Chapter 4 : Network Topologies and Network Devices

1.Network Topology- Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

2.Selection Criteria-
a. Cost
b. Hardware Resources
c. Ease of Implementation
d. Size of Network
e. Reliability
f. Future expansion
3.Types of Topologies:
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid
a. Bus Topology-

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.
 o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All
the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or
not.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all
the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

Advantages of Bus-
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If
any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.
o Terminator- We must use terminator to terminate the signal once it reaches end of cable.
Otherwise it reflects and get mixed with another signal.

b. Star Topology-
 o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star Topology-
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to
bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the
hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the
most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

 o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

c. Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends. Each computer connected to
exactly 2 computers.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
 o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost
is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent
on the single host computer.
o All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions
o A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable

faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

d. Mesh Topology-
 o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected
with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2; where n is no of nodes

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.

o Partially connected mesh topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers
are connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently

Advantages of Mesh topology:

o Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
o Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
o Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of
the network
e. Hybrid Topology:

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology
and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in
another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest
of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of
the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot
of cabling, network devices, etc.
f. Tree Topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as
star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

 o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

2.Network Connecting Devices

a. hub
b. switch
c. router
d. repeater
e. bridge
f. gateway
g. modem

a. Hub-

i. Hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or other network devices
together.
ii. Unlike a network switch or router, a network hub has no routing tables or intelligence on where to
send information and broadcasts all network data across each connection.
iii. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
iv. Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies
and wastage
v. Hub operate in Physical Layer of OSI Model
Types of Hub
 • Active Hub:- These hubs regenerate our signals as well as amplify the signal. Active hubs need
electricity to work. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- it simply distributes the signal coming from the previous ports. Passive hub
neither regenerates any signal nor amplifies, therefore it does not require electricity to work.
And can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligence hub
This helps the administrator to monitor network traffic, and you can configure each port on it
individually, also known as a manageable hub.
b. Repeater-

i. A repeater operates at the physical layer.

ii. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
iii. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the
signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength.
iv. It is a 2 port device. It does not connect 2 LAN segments
v. A repeater receives a signal and before it gets attenuated or corrupted , regenerates original signal
vi. signal regenerating repeaters create exact duplicate of incoming signal by reconstructing it.
Advantages of Repeater-
• A repeater is a simple to connect.
• It is cost-effective.
• It has the ability to boost or strengthens the signal to retransmit.
• Repeater can extend the transmission distance.
Disadvantages Of repeater-
• Repeaters are unable to reduce network traffic.
• It cannot connect different network architectures.
• Limitation in the number of repeaters.
 • It does not segment the network.
• It has no filtering capability.

c. Switch-
i. A switch is a data link layer networking device which connects devices in a network and uses packet
switching to send and receive data over the network.

ii. Like a hub, a switch also has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. However, when a
data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address and sends the
frame to the corresponding device(s). Thus, it supports both unicast and multicast communications.

iii. Switches operate in data link layer of OSI Model

iv. Just like Hub and Bridge, Switch is also used to connect the multiple devices together in a LAN
segment. Basically, a Switch is the upgraded version of the Bridge. Besides providing all functionalities of
Bridge, it also offers several additional features.

v. Switches operate in full-duplex mode where devices can send and receive data from the switch
at the simultaneously unlike in half-duplex mode. The transmission speed in switches is double than in
Ethernet hub transferring a 20Mbps

Types of Switches-

1. Store and forward- it stores the frame in the input buffer until whole packet has arrived
2. Cut- through switch- it forward the packet to the output buffer as soon as destination
address is received.
d. Bridge-

i. it is a networking device, which creates single aggregate network from multiple communication
network or network segments.
ii. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input
and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
iii. Bridge operate at data link layer
 iv. Difference between bridge and repeater is that bridge has filtering capability. i.e .bridge will
check destination address of frame and decide whether to drop or forward frame
Advantages of Bridge-
• It acts as a repeater to extend a network
• Network traffic on a segment can be reduced by subdividing it into network communications
• Collisions can be reduced.
• It avoids waste BW (bandwidth)
• The length of the network can be increased.
• Connects different segments of network.
Disadvantages of Bridge-
• It is unable to read specific IP addresses
• They cannot help while building the network with the different protocols.
• These are expensive as we compare with repeaters
• It doesn’t handle more complex data load which occurs from WAN.

e. Router-

i. A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
ii. Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
iii. To forward a data packet to its destination, router keeps the records of connected networks.
These records are maintained in a database table known as the routing table. Routing table can be built
statically or dynamically.
 iv. They process logical addressing information in the Network header of a packet such as IP
Addresses. Router is used to create larger complex networks by complex traffic routing.
v. It has the ability to connect dissimilar LANs on the same protocol. It also has the ability to limit
the flow of broadcasts.
vi. A router primarily comprises of a hardware device or a system of the computer which has
more than one network interface and routing software.
Functions:
• To connect different network segments.
• Routing
• Packet forwarding
• To connect different network protocols such as IP and IPX.
• To connect several smaller networks into a large network (known as the Internetwork)
• To break a large network into smaller networks (Known as the Subnets. Usually created to
improve the performance)
Types of Router-
1. Wired router
2. Wireless router
3. Virtual Router
4. Broadband router
Difference between router and bridge
f. Gateways

i. Gateway is a device which is used to connect multiple networks and passes packets from one
packet to the other network.
ii. it connects two dissimilar networks.
iii. A gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A
gateway can also be configured completely using software. As networks connect to a different network
through gateways, these gateways are usually hosts or end points of the network.
iv. Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In
this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over networks
that use same protocols
v. it can interpret and translate different protocols that are used on two distinct networks.
vi. Gateway operate on all seven layers of OSI Model.
vii. gateways are slow because they need to perform intensive conversions.

g. Modem

i. it is a hardware device that converts digital data to analog and analog data to digital
 ii. Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can transmit
only analog data
iii. Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer.
The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by the
computer.
iv. Normal signal cannot be put directly on the telephone lines. Because bandwidth of telephone
lines is not sufficient to transfer digital data. Therefor digital signal first converted into analog and vice
versa.
Types of Modems
• Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Wireless Infrastructure Components-

1. Radio NIC
2. Access Points
3. Wireless Routers
4. Wireless Repeaters
5. Antennas
6. User Devices
1. Radio NIC- A major part of a wireless LAN includes a radio NIC that operates within the computer
device and provides wireless connectivity. A wireless LAN radio NIC, sometimes referred to as a
radio card, often implements the 802.11 standard. The cards generally implement one particular
physical layer, such as 802.11a or 802.11b/g. As a result, the radio card must utilize a version of
the standard that is compatible with the wireless LAN. Wireless LAN radio cards that implement
multiple versions of the standard and provide better interoperability are becoming more
common.
Radio cards come in a variety of form factors, including: ISA, PCI, PC card, mini-PCI, and CF. PCs
generally utilize ISA and PCI cards; but PDAs and laptops use PC cards, mini-PCI, and CF adapters.
2. Access Points- An access point contains a radio card that communicates with individual user
devices on the wireless LAN, as well as a wired NIC that interfaces to a distribution system, such
as Ethernet. System software within the access point bridges together the wireless LAN and
distribution sides of the access point. The system software differentiates access points by
providing varying degrees of management, installation, and security functions. Figure 5-1 shows
an example of access-point hardware.
3. Wireless Routers-
A wireless LAN router adds a built-in access point function to a multiport Ethernet router. This
combines multiple Ethernet networks with wireless connections. A typical wireless LAN router
includes four Ethernet ports, an 802.11 access point, and sometimes a parallel port so it can be a
print server. This gives wireless users the same ability as wired users to send and receive packets
over multiple networks.
Routers implement the Network Address Translation (NAT) protocol that enables multiple
network devices to share a single IP address provided by an Internet service provider (ISP). Figure
5-2 illustrates this concept. Routers also implement Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) services for all devices. DHCP assigns private IP addresses to devices. Together, NAT and
DHCP make it possible for several network devices, such as PCs, laptops, and printers to share a
common Internet IP address.

4. Wireless Repeaters
A repeater simply regenerates a network signal to extend the range of the existing network
infrastructure. (See Figure 5-3.) A wireless LAN repeater does not physically connect by wire to
any part of the network. Instead, it receives radio signals from an access point, end-user device,
or another repeater; it retransmits the frames. This makes it possible for a repeater located
between an access point and distant user to act as a relay for frames traveling back and forth
between the user and the access point.
5. Antennas-
Most antennae for wireless LANs are omnidirectional and have low gain. Nearly all access points,
routers, and repeaters come standard with omnidirectional antenna. Omnidirectional antenna
satisfy most coverage requirements; however, consider the use of optional directive antenna to
cover a long, narrow area. In some cases, the antenna is integrated within a radio card or access
point and there is no choice to make. If a need exists to use a directive antenna (higher gain),
ensure that the radio card or access point has an external antenna connector.
6. User Devices
Users of wireless LANs operate a multitude of devices, such as PCs, laptops, and PDAs. The use of
wireless LANs to network stationary PCs is beneficial because of limited needs for wiring. Laptops
and PDAs, however, are commonly equipped with wireless LAN connectivity because of their
portable nature. User devices might consist of specialized hardware as well. For example, bar code
scanners and patient monitoring devices often have wireless LAN connectivity.