DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
1.) Overview of power system operation: The electrical energy is the most convenient form
of energy in comparison to all the other forms of energy. However the biggest drawback of it
is that it cannot be stored in large amounts directly in the form of electrical energy. Of course
it is possible to store it in small amounts in the form of rechargeable batteries. But no method
for large scale storage of electrical energy has been devised so far. Therefore electrical energy
has to be generated and supplied instantaneously. The operation of power system becomes
very complex due to the following factors:
1. At every instant the total active power generated must equal the total active power
demand plus losses.
2. The total active power demand varies from instant to instant, day to day and season to
season. Power system has to meet this varying demand all the time.
3. Loads also require lagging reactive power. This must also be produced and supplied.
4. The voltage and frequency of the system must be maintained within limits as per the
government regulations.
5. Energy must be generated in such a way that the overall cost is minimum.
6. Any part of the power system may suffer a forced outage at any time. The power
system must be ready to meet such emergencies.
7. Because of those reasons which are beyond the control of power system engineers, the
load may increase unexpectedly (beyond the forecast value) and this additional load
must also be supplied.

2.) Structure of power system

Introduction: The electrical power is the most convenient form of energy since it is available
to the consumer at the very instant it is switched on. The other benefits of electrical energy
are the ease with which it can be generated in bulk and transmitted efficiently and
economically over long distances.
An electrical power system is a complex network of several subsystems which transform
other types of energy into electrical energy, transmit and distribute it for consumption at the
consumer’s terminals. The fig.1 shows the general structure of power system whereas the
fig.2 shows the single line diagram of a typical power system.

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
Constituents of a Power System: The power system consists of three subsystems which
have clearly demarcated functions. The coordinated working of all the three subsystems is
absolutely essential as they are parts of the same system. The subsystems are:-
i. The generation subsystem.
ii. The transmission & distribution subsystem.
iii. The load subsystem.
iv. The protection & control subsystem.

(a) Generation – The generation subsystem maybe called GENCO, responsible for
generating electric power as per the predicted load requirements. The generating subsystem
consists of a group of generating stations, which converts some form of primary energy into
electrical energy. The generating station (or power station) of a power system consists of
prime mover, such as turbine driven by water, steam or combustion gases which is coupled to
an electric generator. The prime mover rotates the generator which produces electrical energy.
The 3 phase a.c. generator also called alternator is one of the essential components of power
system.
Another major component of a power system is the transformer. It transfers power
with very high efficiency from one voltage level to another level. The power transferred from
primary to secondary is same exactly except for losses in transformer. Step – up transformers
are used for transmission of power. At the receiving end step – down transformers are used to
reduce the voltage to suitable values for distribution or utilization. In a modern utility system,
the power may undergo four or five transformations between generator and ultimate user.

(b) Transmission and Distribution – The transmission subsystem maybe called TRANSCO.
The purpose of an overhead transmission network is to transfer electric energy from
generating units at various locations to the distribution system which ultimately supplies the
load. The transmission lines allow interconnect neighbouring power stations which not only
allows economic dispatch of power between regions during emergencies.
High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations which are called H.V.
substations or receiving substations or primary substations. The function of some substations
is switching circuits in and out of service. Hence they are referred as switching substations.
The portion of the transmission system that connects the H.V. substations through
step down transformers to the distribution substations are called sub-transmission network.
However there is no clear demarcation between transmission and sub-transmission voltage
levels. The sub-transmission voltages typically range from 66 kV to 132 kV. Some heavy
industrial consumers are connected to the sub-transmission system, for example, BHEL
Haridwar is connected directly to a 132 kV substation.
The distribution system is that part which connects the distribution substations to the
consumer’s service entrance equipment. The distribution subsystem maybe called DISCOM
which is the actual link between system and the consumers. The primary distribution lines
are usually in the range of 4 kV to 11 kV. Some small industrial consumers are served
directly by the primary feeds. The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage for
utilization by commercial and residential consumers. A distribution system is designed to
supply continuous and reliable power supply at the consumer’s terminal at minimum cost. A
typical distribution system is shown in fig. 2

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL

(c) Loads – From the viewpoint of a power supplier any component which is consuming
electrical energy is a load. The loads of a power system are divided into industrial,
commercial and residential. Very large industrial loads maybe served from the transmission
system. Large industrial loads are served directly from the sub-transmission network and
small industrial loads are served from the primary feeder network. The commercial and
residential loads are served from the secondary feeder network.

(d) Protection & Control – The protection and control subsystem consists of relays,
switchgear and other control devices which protect the various subsystems against faults,
overloads and ensures efficient, reliable, economic operation of power system. It is necessary
to monitor the entire system in a control center to ensure reliable and economic operation.
The modern control centres of today are well equipped with online computers performing the
entire signal processing through the remote acquisition system.
In India regional and national power grids are established to facilitate transfer of
power within and across the regions with reliability, security and economy. The Indian Power
Grid system is divided into five regional grids.

3.) Power system control centre: The power systems of today are essentially very huge in
terms of energy generated, transmitted and utilized, number of customers and total
investment. The installed capacity in USA exceeds 1000 GW with annual energy generated
exceeding 5000 TWh. The installed capacity in India exceeds 140 GW with annual energy
generated exceeding 700 TWh. The system is growing continuously with more generating
plants, transmission lines and distribution lines being added every month. The power system
feeds a very large number of domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, electric traction
and other customers.
The increase in unit sizes, growth of interconnections and the need to maintain the
system in normal mode requires sophisticated control, instrumentation and protection. The
multiplicity of monitoring instruments in the control room and their distance apart make the
observation of more than a few ones almost impossible, especially during the intense activity
of plant start – up. The operators are called upon to visualize the implications of a variety of
changing plant parameters and take critical decisions. These requirements led to the

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
development and application of more advanced solid-state modular instruments, computer
based direct digital control and data processing systems.
A modern power system control centre has the following functions to perform: -
1. Automatic generation control
2. Economic load dispatch
3. Automatic voltage control
4. On – line load flow
5. On – line short circuit
6. State estimation
7. Steady state security analysis
8. Security monitoring
9. Supervisory control
10. Automatic trouble analysis
11. Emergency control like load shedding, generator tripping
12. Automatic circuit restoration etc.
The computer system involves dual configuration with external interfaces to monitor the data.
The first one is a process computer linked by telechannels to various generating and sub –
stations for data acquisition. The second one is a larger one where major calculations are
carried out and is linked to the process computer. For real – time computer control of power
systems, the following basic components are needed:
1. System wide instrumentation
2. High speed digital telemetry
3. Central processing unit
4. Memory and bulk storage
5. Interactive display
6. Software (operating and application)
The real time computer is designed to perform data acquisition, storage and retrieval, data
processing, interactive display and remote signaling and control. It consists of modems and
interfaces, CPU, memory and bulk storage & input-output devices like display devices, card
reader, printer etc. The fig.3 shows a functional block diagram of a real time computer.

CORE MEMORY

DATA
DISPLAY CPU MODEMS FROM THE
SYSTEM

DISK / TAPE

Fig. 3 functional block diagram of a real time computer

The database consists of static data, dynamic data and software. The static data consists of the
details of lines, transformers, generators etc. The dynamic data includes line flows, voltage

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
levels, breaker condition, generation and demand. The software includes operating software,
application software and support software.
The operating software is the system software for real time operating compiling
routines, file management etc. The application software consists of programs written for
power system operation and control, which were listed earlier. The support software consists
of diagnostics, debugging, maintenance and testing programs. The computer control can take
any of the following forms:
i. Off – line computer control
ii. Computer assisted control
iii. On – line computer control
For planning and operating computation, which are carried out at infrequent intervals, off –
line computer calculation suffice. The results are to be updated at regular time intervals. In
the computer- assisted control scheme, necessary data is transmitted at regular intervals to the
computer located in a central control station and its decisions are communicated to the human
operator.
For short time processes extending up to a few minutes, the system is under
continuous control of direct acting devices. Under emergency conditions, the on – line
computer which processes the data continuously sends commands to the direct acting devices
according to a pre – planned strategy to prevent danger to the system.
The type of computer control, the configuration and the peripherals used are
ultimately decided by the cost that the utility industry is willing to invest.

Level Decomposition in Power System with respect to power control centre – The power
systems are characterized by strong hierarchical structure order. Accordingly, control strategy
can be devised to fit into the hierarchical structure advantageously as given in table 1

Level System Monitoring and Control

First Level Generating stations and substations
Local control centre
Second Level Sub transmission and transmission networks
Area load dispatch centre
Third Level Transmission system
State load dispatch centre
Fourth Level Interconnected power systems
Regional control centre
or Top Level

Local Control Centre – A number of control functions can be performed locally at power
generating stations and substations using local equipment and automatic devices. The
following are some of the typical control applications of a local control centre:
1. Local monitoring and control.
2. Protection
3. Auto reclosures.
4. Voltage regulation.
5. Capacitor switching.
6. Feeder synchronization.
7. Load shedding in the event of necessity
8. Network restoration

Area Load Dispatch Centre – A group of generating stations and substations alongwith the
associated network and loads may be considered as a unit for control under an area load
dispatch centre. The area control centre receives information and processes if for appropriate
control action.

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
State Load Dispatch Centre – The minute to minute operation of the power system at the
state level may be carried out by the state load dispatch centre. It may have the following
functions:
1. System generation, load monitoring and control.
2. System wide state monitoring and control.
3. Circuit breaker state monitoring and control.
4. Load shedding and load restoration.
5. Supervisory control for lines and equipment states.
6. System alarm monitoring and corrective action
7. Planning and monitoring of system operations.

Regional Load Dispatch Centre – The regional load dispatch centre may be regarded as a
coordinating and monitoring centre for state level dispatch centres with the following main
objectives:
1. Integrated operation of state level dispatch centres.
2. Operation and maintenance schedules for the generating plant.
3. Operation and maintenance schedules for maximum capacity utilization.
4. Monitor and control inter state power transactions.
5. Monitor and control inter regional power transactions.

Hierarchy of power system operation and control in India – The total power system in
India is not being operated in totally integrated manner. However attempts are being made to
achieve full integration. The National Load Dispatch Centre headquartered at New Delhi is
the coordinating agency. Then there are five regional load dispatch centres as follows:

A. Northern Region load dispatch centre at New Delhi covering the states of
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Delhi, Uttarakhand and union territory of Chandigarh.
B. Western Region load dispatch centre at Mumbai covering the states of Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh, Goa and union territories of
Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
C. Southern Region load dispatch centre at Bangalore covering the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and union territories of
Pondicherry and Lakshadweep.
D. Eastern Region load dispatch centre at Kolkata covering the states of West
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Sikkim, Jharkhand.
E. North Easter Region load dispatch centre at Shillong covering the states of
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram.
The third level of hierarchy consists of state load dispatch centres which are stationed in each
state capital. Remote terminal units are installed at many points in each state. The fig.1 shows
the hierarchy of power control centre in India.

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL

National Load Dispatch Centre (New Delhi)

Northern Western Region Southern Eastern Region North Eastern

Region Load Load Dispatch Region Load Load Dispatch Region Load
Dispatch Centre Centre Dispatch Centre Centre Dispatch Centre
(New Delhi) (Mumbai) (Bangalore) (Kolkata) (Shillong)

SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC SLDC

RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU RTU

Fig.1
Hardware requirements for computer control of power system – The main equipment is a
computer with enough storage capability. Many years ago main frame computers were used
for this purpose but now desktop computers also have huge storage capability and are
sufficient for most power systems. In an energy control centre, computers area connected in
ring formation. All computers have backup computers also. The main computer is used for
online program execution. The other computers are for duties like data acquisition etc. The
standby computers are used for emergency duty. Some CROs, printers are also there. The
standby computer is kept updated so that there is no loss of data or control. The changeover
from main computer to standby computer can be manual or automatic but mostly it is
automatic. The communication channels go out from the station to remote terminal units.
Computer based telemetry and data processing facilities are also provided.
The modern trend is to use computers for relaying also. The advantages of using
computers for relaying are logging capability and application expansion possibility. Accuracy,
fast response and overall economy are the other advantages. The numerical relays sample the
values of current, voltage etc. which are then converted to digital form using analog to digital
converters and fed to the computer.

Software for computer control of power system – The computers used in power system
control centre are equipped with requisite softwares for performing the following functions:
1. Online security monitoring and state estimation.
2. Data acquisition, supervisory control etc.
3. Real time monitoring and control
4. Operating systems.

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System) – A lot of data is required
about the operating conditions of a power system when proper, efficient energy management
needs to be carried out. A large number of operations have to be carried out at unattended
locations from the operating centre. In many cases remote operation of a device situated at a
remote location from a control centre needs to be carried out as the cost of providing a
personal for the operation to be carried out the location maybe prohibitive. Not only that if
the operation requires a personal to be send to the remote location for operation of the device
then it will lead to a considerable delay. Such delays may result in long outage durations and
poor reliability. SCADA systems have been developed to overcome such problems. The need
to control remote operations and monitor them led to development of SCADA. The main
functions of SCADA are as follows:

Data Acquisition: To provide data, measurements and status information to operator

Plotting: To plot different measurements in real time regime.
Supervisory Control: To operate and control circuit breakers remotely.
Alarms: To send alarm signals as regards undesirable operating conditions.
Logging: To log al information, signals etc.
Load Shedding: To provide automatic and manual load shedding in emergency
conditions so as to maintain system synchronism and stability.
Load Restoration: To restore loads after system returns to normal state.
Automatic Generation Control: To control generation at the power plants.

In addition to the above SCADA systems are many times used for additional tasks like
security assessment, training, energy management etc.

Need for SCADA – The main reasons for adopting SCADA are as follows:

1. To reduce cost.
2. To reduce manpower
3. To reduce future capital requirements.
4. To improve level of service.
5. To avoid environmental accidents.
6. To comply with regulator requirements.
7. To attain and maintain competitive edge.
8. To replace existing ageing system.
9. To manage complex systems.

Components of SCADA – A SCADA has the following components

1. Sensors: These maybe digital or analog. They are basically control relays which
interface with the power system.
2. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs): These are small computerized units deployed in field
at specific sites and locations. RTUs are collection points for getting information and
reports from sensors and for sending commands to relays.
3. Master Unit: They are basically large computer systems which serve as a central
processor.
4. Communication Links
5. Software

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
Configurations of SCADA systems – A SCADA system may have different configurations
depending upon the system and its requirements. Each configuration consists of a master unit
(M) and remote unit (R). The fig.2 (a) to fig.2 (d) shows the various configurations which are
used in SCADA systems.

R3
M R
R4

M R R2 M
Fig.2 (a) One to One SCADA R5
configuration
R1

Fig.2 (b) Star SCADA Configuration

M
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Fig.2 (c) Party line SCADA Configuration

R1
R5
R2
R4
R3
M
R6
R7

R8

R9
Fig.2 (d) Network Configuration

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
Master Unit – The fig.3 shows the layout of a typical SCADA system
Operators Modem RTU
console

Modem RTU
MASTER Modem
Printer UNIT
COMPUTER
Modem RTU
Graphic
Instrument
Board Modem Modem

CRT
RTU RTU
System
diagram

Fig.3 layout of SCADA

The master unit is the heart of SCADA system. All operations of different RTUs are made
from the master unit and reported back by RTUs to the master unit. The master unit has a
digital computer and ancillary equipment to permit communications between master unit and
RTUs. One such equipment is a modem (modulator – demodulator). The computer uses
digital pulses. Modem converts these digital pulses to analog signal so that it can be
transmitted to RTU. The messages from the master unit to RTUs are in the form of audio
frequency and are sent by frequency shift techniques. Frequency shift signaling is pretty
immune from noise. The other equipments include line printer, operator’s console, CRT (or
monitor), graphic instruments board etc. The printer enables the messages received from
RTUs to be converted to hard copy. Sometimes a single line diagram of the power system
controlled through SCADA also exists in the master station. Digital / Analog (D/A)
converters are also provided in master unit so that informations like line currents, bus
voltages, frequency, real and reactive power flows as received in digital form is converted to
analog form and read by various indicating instruments. Some recording instruments are also
provided so that visual representation of the conditions is displayed. Colour CRT screens
enable different colours to indicated changes in voltage levels, position of circuit breakers
(open or closed) etc. Some flashing indications and alarm signals are used to draw the
attention of operator.
For remote operations the operator at the master station follows “select before
operate” procedure which is as follows:
1. The operator selects the RTU.
2. RTU acknowledges the selection.
3. Operator selects the device to be operated at that RTU.
4. RTU acknowledges that the device has been selected.
5. Operator performs the desired operation.
6. RTU performs the operation and sends a signal to master unit indicating that the
desired operation has been performed. This signal maybe a message printed by printer
or indication on CRT screen.

Remote Terminal Units – These units are located at selected locations in the power system.
They are equipped with microcomputers and thus have logic and memory capabilities. Such

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
RTUs are also termed as intelligent remote terminal units. Sometimes these units can perform
certain pre-programmed functions without any direction from the master unit but report all
these actions to the master unit. They also have a modem to enable them to receive messages
from master unit and also send compliance reports to the master unit. In addition they have
relays to send trip signal to the circuit breakers and other disconnecting equipment. They are
also provided with transducers to make different measurements.
In situations where many operations take place in quick succession, the RTU is fitted
with sequence of events recording facility. In this case the events separated by even a few
milliseconds can be recorded in correct sequence e.g. in case of a fault both phase fault and
ground fault relays may operate one after the other. The sequence of events is recorded in
correct order so that the protection engineer can see whether the sequence of events was
correct. In all such cases the RTU reports to the master unit and then the information is erased
from its memory so that RTU can record next event.

Communication Channels in SCADA – The communication channels between the master

unit and RTUs form an important part of SCADA. The communication links can be wire
circuit, wireless (microwave) link or power line carrier channel. The important consideration
in selecting a communicating channel is the signal to noise ration (SNR) and the bandwidth.
Good SNR and high bandwidth enable errorless messages and high speed of signal
transmission. Most of the time a telephone line with bandwidth of 300 – 3500 Hz is sufficient.
Power line carrier system has been in use in power systems for pretty long time. Capacitors
rated to withstand the transmission line voltage alongwith tuned circuits are used to couple a
carrier to a power circuit. The capacitive reactance of the coupling capacitors is low at carrier
frequency but high at power frequency. Thus carrier channel signals can be superimposed on
power circuit. Wireless channel have high efficiency and reliability.

Various Operational Stages of Power System – Power systems are interconnected to

improve reliability and quality of power supply to the consumer to reduce the spinning
reserve requirements of individual systems and for similar other advantages. The operating
state of a power system can be divided into following modes.
1. Normal mode
2. Alert mode
3. Emergency mode
4. Restorative mode
5. In Extremis mode

The fig.4 shows the state transition diagram of a power system

Restorative Alert
Mode Mode

Normal
Mode

In Extremis Emergency
Mode Mode
Fig.4 State Transition Diagram

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
In the normal mode of operation, the system has to maintain scheduled voltages, frequency
and load flow profile maintaining the schedule tie line power flows. The most important
aspect in any mode of operation is the matching between load demand and generation. The
frequency deviation of the system is a direct measure of the mismatch between the total
generation and combined load demand. It is only when the frequency is maintained at the
rated value that the generation balances the load demand.

1. Normal Mode – When the system is in normal state the generation matches the load
and none of the equipments is overloaded. The system is secure in normal state and
some amount of spinning reserve also exists.
2. Alert Mode – In this mode of operation, the power system is synchronized but the
security level is reduced below the specified limits. The generation and load are
matching with none of the equipments getting overloaded. However no spinning
reserve is available. In this mode, preventive control is provided to restore adequate
generating margin, generation shifting, tie line rescheduling, and voltage reduction (if
extremely necessary).
3. Emergency Mode – In this mode of operation, the power system is synchronized as
the generation matches the load but some equipment may be overloaded. In this mode,
immediate control is provided to clear equipment overloads, fault clearing, fast
valving dynamic braking, exciter control, load control, capacitor switching and all
controls mentioned in Alert state.
4. Restorative Mode – In this mode of operation, the power system may or may not be
synchronized. The power engineers are taking necessary corrective actions so that the
system is restored back to normal state. In this mode corrective measures like re-
establishing viable system, generating units restarting and synchronization, load
restoration, re-synchronization of different areas is done. In the restorative mode,
control action is initiated but the load constraints are not completely satisfied. Under
this condition, the system may be in a completely or partially shut down state.
5. In Extremis Mode – In this mode of operation, the power system loses synchronism
resulting in tripping of some generators, and overloading of equipments also occurs.
Some parts of the country (or province) may also face black out if the system is in this
mode of operation. Load shedding and all the controls mentioned in emergency state
are to be taken.

Power System Security – The classification of the modes or states of operation of a power
system helps in distinguishing the different types of controls to be applied to the system to
make the system operate reliably. The objective of power system security is to keep the
power system in normal mode of operation and prevent it from entering into either
emergency or restorative mode.
The system state is continuously assessed via data acquisition systems making use of
telemetered data, redundant data and by predicting the missing or doubtful whenever a
metering channel becomes erroneous or its accuracy is beyond the normal specified range.
This job is referred to as security monitoring.
During security assessment, a series of fast computations are made to examine the
effect of various credible contingencies and those that are not so. If some of the assumed
contingencies result in unsatisfactory performance from the point of view of security, a
corrective strategy is called for, to determine the best corrective action either by special
calculations within the computer or from results obtained from off – line studies. Continuous
monitoring for security and sending command signal for corrective action whenever
necessary is referred to as security control. Steady state security maybe defined as the ability
of the system to operate steady state wise within the specified limits of safety and supply

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
following a contingency in the time period, after which the fast acting control devices have
restored the system balance but before the slow acting controls like transformer tappings,
human decisions, etc. have responded.
Steady state security analysis is performed to determine whether there will be a new
steady state operating point at which the system will settle after the post – fault oscillations
have been damped out. The post contingency steady – state solution will have to be checked
for violation of operational constraints. If it violates the constraints, the contingency is
declared to be insecure and necessary corrective action is to be initiated.
For steady state security analysis the following contingencies maybe considered:
1. Loss of a generating unit.
2. Sudden loss of a load.
3. Sudden change in flow of power in a tie –line.
4. Outage of a transmission line.
5. Outage of a transformer.
6. Outage of a shunt capacitor or reactor being used for compensation.
The outage maybe a power outage or network outage. Fast and decoupled load flows are
employed for security analysis of systems. The purpose of contingency analysis of a power
system is to alert the operator about the possibility of occurring of vulnerable condition of the
system on a real time basis as load and generation change. It determines the bus voltages that
are excessively high or too low. It also calculates the power flows that are above the overload
limits for generation and transmission lines. Precalculated results of the analysis are used to
take corrective actions such as load shedding.

Voltage Stability – Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a power system to
maintain acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under normal conditions and after
being subjected to a disturbance. A system enters a state of voltage instability when a
disturbance, increase in load demand or change in system condition causes a progressive and
uncontrollable decline in voltage. The main factor causing instability is the inability of the
power system to meet the demand for reactive power.
The principle causes of voltage instability are
 Load on transmission lines is too high.
 Voltage sources are too far from the load centres.
 Source voltages are too low.
 There is insufficient load reactive compensation.

Classification of Voltage Stability – It is helpful to classify voltage stability into two

categories
 Large disturbance voltage stability
 Small disturbance voltage stability
Large disturbance voltage stability is concerned with system’s ability to control voltages
following large disturbances such as system faults, loss of load or loss of generation. It may
further be subdivided into transient and long term voltage stability. Small disturbance (or
small signal) voltage stability is concerned with a system’s ability to control voltages
following small perturbations such as gradient changes in load.

Voltage Stability Analysis – The analysis of voltage stability for a given system state
involves the examination of two aspects; (i) proximity to voltage instability (ii) mechanism of
voltage stability.

(i) Proximity to voltage instability - We check the system for its closeness to voltage
instability. The distance to instability may be measured in terms of physical quantities

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 DEHRADUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL
such as load level, active power flow through a critical interface and reactive power
reserve. Consideration must be given to possible contingencies like line outages, loss
of a generating unit or a reactive power source etc.

(ii) Mechanism of Voltage Stability – The question which arises in a mind of a power
system engineer are: How and why does instability occurs? What factors contribute
towards voltage instability? What measures are most effective in improving voltage
stability?

Prevention of Voltage Collapse – The voltage instability leads to voltage collapse. The
following are the design and operating measures that can be taken to prevent it.

(a) System Design Measures

(i) Application of reactive power compensating devices - The different types of

reactive power compensating devices used affect the voltage stability. Hence
adequate stability margins should be ensured by proper selection of
compensation schemes. The selection of sizes, ratings and locations of the
compensation devices should be based on a detailed study covering the most
severe system condition for which it should operate satisfactorily.
(ii) Control of network voltage and generator reactive output – Load
compensation of a generator AVR regulates voltage on the high voltage side
of the step up transformer. Alternatively, secondary outer loop control of
generator excitation may be used to regulate network side voltage.
(iii) Coordination of protection/controls – One of the causes of voltage collapse
is the lack of coordination between equipment protections/controls and power
system requirements. Tripping of equipment to prevent an overload condition
should be the last resort.

(b) System Operating Measures

(i) Stability margin – The system should be operated with an adequate stability
margin by the appropriate scheduling of reactive power resources and voltage
profile. Presently there are no widely accepted guidelines for selection of the
degree of margin and the system parameters to be used as indices. These are
likely to be system dependent and may have to be established based on the
characteristics of the individual system.
(ii) Spinning reserve – An adequate spinning reactive power reserve must be
ensured by the operating generators, if necessary, at moderate or low
excitation and switching in shunt capacitors to maintain the desired voltage
profile. The required reserve must be identified and maintained within each
voltage control area.
(iii) Operator’s action – The operators must be able to recognize voltage stability
related symptoms and make appropriate remedial actions such as voltage and
power transfer controls and possibly as a last resort , load shedding.

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