
was formed on 1st october, 1953 – State Re-organization Commission in August,
1953 – members were Fazl Ali, HN Kunzru, KM Panicker – Commission overseen by
Govind Ballabh Pant – they submitted report in October, 1956 – State
Reorganization Act passed in November, 1956 – 14 states and 6 union territories
formed – Reorganized states on 1st November 1956 are : Andhra, Assam, Bihar,
Bombay, J&K, Kerala, MP, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP and West
Bengal – 6 Union Territories are : Andaman and Nicobar, Delhi, Manipur, Tripura,
Himachal Pradesh and Laccadives – SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay and Punjab
– it caused riots in Bombay in January, 1956 – Bombay bifurcated into Maharashtra
and Gujarat in May, 1960 – demand for a separate state for the Nagas in 1960 –
formation of Nagaland in 1963 – in 1956, PEPSU merged with Punjab – Demand
for a separate Punjabi state – New state of Punjab with Sikh Majority is formed on
1st November, 1966 – Hindi speaking Haryana, Union territory of Chandigarh on 1st
November , 1966.

PANCHSEEL AND NON-ALIGNMENT

Panchseel was signed between India and China in 1954 –Jawaharlal Nehru and
Zhou Enlai - Five principle of peaceful co-existence – 1. Mutual respect for each
other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty – 2. Mutual non-aggression – 3. Mutual
non-interference – 4. Equality and mutual benefit – 5. Peaceful co-existence- non-
Alignment – product of cold war – an organization of states that did not seek to
formally align themselves with either the US or USSR – Asia – Africa Bandung
Conference in 1955 – First summit of NAM in September, 1961 in Belgrade ,
Yugoslavia – attended by 36 Mediterranean and Afro Asian powers – Pioneering
leaders of NAM – President Tito of Yugoslavia, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of
Egypt, President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, President Sukarno of Indonesia and PM
Nehru of India – Five criteria of non-alignment – 1. A country should follow an
independent policy based on peaceful co-existence and no-alignment – 2. Support
national freedom movements in other countries – 3. Shouldn’t be a member of
multilateral military alliances concluded in the context of super power conflicts – 4. If
it has conceded military bases, it shouldn’t have been made in the context of super
power conflicts – 5. If it is a member of bilateral or regional defense arrangements, it
shouldn’t be in the context of super power conflicts.

EMERGENCY
 25th June 1975 – 21st March 1977 – PM Indira Gandhi – President Fakruddhin Ali
Ahammed – Article 352 (Internal disturbances) – advised by Sidhardh Sankar Ray, CM
of West Bengal – Rule by Decree – Causes for emergency – Navnirman Movement
– Gujarat- 1974 – Chiman Bhai Patel resigned – President’s rule in Gujarat – Student
Agitation in Bihar for the removal of CM Abdul Ghaffoor led by JP – Allahabad
High Court verdict against Indira Gandhi on 12th June, 1975 – Emergency
declared on 25th June, 1975 – JP, Raj Narain, Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, JB
Kriplani, AB Vajpayee, LK Advani, Arun Jaitley, Gayatri Devi, George Fernandes,
Snehlata Reddy, Mohan Dharia, Chandrasekhar etc.… were arrested.

ECONOMIC PLANNING IN INDIA

Mixed economy – Planning commission on 15th March, 1950 – first five-year plan
launched on 1st April, 1951 – Dissolution of Planning commission on 17th August,
2014 – Setting up of NITI (national Institution for Transforming India) Aayog on 1st
January 2015 – planning Commission – economic planning in the form of 5 year
plan – PM as the ex-officio chairman – National Development Council formed to
give final approval to the plans on 6th August, 1952 – Five year plans – borrowed
from USSR – 1st five year plan 1951-56 – India witnessed twelve five year plans – NITI
Aayog and 3 year action plan from 1st January 2015 – Objectives of Five year
plans in India – High growth rate to improve the living standard of the residents of
India- Economic stability for prosperity- Self-reliant economy- social justice and
reducing the inequalities – modernization of the economy- 1st five year plan – 1951-
56 – based on Harrod-Domar Model – Agriculture development of the country and
large investments in dams and irrigations - 2nd five year plan – 1956 to 1961 –
Mahalanobis Model – industrial development of the country – 3rd Five year plan –
1961 to 1966 – Gadgil Yojna – stress was laid on agriculture and the improvement in
the production of wheat – India was engaged in two wars – Indo – china war and
Indo -Pak war – shifted the focus to the defense industry, the Indian army and the
stabilization of the prizes- flop due to wars and drought.

REFERENCES

 History of Modern India – Bipan Chandra

 India’s Struggle for Independence – Bipan Chandra & Others

 India Since Independence – Bipan Chandra & Others

 From Plassey to Partition and After – A History of Modern India – Sekhar

Bandopadhyay