Chapter 2 – Combinational

Digital Circuits

Part 1 – Gate Circuits and Boolean

Equations

Chapter 2 - Part 1 1

Binary Logic and Gates

 Binary variables take on one of two values.
 Logical operators operate on binary values and
binary variables.
 Basic logical operators are the logic functions AND,
OR and NOT.
 Logic gates implement logic functions.
 Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for
specifying and transforming logic functions.
 We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!
Chapter 2 - Part 1 2

1
Binary Variables
 Recall that the two binary values have
different names:
• True/False
• On/Off
• Yes/No
• 1/0
 We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
 Variable identifier examples:
• A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
• RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later
Chapter 2 - Part 1 3

Logical Operations
 The three basic logical operations are:
• AND
• OR
• NOT
 AND is denoted by a dot (·).
 OR is denoted by a plus (+).
 NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a
single quote mark (') after, or (~) before
the variable.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 4

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Notation Examples
 Examples:
• Y = A . B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”
• z = x + y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”
• X = A is read “X is equal to NOT A.”
 Note: The statement:
1 + 1 = 2 (read “one plus one equals two”)
is not the same as
1 + 1 = 1 (read “1 or 1 equals 1”).

Chapter 2 - Part 1 5

Operator Definitions
 Operations are defined on the values "0" and
"1" for each operator:

AND OR NOT
0·0=0 0+0=0 0=1
0·1=0 0+1=1 1= 0
1·0=0 1+0=1
1·1=1 1+1=1

Chapter 2 - Part 1 6

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 Truth Tables
 Truth table - a tabular listing of the values of a
function for all possible combinations of values
on its arguments
 Example: Truth tables for the basic logic
operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z=X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Chapter 2 - Part 1 7

Boolean Algebra
 Defined over the set B={0,1}
 Two input operations : AND, OR (, +)
 One input operation: NOT ( )

Axioms

Let a, b, c  B

Boolean algebra properties:

1. Closure: a+b=c a  b=c

2. Commutative: a + b = b + a a  b=b  a
3. Distributive: a+(b  c)=(a+b)  (a+c) a  (b+c)=a  b+a  c
4. Associative: a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c a  (b  c)=(a  b)  c
5. Neutral Element:a+0=a a  1=a
6. Inverse: a+a=1 a  a =0
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 Boolean Operator Precedence
 The order of evaluation in a Boolean
expression is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
 Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
 Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 9

Properties and Theorems

 These properties and theorems can be proved by
using the axioms of Boole algebra.

1. Identity element: a+1=1 a  0=0

2. Transformation: (a)=a
3. Constant power: a+a+…+a=a a  a  …  a=a
4. Absorption: a+a  b=a a  (a+b)=a
5. De Morgan’s Theorem:
(a+b)=a  b (a  b)=a+b
6. General De Morgan’s Theorem:
f(X1,X2,…,Xn,0,1,+,)  f(X1,X2,…,Xn,1,0,,+)
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 Example 1: Boolean Algebraic Proof
 A + A·B = A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Axiom or Theorem
A + A·B
= A·1+A·B X=X·1
= A · ( 1 + B) X · Y + X · Z = X ·(Y + Z)(Distributive Law)
=A·1 1+X=1
=A X·1=X

 Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

• Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of Boolean
algebra, and
• How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply to make
forward progress, irrespective of the application.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 11

Example 2: Boolean Algebraic Proofs

 AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps Axiom or Theorem
AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC 1.X=X
= AB +AC + (A + A) · BC X + X = 1
=AB +AC + ABC+ ABC X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ
=AB +ABC+ AC+ABC X+Y=Y+X
=AB+A(C+BC) X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ
=AB+AC X + X·Y = X

Chapter 2 - Part 1 12

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 Example 3: Boolean Algebraic Proofs
 ( X + Y )Z + X Y = Y ( X + Z )
Proof Steps Axiom or Theorem
(X + Y )Z + X Y

= XYZ+XY (X+Y)=XY
= (XZ+X)Y (X+Y)Z=XZ+YZ
= (X+X) (Z+X)Y XY+Z=(X+Z)(Y+Z)
= (Z+X)Y X+X =1

Chapter 2 - Part 1 13

Boolean Function Evaluation

F1 = xy z x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
F2 = x + yz 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
F3 = x y z + x y z + x y 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
F4 = x y + x z 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
•If the number of
inputs is = n 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
•There are 2n different 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
input combinations 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
n
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
•Hence, 2 different
2
Boolean functions can
be defined Chapter 2 - Part 1 14

7
 Expression Simplification
 Simplify to contain the smallest number of
literals:
A B + A CD + A BD + A C D + A BCD
= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D
= AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D
= AB + A C + A B D
= B(A + AD) +AC
= B(A + A)(A + D) +AC
= B (A + D) + AC
5 literals Chapter 2 - Part 1 15

Complementing Functions
 Use DeMorgan's Theorem to complement
a function:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant value and
literal
 Example: Complement F = xy z + x y z
F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)
 Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d + e
G=
Chapter 2 - Part 1 16

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Overview – Canonical
Forms
 What are Canonical Forms?
 Minterms and Maxterms
 Index Representation of Minterms and
Maxterms
 Sum-of-Products (SOP) Representations
 Product-of-Sums (POS) Representations
 Representation of Complements of
Functions
 Conversions between Representations
Chapter 2 - Part 1 17

Canonical Forms
 It is useful to specify Boolean functions
in a form that:
• Allows comparison for equality.
• Has a correspondence to the truth tables
 Canonical Forms in common usage:
• Sum of Products (SOP)
• Product of Sums (POS)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 18

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Minterms


XY
XY
XY
XY

Chapter 2 - Part 1 19

Maxterms


X +Y
X +Y
X +Y
X +Y
Chapter 2 - Part 1 20

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 Maxterms and Minterms
 Examples: Two variable minterms and
maxterms.
Index Minterm Maxterm
0 xy x+y
1 xy x+y
2 xy x+y
3 xy x+y
 The index above is important for describing
which variables in the terms are true and
which are complemented.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 21

Standard Order
 Minterms and maxterms are designated with a subscript
 The subscript is a number, corresponding to a binary
pattern
 The bits in the pattern represent the complemented or
normal state of each variable listed in a standard order.
 All variables will be present in a minterm or maxterm and
will be listed in the same order (usually alphabetically)
 Example: For variables a, b, c:
• Maxterms: (a + b + c), (a + b + c)
• Terms: (b + a + c), a c b, and (c + b + a) are NOT in
standard order.
• Minterms: a b c, a b c, a b c
• Terms: (a + c), b c, and (a + b) do not contain all
variables
Chapter 2 - Part 1 22

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 Purpose of the Index
 The index for the minterm or maxterm,
expressed as a binary number, is used to
determine whether the variable is shown in
the true form or complemented form.
 For Minterms:
• “1” means the variable is “Not Complemented”
and
• “0” means the variable is “Complemented”.
 For Maxterms:
• “0” means the variable is “Not Complemented”
and
• “1” means the variable is “Complemented”.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 23

Index Example in Three Variables

 Assume the variables are called X, Y, and Z.
 The standard order is X, then Y, then Z.
 The Index 0 (base 10) = 000 (base 2) for three
variables).
 All three variables are complemented for
minterm 0 ( X , Y , Z ) and no variables are
complemented for Maxterm 0 (X,Y,Z).
• Minterm 0, called m0 is X Y Z .
• Maxterm 0, called M0 is (X + Y + Z).
• Minterm 6 ?
• Maxterm 6 ?

Chapter 2 - Part 1
24

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Index Examples – Four Variables
Index Binary Minterm Maxterm
i Pattern mi Mi
0 0000 a b c d a  b  c  d
1 0001 a b c d ?
3 0011 ? a+ b +c+d
5 0101 a b c d a + b + c + d
7 0111 ? a+ b +c+d
10 1010 a b c d a + b + c + d
13 1101 a b c d ?
15 1111 a b c d a + b + c + d

Chapter 2 - Part 1 25

Minterm and Maxterm

Relationship
 Review: DeMorgan's Theorem
x · y = x + y and x + y = x y
 Two-variable example:
M 2 = x + y and m 2 = x·y
Thus M2 is the complement of m2 and vice-
versa.
 Since DeMorgan's Theorem holds for n
variables, the above holds for terms of n
variables
 giving: = =
Mi mi mi Mi
Thus Mi is the complement of mi.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 26

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 Minterm Function Example
 Find the truth table of F1(x,y,z) = m1+m4 + m7
 F1(x,y,z) = x y z + x y z + x y z
x y z index m1 + m4 + m7 = F1
000 0 0 + 0 + 0 =0
001 1 1 + 0 + 0 =1
010 2 0 + 0 + 0 =0
011 3 0 + 0 + 0 =0
100 4 0 + 1 + 0 =1
101 5 0 + 0 + 0 =0
110 6 0 + 0 + 0 =0
111 7 0 + 0 + 1 =1
Chapter 2 - Part 1 27

Minterm Function Example

 F(A, B, C, D, E) = m2 + m9 + m17 + m23
 F(A, B, C, D, E) =
ABCDE+ABCDE+ABCDE+ABCDE

Chapter 2 - Part 1 28

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 Maxterm Function Example
 Implement F1 in maxterms:
F1(x,y,z) = M0 · M2 · M3 · M5 · M6
F1(x,y,z) = (x + y + z) ·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z)
·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z)
xyz i M0  M2  M3  M5  M6 = F1
000 0 0  1  1  1  1 =0
001 1 1  1  1  1  1 =1
010 2 1  0  1  1  1 =0
011 3 1  1  0  1  1 =0
100 4 1  1  1  1  1 =1
101 5 1  1  1  0  1 =0
110 6 1  1  1  1  0 =0
111 7 1  1  1  1  1 =1
Chapter 2 - Part 1 29

Maxterm Function Example

 F( A , B, C, D) = M 3 . M8 . M11 . M14
 F(A, B,C,D) =
(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C+D)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 30

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 Canonical Sum of Products
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a
Sum of Minterms.
• For the function table, the minterms used are the
terms corresponding to the 1's
• For expressions, expand all terms first to explicitly
list all minterms. Do this by “ANDing” any term
missing a variable v with a term ( v + v ).
 Example: Implement f(x,y)= x + x y as a
sum of minterms.
First expand terms: f(x,y) = x ( y + y ) + x y
Then distribute terms: f(x,y) = xy + x y + x y
Express as sum of minterms: f(x,y) = m3 + m2 + m0

Chapter 2 - Part 1 31

Another SOP Example

F(A,B,C) = A + B C
 There are three variables, A, B, and C which we
take to be the standard order.
 Expanding the terms with missing variables:
F = A(B + B)(C + C) + (A + A) BC
 Distributing the literals over parenthesis
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
 Collect terms
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
 Express as SOM:
= m7 + m6 + m5 + m4 + m1 = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
Chapter 2 - Part 1 32

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 Shorthand SOP Form
 From the previous example, we started with:
F(A,B,C) = A + B C
 We ended up with:
F(A,B,C) = m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
 This can be denoted in the formal shorthand:
F( A , B, C)  m(1,4,5,6,7 )
 Note that we explicitly show the standard
variables in order and drop the “m”
designators.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 33

Canonical Product of Sums

 Any Boolean Function can be expressed as a
Product of Sums (POS).
• For the function table, the maxterms used are the terms
corresponding to the 0's.
• For an expression, expand all terms first to explicitly list all
maxterms. Do this by first applying the second distributive
law , “ORing” terms missing variable v with a term equal to
and then applying the distributive law again.
v.v
 Example: Convert to product of maxterms:
f ( x, y , z ) = x + x y
Apply the distributive law:
x + x y = (x + x )(x + y ) =1 . (x + y ) = x + y
Add missing variable z:
x + y + z . z = (x + y + z) (x + y + z )
Express as POS: f = M2 · M3
Chapter 2 - Part 1 34

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 Another POS Example
 Find Product of Sums representation of f :
f(A,B,C)=AC+BC+AB
 f=(AC+BC+A) (AC+BC+B)
f=((AC+B)(AC+ C)+A)((AC+B)(AC+ C)+B)
f=((A+B)(C+B)(A+C)(C+ C)+A)((A+B)(C+B)(A+C)(C+ C)+B)
f=((A+B)(C+B)(A+C)+A) ((A+B)(C+B)(A+C)+B)
f=(A+B+A)(C+B+A)(A+C+A)(A+B+B)(C+B+B)(A+C+B)
f=(A+B +C)(A+B+C)
f = M5 · M2

Chapter 2 - Part 1 35

Function Complements
 The complement of a function expressed as a
SOP is constructed by selecting the minterms
missing in the SOP canonical forms.
 Alternatively, the complement of a function
expressed by a SOP form is simply the POS with
the same indices.
 Example: Given
F ( x , y , z ) = Σm (1, 3,5,7 )
F( x, y, z) = Σm(0,2,4,6)
F( x, y, z) = Π M(1,3,5,7)
Chapter 2 - Part 1 36

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 Implementation of Boolean Functions

 Using Switches Switches in parallel => OR

• For inputs:
 logic 1 is switch closed
 logic 0 is switch open
• For outputs: Switches in series => AND
 logic 1 is light on
 logic 0 is light off.
• NOT uses a switch such
that: Normally-closed switch => NOT
 logic 1 is switch open C
 logic 0 is switch closed

Chapter 2 - Part 1 37

Implementation of Boolean Functions

(Continued)
 Example: Logic Using Switches
B C
A

 Light is on (L = 1) for
L(A, B, C, D) = A(BC’ + D) = ABC+AD
and off (L = 0), otherwise.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 38

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 Logic Gates
 In the earliest computers, switches were opened and
closed by magnetic fields produced by energizing coils
in relays. The switches in turn opened and closed the
current paths.
 Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current paths
electronically replaced relays.
 Today, transistors are used as electronic switches that
open and close current paths.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 39

Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior

 Logic gates have special symbols.
 And waveform behavior in time as follows:

Chapter 2 - Part 1 40

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 Gate Delay
 In actual physical gates, if one or more input
changes that causes the output to change, the
output change does not occur
instantaneously.
 The delay between an input change(s) and the
resulting output change is the gate delay
denoted by tG:
1
Input
0
tG tG tG = 0.3 ns
1
Output
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)
Chapter 2 - Part 1 41

Logic Diagrams and Expressions

Truth Table Equation
XYZ F = X + Y ×Z
000 0 F = X +Y Z
001 1
010 0 Logic Diagram
011 0 X
100 1
Y F
101 1
110 1 Z
111 1
 Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams
describe the same function!
 Truth tables are unique; expressions and logic diagrams
are not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 42

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AND/OR Two-level Implementation
of SOP Expression
 The two implementations for F are shown below – it is
quite apparent which is simpler!

A
F
B
C

Chapter 2 - Part 1 43

SOP and POS Observations

 The previous examples show that:
• Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-
Maxterms), or other standard forms (SOP, POS)
differ in complexity
• Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate
equations into simpler forms.
• Simpler equations lead to simpler two-level
implementations
 Questions:
• How can we attain a “simplest” expression?
• Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
• The next part will deal with these issues.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 44

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