RAJKUMAR GOEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FUNDAMENTAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE- BME-101 /BME-201

1. Unit I: Introduction to Mechanics of Solid:

Normal and shear Stress, strain, Hookes’ law, Poisson’s ratio, elastic constants and their
relationship, stress-strain diagram for ductile and brittle materials, factor of safety. Basic
Numerical problems.

Q.1 Define Stress and Strain.

Stress:
When an external force is applied on a body, internal resistance is developed within the body,
internal resistance is developed within the body to balance the effect of externally applied forces.
The resistive force per unit area against deformation is called as stress. It is represented by  .

Mathematically it can represent as

Re sistive  Force P
= = ,
Area A

In general, there are two types of stresses

(a)Normal Stress

(b)Shear Stress

(a)Normal Stress:

Stress is said to be normal stress when the direction of the deforming force is perpendicular to the
cross-sectional area of the body.

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Tensile Stress: When a structural member is subjected to two equal and opposite tensile forces,
the stress produced is called tensile stress.
The tensile stress at any cross-section X-X is given as

σt = R/A, σt = P/A (R = P)

Compressive Stress: When a structural member is subjected to two equal and opposite
compressive forces, the stress produced is called compressive stress.
The compressive stress at any cross-section X-X is given as

σc = R/A, σc = P/A (R = P)

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(b)Shear Stress:

When a body is subjected to load P consisting of two equal and opposite parallel forces not in same
line, it tends to shear off across the resisting section. The stress induced in the body is called shear
stress and corresponding strain is called shear strain.

The most common occurrences of pure shear are in riveted and cotter joints.

The resisting cross-section area parallel to load P is A, then the average shear stress is

P
= ,
A

Consider of length L fixed at the bottom face AB, with unit width. Let the force P be applied at
face DC tangentially to face AB. As a result of force P, the cuboid distorts from ABCD to ABC1D1
through an angle  . x
D D1 C C1
P

L  

P
A B

P
Shear stress  = ,
AB  1

Strain:

When a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation
per unit length is known as strain. It is denoted by  . Mathematically it can be represented as

Strain εL = ΔL/L , where ΔL is the change of length of body and L is the original length of the body.

The strains can also be classified into two categories.

(1) Normal or Longitudinal Strain

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(2) Shear Strain

(1) Normal strain:

Normal strain can be defined as change in length per unit of length. Mathematically it can be represented
as

εL = ΔL/L
Depending upon the type of force, the longitudinal strain can be divided into two categories:

(a)Tensile strain

(b)Compressive strain

(a)Tensile Strain:

When a member is subjected to equal and opposite axial tensile forces at its end, it creates elongation in its
length. The ratio of elongation in the length to the original length of the member is termed as tensile strain.

(b)Compressive Strain:

When a member is subjected to equal and opposite axial compressive forces at its length. The ratio of this
reduced length to the original length of the member is termed as compressive strain.

(2) Shear Strain:

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite parallel forces not in same line it tends to shear off
across the resisting section. As a result the cuboid(member) distort as shown in fig from ABCD to ABC1D1
through an angle  .Then the ratio of angular deformation to original length, along the force is termed as
shear strain.
x
D D1 C C1
P

P
A B

Fig 5.101
Angular  Deformation CC1
Shear Strain = = =  (since  is small, so tan    )
Original  Length L

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Q2. Define

(1) Volumetric Strain

(2) Lateral Strain

(3) Longitudinal Strain

(4) Poisson’s ratio

(1) Volumetric Strain:

It is defined as the ratio of change in volume of the specimen to the original volume of specimen. It is
V
denoted by V . V =
V

(2) Lateral Strain:

When a circular bar of diameter D and length L is subjected to normal tensile stress, it produces tensile
strain in the direction of normal stress, and the body elongates in the direction of stress. There is a
contraction in cross-sectional area of the body. As the length L increases to (L+ΔL) the diameter D
decreases to (D–ΔD). The contraction produces a lateral strain.

Lateral strain εd = – ΔD/D

(3) Longitudinal Strain:

Longitudinal strain is defined as the ratio of change in linear dimension to original dimension. It is denoted
by εL. Mathematically

εL = ΔL/L

As per above Figure

Longitudinal Strain εL = Change in length / Initial length

Change in length = (Final length – Initial length) = (L + ΔL) – L = ΔL
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Longitudinal Strain εL = ΔL/L

Lateral Strain εd = Change in diameter / Initial diameter

Change in diameter = (D–ΔD) –D = – ΔD

Lateral Strain εd = – ΔD/D

POISSON’S RATIO
When a material undergoes changes in length, it undergoes changes of opposite nature in lateral directions.
For example, if a bar is subjected to direct tension in its axial direction, it elongates and at the same time
its sides (width and thickness or diameter) contract.
Poisson’s Ratio (μ) = Lateral Strain εd / Longitudinal Strain εL
= – (ΔD/D) / (ΔL/L)

Q.3 Explain Hook’s Law

Hook’s Law:

When a material is loaded within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain. Mathematically

Stress  Strain;  ,

Stress = Constant of proportionality  Strain

or = E  ; E = ,

Stress
E=
Strain

Where the constant of proportionality E is called Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.

P l
Stress  = ,Strain = ,According to hook’s Law
A l

P
Pl Pl
E= A = ; l =
l Al AE
l

Q. 4 Explain Elastic constants:

(a) Modulus of elasticity

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(b) Modulus of rigidity

(c) Bulk modulus

(a)Modulus of elasticity:

It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain within the proportionality limit. It is
denoted by E.

Modulus of elasticity = longitudinal stress / longitudinal strain = σ / ε

(b)Modulus of rigidity:

Modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. It is denoted by G.

Shear  Stress 
Modulus of rigidity = ,G =
Shear  Strain 

(c)Bulk Modulus:

When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and equal direct stresses, then the ratio of direct
stress to corresponding volumetric strain is called bulk modulus. It is denoted by K.

 
Bulk modulus K = =
V V
V

Q.5 Established relationship between different elastic constant.

(i) Relation between young’s modulus and bulk modulus & μ:

Consider a cubical element subjected to volumetric stress  which acts simultaneously along mutually
perpendicular x , y and z direction.

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(ii) Relation between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity:

Consider a square block ABCD of side L and of thickness unity perpendicular to the plane of drawing as
shown in fig

Let the block be subjected to shear stress of intensity  as shown in Fig. Due to these stresses the square is
subjected to some distortion, such that the diagonal AC will get elongated and diagonal BD will be
shortened.

Let the shear stress  cause shear strain  as shown in Fig, so that AC becomes AC1.

D  C D D1 C C1

 C2

 


A  B A B

Before distortion After distortion

Fig

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 AC1 − AC C1C 2 CC1Cos 450 CC1 1  CC1  1
Strain of AC = = = = =  = 
AC AC AB 2 2 AB 2  AB  2

Thus, we see that the linear strain of diagonal AC is half of the shear strain and is tensile in nature. Similarly,
linear strain of diagonal BD is also equal to half of the strain strain, but is compressive in nature.

 
Now the linear strain of diagonal AC = = ........(1) ,
2 2G

Where  is shear stress and G is modulus of rigidity. The tensile strain of the diagonal AC due to tensile
stress on diagonal AC is

  
Strain on AC =  E =  ,
E 

And the tensile strain on the diagonal AC due to compressive stress on diagonal BD


= ,
E

  
Combined effect of the above two stresses on diagonal AC is = + = (1 +  )......(2) ,
E E E

Equating equation (1) and (2), we get

 
= (1 +  ),
2G E
E = 2G (1 +  ).....(3)

Where G is modulus of rigidity and E is modulus of elasticity.

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Q.6 Explain in brief Stress-Strain diagram with neat sketch.

C F

B
A : Proportional limit
A D
Stress B : Elastic limit
C,D : Upper and lower yield point

E : Ultimate stress
point
F : Breaking point

Strain

Fig. Stress-Strain diagram for ductile

Stress-Strain diagram is a graphical representation of stress versus strain. In this diagram, stress is plotted
along vertical y axis and strain along x axis. The basic purpose to draw the stress-strain diagram to know
the behavior of the material due to load application.

Different significant point of stress-strain diagram for ductile material:

▪ Proportional limit: Stress is a linear function of strain and the material obeys Hook’s law. In this
limit, stress is proportional to strain. OA represent the proportional limit.

▪ Elastic limit: Beyond proportional limit, stress-strain diagram departs from straight line. Up to
elastic limit, after removal of load, it recovers its original position. B represent the elastic limit.

▪ Yield point: Beyond elastic limit, the material shown considerable strain even though there is no
increase in load. The behavior of the material is inelastic and the onset of plastic deformation is
called yielding of the material. Yielding pertains to the region C-D. The point C is called upper
yield point and point D is the lower yield point.

▪ Ultimate stress point: After yielding has taken place, the material becomes strain hardened
(strength of the specimen increases) and an increase in load is required to take the material to its
maximum stress at the point E.

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 ▪ Breaking Point: In the portion EF, there is falling off the load from maximum until fracture takes
place at F. The point F is referred to as the fracture or breaking point and corresponding stress is
called the breaking stress.

Stress-strain diagram for brittle material:

Fig. Stress-Strain diagram for Brittle material

Brittle material fails with only little elongation after the proportional limit is exceed. Brittle material fails
in tension at relatively low value of strain. For brittle material, like cast iron, no appreciable deformation is
obtained and the failure occurs without yielding

Numerical Problems
Q.1 A metallic rectangular rod 1.5 m long, 40 mm wide and 25 mm thick is subjected to an axial tensile
load of 120 KN. Elongation of the rod is measured as 0.9 mm. Calculate stress, strain and modulus of
elasticity. (UPTU 2004)

Solution:

Given
l = 1.5m, b = 40mm = 0.04m, t = 25mm = 0.025m, P = 120KN = 1.2 105 N , l = 0.9mm = 9 10 −4 m
Area of metallic rod = b  t = 0.04  0.025 = 1 10 −3 m 2 ,

P 1.2  10 5
Stress  = = −3
= 1.2  10 8 N m 2 ,
A 10

l 9  10 −4
Strain = = = 6  10 −4 ,
l 1.5

Stress 1.2  108

Modulus of elasticity E = = = 2  1011 N m 2
Strain 6  10 − 4

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Q.2 A bar of 25 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60 KN. Measured extension over a gauge length of
250 mm is 0.15 mm and change in diameter is 0.004 mm. Calculate modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rigidity and Poisson’s ratio. (UPTU 2006)

Solution:

Given Diameter of rod d = 25mm = 2.5 10 −2 m ,

 
Area of bar A = d2 = (0.025)2 = 4.90625  10 −4 m 2 ,
4 4

P = 60 KN = 610 4 N

Gauge length = l = 250mm = 0.250m ,change in length l = 0.15mm = 1.5 10 −4 m ,

Change in diameter d = 0.004mm = 4  10 −6 m ,

P 6  10 4 l 1.5  10 −4
stress  = = −4
= 1.222  10 8
N m 2
,Strain = = = 6  10 − 4 ,
A 4.90625  10 l 0.250

Stress 1.222  108

Modulus of elasticity E = = −4
= 2.036  1011 N m 2 ,
Strain 6  10

Longitudinal strain = 6 10 −4 ,

d 4  10 −6
Lateral strain = = = 1.6  10 − 4 ,
d 0.025

Latral strain 1.6  10 −4

Possion’s ratio (µ) = = = 0.266 ,
Longitudinal strain 6  10 − 4

Applying relation between modulus of elasticity(E) and modulus of rigidity(G).

2.036  1011
E = 2G ( + 1), G =
E
= = 8.03  1010 N m 2
2( + 1) 2  1.266

Q.3 A 2m long rectangular bar of 7.5 cm x 5 cm is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1000KN.
Bar get elongated by 2 mm in length and decreases in width by 10 x 10-6 m. Determine the modulus
of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio ‘m’ of the material of the bar. (UPTU 2007-2008)

Solution

5 cm

12 | P a g e P = 1000 KN
P

7.5 cm
2m
Given Length of bar = l = 2m, l = 0.002m, b = 7.5cm = 0.075m, b = 10 10 −6 m,

Thickness t = 5cm = 0.05m, P = 1000KN = 106 N ,

P 10 6
Stress  = = = 2.667  108 N m 2 ,
A 0.075  0.05

l 0.002  2.667  108

Linear strain = = = 10 −3 ,From hooke’s law E = = = 2.667  1011 N m 2
l 2  10 −3
,

b 10 −5
Lateral strain l = = = 1.33  10 − 4 ,
b 0.075

l 1.33  10 −4
Poisson ratio  = = = 0.133
 10 −3

Q.4 Young’s modulus and bulk modulus of steel are 2.1 x 1011 Pa and 8.4 x 1010 pa respectively.
Determine the value of Poisson ratio. (UPTU 2012-2013)

Solution:

Young’s modulus = E = 2.1 x 1011Pa, Bulk modulus = 8.4 x 1010Pa,

Applying elastic constant, we get

E = 3K (1 − 2 ),2.1  1011 = 3  8.4  1010 (1 − 2 ),

 = 0.079

Q.5 The ultimate stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9 MN is 480
N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the internal diameter. Take
the factor of safety as 4.

Solution:

Ultimate stress, = 480 N/mm2 = 4.8 x 108 N/m2,

Axial load P = 1.9 MN = 1.9 x 106 N,

External dia D = 200 mm = 0.2 m

Factor of safety = 4,

Let internal diameter of steel columns = d,

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  
Area of cross-section of the column A =
4
(D 2
)
−d2 =
4
(0.2 2
)
−d2 ,

Ultimate stress
4.80  108
Factor of safety = Working stress , Working stress =  = = 1.2  108 N m 2 ,
4

P 1.9  10 6
= ,1.2  108 = , d = 0.14085m

A
4
(
0.2 − d
2 2
)
Q.6 A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar, the following data was obtained from test:

1) Diameter of the steel bar = 3 cm

2) Gauge length of the bar = 20 cm

3) Load at elastic limit =250 KN

4) Extension at load of 150 KN =0.21 mm

5) Maximum load = 380 KN

6) Total Extension = 60 mm

7) Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25 cm

Determine :1) the young’s modulus 2) The stress at the elastic limit

3)The percentage elongation 4) The percentage decrease in area

Solution:

 
1)Area of the rod A = D2 = (0.03)2 = 7.0685  10 −4 m 2
4 4

Load 150  10 3
Stress =  = = −4
= 2.122  108 N m 2 ,
Area 7.0685  10

l 0.21  10 −3
Strain= = = = 1.05  10 −3 ,
l 20  10 − 2

Stress 2.122  108

Young’s modulus E = = −3
= 2.02  1011 N m 2 ,
Strain 1.05  10

2)The stress at the elastic limit is given by

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 (Load )ElasticLimit 250  10 3
Stress  = = −4
= 3.5368  108 N m 2
Area 7.0685  10

L 60  10 −3
3)Percentage elongation =  100 =  100 = 30% ,
L 20  10 − 2

  2
  0.03 −  0.0225 
2

A
 100 =    100 = 43.75%
4 4
4)Percentage decrease in area =
A 
 0.032
4

Q.7 A steel bar 2 m long and 20 mm x 10 mm in cross-section is subjected to a tensile load of 20

KN along its longitudinal axis. Make calculations for changes in length, width and thickness of
the bar stating whether it is increase or decrease. Take modulus of elasticity as 2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and
Poisson’s ratio 0.3.

Solution:

Longitudinal strain
P
l Stress P 20  10 3
= = = A= = = 5  10 −4 ,
l Modulus  of  Elasticity E AE (0.02  0.01)  2  1011
( )
(
Change in length l = Longitudinal strain x original length= 5 10 −4  2 = 10 −3 m(Increase) ,)
Laterial Laterial
Poisson’s ratio  = = −4
, Laterikal = 0.3  5  10 −4 = 1.5  10 −4 ,
Linear 5  10

b t
The lateral strain equals to and ,
b t

( )
Change in breadth b = (0.02)  1.5 10 −4 = 3 10 −6 m(Decrease) ,

( )
Change in thickness t = (0.01)  1.5 10 −4 = 1.5  10 −6 m(Decrease) ,

Q.8 A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60 KN. The measured extension on a

guage length of 200 mm is 0.1 mm and change in diameter is 0.004 mm. Calculate:

i)Young’s modulus ii) Poisson’s ratio

iii)Bulk modulus

Solution:
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Given Diameter of bar d = 30mm ,


Area of bar A = (0.03)2 = 2.25  10 −4 m 2 ,
4

Pull P = 60KN = 6 10 4 N ,Extension l = 0.1mm = 110 −4 m ,

Change in dia d = 0.004mm = 4 10 −6 m ,

i)Young’s modulus(E)

P 6  10
Tensile stress  = = = 8.487  10 7 N mm 2 ,
A 2.25  10 −4

l
1  10 −4
Longitudinal strain, = = = 5  10 − 4
l 0.2

Tensile  Stress 8,487  10 7

Young’s modulus E = = −4
= 1.6975  1011 N m 2
Longitudinal  Strain 5  10

ii)Poisson’s ratio

d 4  10 −6
Lateral d
Poisson ratio  = = = 0.03−4 = 0.266
Longitudinal 5  10 −4 5  10

iii) Bulk modulus(K)

E 1.6975  1011
K= = = 1.209  1011 N m 2
3(1 − 2 ) 3(1 − 2  0.266)

Q.9 Calculate the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a cylindrical bar of diameter 30 mm
and of length 1.5 m if the longitudinal strain in a bar during a tensile stress is four times the laterial
strain. Find the change in volume, when the bar is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 100
N/mm2. Take E = 1 x 105 N/mm2.

Solution:

Given

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Diameter of bar d = 30mm = 0.03m ,

Length of bar L = 1.5m ,


Volume of bar V = (d )2  L =  (0.03)2  1.5 = 1.06  10 −3 m 3 ,
4 4

Longitudinal Strain = 4 x Laterial strain,

Hydrostatic pressure P = 100 N mm 2 = 108 N m 2 ,

µ = 0.25, Applying elastic constant expression, we get

E = 2G(1 +  ),
E 1011 ,
G= = = 4  1010 N m 2
2(1 +  ) 2(1 + 0.25)

1011
E = 3K (1 − 2 ), K =
E
= = 6.67  1010 N m 2 ,
3(1 − 2 ) 3(1 − 2  0.25)

According to definition of bulk modulus, we get

dp 10 8 dV 10 8
K= ,6.67  1010 = , = = 1.5  10 −3 ,
dV dV V 6.67  1010
V V
dV = V  1.5  10 = 1.06  10 −3  1.5  10 −3 = 1.59  10 −6 m 3
−3

Q.10 A circular rod of 100 mm diameter and 500 mm length is subjected to a tensile force of
1000 KN. Determine the modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus and change in volume if Poisson’s
ratio = 0.3 and young’s modulus = 2 x 105 N/mm2.

Solution:

E 2  1011
Modulus of rigidity G = = = 7.69  1010 N m 2 ,
2(1 +  ) 2(1 + 0.3)

E 2  1011
Bulk modulus K = = = 1.667  1011 N m 2 ,
3(1 − 2 ) 3  (1 − 2  0.3)

W 10 6
Normal stress  = = = 1.273  108 N m ,
2

A 
 (0.1)
2

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 l  1.273  108
Linear strain = = = = 6.37  10 −4 ,
l E 2  1011

d l
Diametral or lateral strain Lateral = =  = 0.3  6.37  10 −4 = 1.911 10 − 4 ,
d l

 
Volume of a circular rod V =
4
d 2 l , After differentiation: V =
4
2ddl + d l ,
2

V d l
Volumetric strain Volumetric =
V
=2
d
+
l
( ) ( )
= 2 − 1.911 10 − 4 + 6.37  10 −4 = 2.548  10 −4 ,

The –ve sign with d d indicate that diameter of rod decrease with the application of tensile
force.

 
Change in volume V = 2.548  10 −4   (0.1)  0.5 = 1.0  10 −6 m 3
2

4 

Important Question: Q11.

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