Eeem 2

CHAPTER -1
Magnetic Circuits
Introduction :
Magnetic flux lines always form closed loops. The closed path followed by the
flux lines is called a magnetic circuit. Thus, a magnetic circuit provides a path
for magnetic flux, just as an electric circuit provides a path for the flow of electric
current. In general, the term magnetic circuit applies to any closed path in space,
but in the analysis of electro-mechanical and electronic system this term is
specifically used for circuits containing a major portion of ferromagnetic materials.
The study of magnetic circuit concepts is essential in the design, analysis and
application of electromagnetic devices like transformers, rotating machines,
electromagnetic relays etc.
Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F) :
Flux is produced round any current – carrying coil. In order to produce the required
flux density, the coil should have the correct number of turns. The product of the
current and the number of turns is defined as the coil magneto motive force (m.m.f).
If I = Current through the coil (A)

N = Number of turns in the coil.
Magnetomotive force = Current x turns
So M.M.F = I X N
The unit of M.M.F. is ampere–turn (AT) but it is taken as Ampere(A) since N
has no dimensions.
Magnetic Field Intensity:
Magnetic Field Intensity is defined as the magneto-motive force per unit length of the
magnetic flux path. Its symbol is H.
Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

&Er.S K DAMINI
Permeability :-
Every substance possesses a certain power of conducting magnetic lines

of force. For example, iron is better conductor for magnetic lines of force than air (vaccum) .
Permeability of a material (μ) is its conducting power for magnetic lines of force. It is the ratio
of the flux density. (B) Produced in a material to the magnetic filed strength (H).
Reluctance :
Reluctance (s) is akin to resistance (which limits the electric Current).
Flux in a magnetic circuit is limited by reluctance. Thus reluctance(s) is a measure of the

opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the setting up of the flux.
Reluctance is the ratio of magneto motive force to the flux. Thus
Its unit is ampere turns per webber (or AT/wb).
Permeance:-
The reciprocal of reluctance is called the permeance (symbol A).
Permeance (A) = 1/S wb/AT
Turn T has no unit.
Hence permeance is expressed in wb/A or Henerys(H).
B.H. Curve :
Place a piece of an unmagnetised iron bar AB within the field of a

&Er.S K DAMINI
changing (increasing or decreasing) the current through the solenoid. If we
increase slowly the value of magnetic field (H) from zero to maximum value,
the value of flux density (B) varies along 1 to 2 as shown in the figure and the
magnetic materials (i.e iron bar) finally attains the maximum value of flux
density (Bm) at point 2 and thus becomes magnetically saturated.
Fig. 2.1
Now if value of H is decreased slowly (by decreasing the current in the
solenoid) the corresponding value of flux density (B) does not decreases along
2-1 but decreases some what less rapidly along 2 to 3. Consequently during the
reversal of magnetization, the value of B is not zero, but is '13' at H= 0. In other
wards, during the period of removal of magnetization force (H), the iron bar is
not completely demagnetized.
In order to demagnetise the iron bar completely, we have to supply the

demagnetisastion force (H) in the opposite direction (i.e. by reserving the
direction of current in the solenoid). The value of B is reduced to zero at
point 4, when H='14'. This value of H required to clear off the residual
magnetisation, is known as coercive force i.e. the tenacity with which the
material holds to its magnetism.
If after obtaining zero value of magnetism, the value of H is made more

negative, the iron bar again reaches, finally a state of magnetic saturation at
the point 5, which represents negative saturation. Now if the value of H is

&Er.S K DAMINI
CHAPTER -2
COUPLED CIRCUITS
It is defined as the interconnected loops of an electric network through the
magnetic circuit.
There are two types of induced emf.

(1) Statically Induced emf.
(2) Dynamically Induced emf.
Faraday’s Laws of Electro-Magnetic :

Introduction → First Law :→
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is induced in it.
OR
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux an emf is induced in it.
Second Law :→
It states that the magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages.
OR
The emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux and
number of turns
Mathematically :
d
e 
dt
e∝N
Or
Where e = induced emf

N = No. of turns
φ = flux
‘- ve’ sign is due to Lenz’s Law
Inductance :→
It is defined as the property of the substance which opposes any change in Current & flux.
Unit :→ Henry

&Er.S K DAMINI
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:→
It states that “hold your right hand with fore-finger, middle finger and thumb at right angles
to each other. If the fore-finger represents the direction of field, thumb represents the
direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger represents the direction of
induced emf.”
Lenz’s Law : →
It states that electromagnetically induced current always flows in such a
direction that the action of magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the vary
cause which produces it.
OR
It states that the direction of the induced current (emf) is such that it opposes the
change of magnetic flux.
(2) Dynamically Induced emf :→
In this case the field is stationary and the conductors are rotating in an uniform magnetic
field at flux density ‘B” Wb/mt2 and the conductor is lying perpendicular to the magnetic
field. Let ‘l’ is the length of the conductor and it moves a distance of ‘dx’ nt in time ‘dt’
second.
The area swept by the conductor = l. dx

Hence the flux cut = ldx. B
Change in flux in time ‘dt’ second =
E = Blv
If the conductor is making an angle ‘θ’ with the magnetic field, then
e = Blv sinθ

&Er.S K DAMINI
(1) Statically Induced emf :→
Here the conductors are remain in stationary and flux linked with it
changes by increasing or decreasing.
It is divided into two types .
(i) Self-induced emf.
(ii) Mutually-induced emf.
(i) Self-induced emf : → It is defined as the emf induced in a coil due to the
change of its own flux linked with the coil.
If current through the coil is changed then the flux linked with its own turn
will also change which will produce an emf is called self-induced emf.
Self-Inductance :→
It is defined as the property of the coil due to which it opposes any change
(increase or decrease) of current or flux through it.
Co-efficient of Self-Inductance (L) :→
It is defined as the ratio of weber turns per ampere of current in the coil.
OR
It is the ratio of flux linked per ampere of current in the coil.
1st Method for ‘L’ :→
Where L = Co-efficient of self-induction

N = Number of turns
φ = flux
I = Current
Er.AMARESH CHOUDHURY &Er.S.K DAMINI Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

2nd Method for L :→
We know that
⇒LI = Nφ
⇒−LI = −Nφ
Where L = Inductance
e = 1 volt
L = 1 Henry
A coil is said to be a self-inductance of 1 Henry if 1 volt is induced in it.

When the current through it changes at the rate of 1 amp/ sec.
3rd Method for L :→
Where A = Area of x-section of the coil

N = Number of turns
L = Length of the coil

(ii) Mutually Induced emf :→
It is defined as the emf induced in one coil due to change in current in other
coil. Consider two coils ‘A’ and ‘B’ lying close to each other. An emf will be
induced in coil ‘B’ due to change of current in coil ‘A’ by changing the
position of the rheostat.
Mutual Inductance :→
It is defined as the emf induced in coil ‘B’ due to change of current in coil ‘A’
is the ratio of flux linkage in coil ‘B’ to 1 amp. Of current in coil ‘A’.
Co-efficient of Mutual Inductance (M):

Coefficient of mutual inductance between the two coils is defined as the
weber-turns in one coil due to one ampere current in the other.
1st Method for ‘M’ :→
N2 = Number of turns
M = Mutual Inductance
φ1 = flux linkage
I1 = Current in ampere
2nd Method for M :→

We know that
⇒MI2 = N2 φ1
⇒−MI1 = N2 φ1

Where
eM = −1 VOLT
Then M = 1 Henry
A coil is said to be a mutual inductance of 1 Henry when 1 volt is induced
when the current of 1 amp/sec. is changed in its neighbouring coil.
3rd Method for M :→
Co-efficient of Coupling :
Consider two magnetically coupled coils having N1 and N2 turns respectively.
Their individual co-efficient of self-inductances are
The flux φ1 produced in coil ‘A’ due to a current of I1 ampere is
Suppose a fraction of this flux i.e. K1φ1 is linked with coil ‘B’
Similarly the flux φ2 produced in coil ‘B’ due to I2 amp. Is

Suppose a fraction of this flux i.e. K2φ2 is linked with coil ‘A’
Multiplying equation (1) & (2)
Where ‘K’ is known as the co-efficient of coupling.

Co-efficient of coupling is defined as the ratio of mutual inductance
between two coils to the square root of their self- inductances.
Inductances In Series (Additive) :→
Let M = Co-efficient of mutual inductance

L1 = Co-efficient of self-inductance of first coil.
L2 = Co-efficient of self-inductance of second coil.
EMF induced in first coil due to self-inductance
Mutually induced emf in first coil

EMF induced in second coil due to self induction
Mutually induced emf in second coil
Total induced emf

E=eL1+eL2+em1+em2
If ‘L’ is the equivalent inductance, then
Inductances In Series (Substnactive) :→
Let M = Co-efficient of mutual inductance

L1 = Co-efficient of self-inductance of first coil
L2 -= Co-efficient of self-inductance of second coil
Emf induced in first coil due to self induction
Mutually induced emf in first coil

Emf induced in second coil due to self-induction
Mutually induced emf in second coil
Total induced emf

e = e L1 + e L2 + e M1 + eM2
Then
Inductances In Parallel :→
Let two inductances of L1 & L2 are connected in parallel

Let the co-efficent of mutual inductance between them is M.
I-i1+i2
If ‘L’ is the equivalent inductance
Equating equation (3) & (5)
When mutual field assist.
When mutual field opposes.

Exp. -01 :
Two coupled cols have self inductances L1= 10×10-3H and L2= 20×10-3H. The
coefficient of coupling (K) being 0.75 in the air, find voltage in the
second coil and the flux of first coil provided the second coils has 500 turns
and
the circuit current is given by i1 = 2sin 314.1A.
Solution :
M=K√𝐿1𝐿2
M = 0.75 √10×10−3 × 20×10−3
⇒M =10.6×10−3H
The voltage induced in second coil is
𝑑𝑖1
V2=M
𝑑𝑡
=10.6×10-3 × 2×314 cos 314dt.
The magnetic circuit being linear,
Exp. 02
Find the total inductance of the three series connected coupled coils.Where
the self and mutual inductances are
L1 = 1H, L2 = 2H, L3 = 5H
M12= 0.5H, M23 = 1H, M13 = 1H
Solution:
LA = L1 + M12 + M13
= 1 + 20.5 +1
= 2.5H
LB = L2 + M23 + M12
= 2 + 1 + 0.5
= 3.5H
LC = L3 + M23 + M13
=5+1+1
= 7H
Total inductances are
Lea = LA + LB + Lc
= 2.5 + 3.5 + 7
= 13H (Ans)
CHAPTER -3
Circuit Elements and analysis
Voltage
Energy is required for the movement of charge from one point to another. Let W
Joules of energy be required to move positive charge Q columbs from a point a to
point b in a circuit. We say that a voltage exists between the two points. The voltage
V between two points may be defined in terms of energy that would be required if a
charge were transferred from one point to the other. Thus, there ca n be a voltage
between two points even if no charge is actually moving from one to the other.
Voltage between a and b is given by
W
V= J/C
Q
Worked are (W) in Joules

Hence Electric Potential (V) =
Ch arge (Q)in columbs
Current :
An electric current is the movement of electric charges along a definite path. In case
of a conductor the moving charges are electrons.
The unit of current is the ampere. The ampere is defined as that current which when
flowing in two infinitely long parallel conductors of negligible cross section, situated 1
meter apart in Vacuum, produces between the conductors a force of 2 x 10 -7 Newton per
metre length.
Power : Power is defined as the work done per unit time. If a field F newton acts for t
seconds through a distance d metres along a straight line, work done W = Fxd N.m. or J.
The power P, either generated or dissipated by the circuit element.
w  Fxd
P=
t t
Work
Power can also be written as Power =
time
Work Ch arge 
= x  Voltage x Current
Ch arge Time
P = V x I watt.
Energy : Electric energy W is defined as the Power Consumed in a given time. Hence, if
current IA flows in an element over a time period t second, when a voltage V volts is applied
across it, the energy consumed is given by
W = P x t = V x I x t J or watt. second.
The unit of energy W is Joule (J) or watt. second. However, in practice, the unit of
energy is kilowatt. hour (Kwh)
Resistance : According to Ohm's law potential difference (V) across the ends of a conductor
is proportional to the current (I) flowing through the conductor at a constant
temperature. Mathematically Ohm's law is expressed as
V I or V = R x I
V
Or R = where R is the proportionality constant and is designated as the conductor
I
resistance and has the unit of Ohm ().
Conductance : Voltage is induced in a stationary conductor when placed in a varying
magnetic field. The induced voltage (e) is proportional to the time rate of change of
current, di/dt producing the magnetic field.
di
Therefore e 
dt
di
Or e = L
dt
e and i are both function of time. The proportionality constant L is called inductance.
The Unit of inductance is Henery (H).
Capacitance : A capacitor is a Physical device, which when polarized by an electric field
by applying a suitable voltage across it, stores energy in the form of a charge separation.
The ability of the capacitor to store charge is measured in terms of capacitance.
Capacitence of a capacitor is defined as the charge stored per Volt applied.
q Coulomb
C=   Farad
v Volt
Active and passive Branch :
A branch is said to be active when it contains one or more energy sources. A passive
branch does not contain an energy source.
Branch : A branch is an element of the network having only two terminals.
Bilateral and unilateral element :
A bilateral element conducts equally well in either direction. Resistors and inductors
are examples of bilateral elements. When the current voltage relations are different
for the two directions of current flow, the element is said to be unilateral. Diode is an
unilateral element.
Linear Elements : When the current and voltage relationship in an element can be
simulated by a linear equation either algebraic, differential or integral type, the
element is said to be linear element.
Non Linear Elements : When the current and voltage relationship in an element can
not be simulated by a linear equation, the element is said to be non linear elements.
1.4 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) :
The algebraic sum of Voltages (or voltage drops) in any closed path or loop is Zero.
Application of KVL with series connected voltage source.
Fig. 1.1
V1 + V2 – IR1 – IR2 = 0
= V1 + V2 = I (R1 + R2)
V1  V2
I=
R1  R 2
Application of KVL while voltage sources are connected in opposite polarity.
Fig. 1.2
V1 – IR1 – V2 – IR2 – IR3 = 0
 V1 – V2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
 V1 – V2 = I (R1 + IR2 + IR3)

V1  V2
 I=
R1  R 2  R 3
Kirchaoff's Current Law (KCL) :
The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or mode is zero.
Fig. 1.3
Considering five conductors, carrying currents I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 and I5 meeting at a point O.
Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and outgoing currents negative.
I1 + (-I2) + I3 + (-I4) + I5 = 0
I 1 – I2 + I3 – I 4 + I5 = 0
I 1 + I3 + I5 = I 2 + I4
Thus above Law can also be stated as the sum of currents flowing towards any
junction in an electric circuit is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from
that junction.
Voltage Division (Series Circuit)
Considering a voltage source (E) with resistors R1 and R2 in series across it.
Fig. 1.4
Er.Amaresh Choudhury Dept.of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

E R1
I=
 R 2
Voltage drop across R1 = I. R1 = E.R 1

R1  R 2
E.R1
Similarly voltage drop across R2 = I.R2 =
R1  R 2
Current Division :
A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all branches in a
parallel circuit.
Fig. 1.5
Fig. shown the current I has been divided into I1 and I2 in two parallel branches with
resistances R1 and R2 while V is the voltage drop across R1 and R2.
V V
I1 = and I2 
R1 R2
Let R = Total resistance of the circuit.
1
Hence = 1  1
R R1 R 2
R1 R 2
 R=
R1  R 2
V
 V V (R1  R 2 )
I= 
R R1R 2 R1R 2
R1  R2
= I2 R 2
But = V = I1 R1
 I1 (R 1  R 2 )
I=
R2
Therefore I1 = IR2
R1  R 2
Similarly it can be derived that
IR1
I2 =
R1  R 2
NETWORK ANALYSIS
Different terms are defined below:
1. Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either
. flow or is intended flow
2. Network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner.

Whatsoever, is called an electric network
3. Node: it is an equipotential point at which two or more circuit elements are joined.
4. Junction: it is that point of a network where three or more circuit elements are joined.
5. Branch: it is a part of a network which lies between junction points.
6. Loop: It is a closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is accounted more than
once.
7. Mesh: It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.
Example 3.1 In this circuit configuration of figure 3.1, obtain the no. of i) circuit elements ii)
nodes iii) junction points iv) branches and v) meshes.
R5
c d
R4 R6
R1 V3 R8
a b e
V1 R2 R7
K h g f
R3 R9 V2
Solution: i) no. of circuit elements = 12 (9 resistors + 3 voltage sources)
ii) no. of nodes =10 (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, k, p)
iii) no. of junction points =3 (b, e, h)
iv) no. of branches = 5 (bcde, be, bh, befgh, bakh)
v) no. of meshes = 3 (abhk, bcde, befh)
MESH ANALYSIS
Mesh and nodal analysis are two basic important techniques used in finding solutions
for a network. The suitability of either mesh or nodal analysis to a particular problem depends
mainly on the number of voltage sources or current sources .If a network has a large number
of voltage sources, it is useful to use mesh analysis; as this analysis requires that all the
sources in a circuit be voltage sources. Therefore, if there are any current sources in a circ uit
they are to be converted into equivalent voltage sources,if, on the other hand, the network has
more current sources,nodal analysis is more useful.
Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar networks. For non-planar circuits mesh
analysis is not applicable .A circuit is said to be planar, if it can be drawn on a plane surface
without crossovers. A non-planar circuit cannot be drawn on a plane surface without a
crossover.
Figure 3.2 (a) is a planar circuit. Figure 3.2 (b) is a non-planar circuit and fig. 3.2 (c) is a
planar circuit which looks like a non-planar circuit. It has already been discussed that a loop
is a closed path. A mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
To apply mesh analysis, our first step is to check whether the circuit is planar or not and the
second is to select mesh currents. Finally, writing Kirchhoff‘s voltage law equations in terms
of unknowns and solving them leads to the final solution.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.2
Observation of the Fig.3.2 indicates that there are two loops abefa,and bcdeb in the
network .Let us assume loop currents I1 and I2 with directions as indicated in the figure.
Considering the loop abefa alone, we observe that current I1 is passing through R1, and (I1-I2)
is passing through R2. By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we can write
Vs. =I1 R1 +R2 (I1 -I2 ) (3.1)
R1 R3
a b c
Vs R2
R4
± I1 I2
f e d
Figure 3.3
Similarly, if we consider the second mesh bcdeb, the current I 2 is passing through R 3
and R4, and (I2 – I1 ) is passing through R 2. By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
second mesh, we have
R2 (I2-I1) + R3I2 +R4I2 = 0 (3.2)
By rearranging the above equations,the corresponding mesh current equations are
I1 (R1 +R2 ) - I2 R2 =Vs.
-I1R2 +(R2+R3+R4) I2=0 (3.3)
By solving the above equations, we can find the currents I 1 and I2,.If we observe
Fig.3.3, the circuit consists of five branches and four nodes, including the reference node.The
number of mesh currents is equal to the number of mesh equations.
And the number of equations=branches-(nodes-1).in Fig.3.3, the required number of

mesh current would be 5-(4-1)=2.
In general we have B number of branches and N number of nodes including the
reference node than number of linearly independent mesh equations M=B-(N-1).
Example 3.2 Write the mesh
5Ω 10Ω
current equations in the circuit shown 10 V 2Ω
50v
in fig 3.4 and determine the currents.
Figure 3.4
Solution: Assume two mesh currents in the direction as indicated in fig.

3.5. The mesh current equations are
5Ω
10 V I1 I2 10 Ω
2Ω 50V
Figure 3.5
5I1 + 2(I1-I2) = 10
1012 + 2(12-11) + 50= 0 (3.4)
We can rearrange the above equations as
7I1 -2I2 =10
-2I1+12I2 = -50 (3.5)
By solving the above equations, we have I1= 0.25 A, and I2 = -4.125

Here the current in the second mesh I2, is negative; that is the actual current I2 flows opposite
to the assumed direction of current in the circuit of fig .3.5.
Example 3.3 Determine the mesh current I1 in the circuit shown in fig.3.6.
10 Ω 2Ω
5Ω I2 + 10 V
I1 1Ω
50 V ‐
3Ω 5V
I3
Figure 3.6
Solution: From the circuit, we can from the following three mesh equations
10I1 +5(I1 +I2 ) +3(I1-I3) = 50 (3.6)
2I2 +5(I2 +I1 ) +1(I2 +I3 ) = 10 (3.7)
3(I3 -I1 ) +1(I3 +I2 ) = -5 (3.8)
Rearranging the above equations we get
18I1 +5I2 -3I3 =50 (3.9)
5I1+8I2 + I3=10 (3.10)
-3I1 + I2+ 4I3=-5 (3.11)
According to the Cramer’s rule
Or I1 = 3.3 A Similarly,
I1=3.3A, I2=-0.997A, I3=1.47A

MESH EQUATIONS BY INSPECTION METHODThe mesh equations for a general planar network can be writtenby
inspection without going through the detailed steps. Consider a three mesh networks as shown in figure 3.7
The loop equation are I1R1+ R2(I1-I2) =V1 R1 R3

R4
V1 I1 R2 I2 V2 I3 R5
Figure 3.7
R2 ( I2 -I1 )+I2 R3 = -V2 3.14
R4 I3 +R5 I3 =V2 3.15
Reordering the above equations, we have
(R1 +R2 )I1 -R2 I2 =V1 3.16
-R2 I1 +(R2 +R3 )I2 =-V2 3.17
(R4 +R5 )I3 =V2 3.18
The general mesh equations for three mesh resistive network can be written as
R11I1  R12I2  R13I3= Va 3.19
 R21I1+R22I2  R23I3= Vb 3.20
 R31I1  R32I2+R33I3= Vc 3.21
By comparing the equations 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18 with equations 3.19, 3.20 and 3.21
respectively, the following observations can be taken into account.
1. The self-resistance in each mesh

2. The mutual resistances between all pairs of meshes and
3. The algebraic sum of the voltages in each mesh.
The self-resistance of loop 1, R 11 =R1 +R2 , is the sum of the resistances through which I 1
passes.
The mutual resistance of loop 1, R 12 = -R2 , is the sum of the resistances common to loop
currents I1 and I2. If the directions of the currents passing through the common resistances are
the same, the mutual resistance will have a positive sign; and if the directions of the currents
passing through the common resistance are opposite then the mutual resistance will have a
negative sign.
Va=V1 is the voltage which drives the loop 1. Here the positive sign is used if
the direction of the currents is the same as the direction of the source. If the current
direction is opposite to the direction of the source, then the negative sign is used.
Similarly R22 =R2 +R3 and R33 =R4 +R5 are the self-resistances of loops 2 and 3
respectively. The mutual resistances R 13 =0, R21 = -R2 , R23 =0, R31 =0, R32 =0 are the
sums of the resistances common to the mesh currents indicated in their subscripts.
Vb= -V2, Vc= V2 are the sum of the voltages driving their respective loops.
Example 3.4 write the mesh equation for the circuit shown in fig. 3.8
1 2Ω
3Ω I2 5Ω
+ 5V
I1 _ +
10V - I3 4Ω
6Ω
+ -20V
Figure 3.8
Solution : the general equation for three mesh equation are
R11I1  R12I2  R13I3=Va (3.22)
 R21I1+R22I2  R23I3=Vb (3.23)
 R31I1  R32I2+R33I3=Vc (3.24)
Consider equation 3.22
R11 =self resistance of loop 1=(1Ω+ 3 Ω +6 Ω) =10 Ω
R12 = the mutual resistance common to loop 1 and loop 2 = -3 Ω
Here the negative sign indicates that the currents are in opposite direction .
R13 = the mutual resistance common to loop 1 & 3= -6 Ω
Va= +10 V, the voltage the driving the loop 1.
Here he positive sign indicates the loop current I1 is in the same direction as the
source element.
Therefore equation 3.22 can be written as

10 I1 - 3I2 -6I3 = 10 V (3.25)
Consider Eq. 3.23
R22 = self resistance of loop 2=(3Ω+ 2 Ω +5 Ω) =10 Ω

R23 =0, there is no common resistance between loop 2 and 3.
Vb = -5 V, the voltage driving the loop 2.
Therefore Eq. 3.23 can be written as
-3I1 + 10I2= -5V (3.26)
Consider Eq. 3.24
R32 = the mutual resistance common to loop 3 and loop 2 = 0
R33 = self resistance of loop 3=(6Ω+ 4 Ω) =10 Ω
Vc= the algebraic sum of the voltage driving loop 3
=(5 V+20V)=25 V (3.27)
Therefore, Eq3.24can be written as -6I1 + 10I3 = 25V
-6I1 -3I2 -6I3 = 10V
-3I1 +10I2 =-5V
-6I1 +10I3 =25V
SUPERMESH ANALYSIS
Suppose any of the branches in the network has a current source, then it is slightly difficult to
apply mesh analysis straight forward because first we should assume an unknown voltage
across the current source, writing mesh equation as before, and then relate the source current
to the assigned mesh currents. This is generally a difficult approach. On way to overcome this
difficulty is by applying the supermesh technique. Here we have to choose the kind of
supermesh. A supermesh is constituted by two adjacent loops that have a common current
source. As an example, consider the network shown in the figure 3.9.
R2
+ V I1 I2 R3 I3 R4
1 I 2 3
Figure 3.9
Here the current source I is in the common boundary for the two meshes 1 and 2. This current
source creates a supermesh, which is nothing but a combination of meshes 1 and 2.
R1 I1 + R3(I2 -I3 )=V
Or R1I1 + R3I2 - R4I3= V
Considering mesh 3, we have
R3 (I3 -I2)+ R4 I3 =0
Finally the current I from current source is equal to the difference between two mesh currents
i.e.
I1 -I2 =I
we have thus formed three mesh equations which we can solve for the three unknown
currents in the network.
Example 3.5. Determine the current in the 5Ω resistor in the network given in Fig. 3.10
a b II e
I 10 Ω I2 2Ω
2A f
+
50 v I1 3Ω 1Ω
I3
5Ω
Figure 3.10
Solution: - From the first mesh, i.e. abcda, we have
50 = 10(I1-I2 ) + 5(I1 -I3 )
Or 15I1-10I2 -5I3 =50 (3.28)
From the second and third meshes. we can form a super mesh
10(I2-I1)+2I2 +I3+5(I3-I1)=0
Or -15I1+12I2 +6I3 =0 (3.29)

The current source is equal to the difference between II and III mesh currents
i.e. I2-I3 = 2A (3.30)
Solving 3.28.,3.29 and 3.30. we have
I1 =19.99A,I2= 17.33 A, and I3 = 15.33 A
The current in the 5Ω resistor =I1 -I3
=19.99 -15.33=4.66A
The current in the 5Ω resistor is 4.66A.
Example 3.6. Write the mesh equations for the circuit shown in fig. 3.11 and determine the
currents, I1, I2 and I3.
10V
I1
I2 I3
10 A 3Ω 1Ω
2Ω
I II III
Figure 3.11
Solution ; In fig 3.11, the current source lies on the perimeter of the circuit, and the
first mesh is ignored. Kirchhoff‘s voltage law is applied only for second and third meshes .
From the second mesh, we have
3(I2 -I1 )+2(I2 -I3 )+10 =0
Or -3I1 +5I2-2I3 = -10 (3.31)
From the third mesh, we have
I3 + 2 (I3 -I2) =10
Or -2I2 +3I3 =10 (3.32)

From the first mesh, I1 =10A (3.33)
From the abovethree equations, we get
I1=10A, I2 =7.27, I3 =8.18A
NODALANALYSIS
In the chapter I we discussed simple circuits containing only two nodes, including the
reference node. In general, in a N node circuit, one of the nodes is chosen as the reference or datum
node, then it is possible to write N -1nodal equations by assuming N-1 node voltages. For
example,a10 node circuit requires nine unknown voltages and nine equations. Each node in a circuit
can be assigned a number or a letter. The node voltage is the voltage of a given node with respect to
one particular node, called the reference node, which we assume at zero potential. In the circuit shown
in fig. 3.12, node 3 is assumed as the Reference node. The voltage at node 1 is the voltage at that
node with respect to node 3. Similarly, the voltage at node 2 is the voltage at that node with respect to
node 3. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node 1, the current entering is the current leaving (See
Fig.3.13)
1 2
R2 R4
I1 R1 R3 R5
3 Figure 3.12
R2
1 2
I1
R1
Figure 3.13
I1= V1/R1 + (V1-V2)/R2

Where V1 and V2 are the voltages at node 1 and 2, respectively. Similarly, at node
2.the current entering is equal to the current leaving as shown in fig. 3.14
R2 R4
R3 R5
Figure 3.14
(V2-V1)/R2 + V2/R3 + V2/(R4+R5) =0
Rearranging the above equations, we have
V1[1/R1 +1/R2 ]-V2 (1/R2 )= I1
-V1(1/R2) + V2[1/R2+1/R3+1/(R4+R5)]=0
From the above equations we can find the voltages at each node.
Example 3.7 Determine the voltages at each node for the circuit shown in fig 3.15
3Ω
10Ω 2Ω
3Ω
10 V 5Ω 5A 1Ω 6Ω
Figure 3.15
Solution : At node 1, assuming that all currents are leaving, we have

(V1 -10)/10 + (V1 -V2)/3 +V1 /5 + (V1 -V2 )/3 =0
Or V1[1/10 +1/3 +1/5 + 1/3 ] - V2 [ 1/3 + 1/3 ] = 1
0.96V1-0.66V2 = 1 (3.36)
At node 2, assuming that all currents are leaving except the current from current source, we
have
(V2 -V1 )/3+ (V2 -V1 )/3+ (V2-V3 )/2 = 5
-V1 [2/3]+V 2 [1/3 +1/3 + 1/2]-V3 (1/2) =5
-0.66V 1 +1.16V 2 -0.5V 3 = 5 (3.37)
At node 3 assuming all currents are leaving, we have
(V3 -V2 )/2 + V3 /1 + V 3 /6 =0
-0.5V2 + 1.66V 3 =0 (3.38)
Applying Cramer’s rule we get
NODAL EQUATIONS BY INSPECTION METHOD The nodal equations for a general planar network can also be written by inspection
without going through the detailed steps. Consider a three node resistive network, including the reference node, as shown in fig 3.16
R1 R3 R5
a b
V1
R2 R4 V2
Figure 3.16
In fig. 3.16 the points a and b are the actual nodes and c is the reference node.
Now consider the nodes a and b separately as shown in fig 3.17(a) and (b)
R1 V a R3 R3 Vb R5
Vb Va
I1 I5 I3 I3 I5
V1 R2 R4 I4 V2
(a) (b)
Figure 3.17
In fig 3.17 (a), according to Kirchhoff’s current law we have
I1 +I2 +I3 =0
(Va-V1 )/R1 +Va/R2 + (Va-Vb)/R3 = 0 (3.39)
In fig 3.17 (b) , if we apply Kirchhoff’s current law
I4 + I5 = I3
(Vb-Va)/R3 + Vb/R4+(Vb-V2)/R5=0 (3.40)
Rearranging the above equations we get
(1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3 )Va-(1/R3 )Vb=(1/R1 )V1 (3.41)
(-1/R3)Va+ (1/R3+1/R4+1/R5)Vb=V2/R5 (3.42)
In general, the above equation can be written as
GaaVa + GabVb=I1 (3.43)
GbaVa + GbbVb=I2 (3.44)
By comparing Eqs 3.41,3.42 and Eqs 3.43, 3.44 we have the self conductance at node
a, G aa=(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ) is the sum of the conductances connected to node a. Similarly,
Gbb = (1/R3 + 1/R4 +1/R5 ) is the sum of the conductances connected to node b. G ab=(-1/R3 ) is
the sum of the mutual conductances connected to node a and node b. Here all the mutual
conductances have negative signs. Similarly, G ba= (-1/R3 ) is also a mutual conductance
connected between nodes b and a. I1 and I2 are the sum of the source currents at node a and
node b, respectively. The current which drives into the node has positive sign, while the
current that drives away from the node has negative sign.
Example 3.8 for the circuit shown in the figure 3.18 write the node equations by the
inspection method.
a b
1Ω 3Ω 2Ω
5Ω 4Ω
10V 2Ω
2V 5V
Fig 3.18
Solution:-
The general equations are
GaaVa+GabV b=I1 (3.45)
GbaVa + GbbVb =I2 (3.46)
Consider equation 3.45
Gaa=(1+ 1/2 +1/3) mho. The self conductance at node a is the sum of the conductances
connected to node a.
Gbb = (1/6 + 1/5 + 1/3) mho the self conductance at node b is the sum of conductances
connected to node b.
Gab =-(1/3) mho, the mutual conductances between nodes a and b is the sum of the
conductances connected between node a and b.
Similarly Gba = -(1/3), the sum of the mutual conductances between nodes b and a.
I1 =10/1 =10 A, the source current at node a,

I2 =(2/5 + 5/6) = 1.23A, the source current at node b.
Therefore, the nodal equations are
1.83V a-0.33V b =10 (3.47)
-0.33V a+0.7V b= 1.23 (3.48)
SUPERNODE ANALYSIS
Suppose any of the branches in the network has a voltage source, then it is slightly difficult to
apply nodal analysis. One way to overcome this difficulty is to apply the supernode
technique. In this method, the two adjacent nodes that are connected by a voltage source are
reduced to a single node and then the equations are formed by applying Kirchhoff’s current
law as usual. This is explained with the help of fig. 3.19
V1 V2 + _ V3
1 2 3
R2 VX
I R1 R3 R4 R5
VY
FIG 3.19
It is clear from the fig.3.19, that node 4 is the reference node. Applying Kirchhoff’s current
law at node 1, we get
I=(V 1 /R1 ) + (V1 -V2)/R2
Due to the presence of voltage source V χ in between nodes 2 and 3 , it is slightly

difficult to find out the current. The supernode technique can be conveniently applied in this
case.
Accordingly, we can write the combined equation for nodes 2 and 3 as under.
(V2 -V1 )/R2 + V 2 /R3 + (V3 -Vy)/R4 +V3 /R5 = 0
The other equation is
V2-V3 =V x
From the above three equations, we can find the three unknown voltages.
Example 3.9 Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor for the circuit shown in fig.
3.20
2Ω
V1 V2 +_--- - V3
20 V
1Ω 5Ω 2Ω
10 A3Ω
10 V fig. 3.20
Solution. At node 1
10= V1 /3 + (V1 -V2 )/2
Or V1[1/3 +1/2]-(V2/2)-10=0
0.83V 1 -0.5V2 -10 = 0 (3.49)
At node 2 and 3, the supernode equation is
(V2 -V1 )/2 + V 2 /1 + (V 3 -10)/5 +V3 /2 = 0
Or –V1 /2 +V2 [(1/2)+1]+ V3 [1/5 + 1/2]=2
Or -0.5V 1 + 1.5V2 +0.7V 3 -2=0 (2.50)
The voltage between nodes 2 and 3 is given by
V2-V3 =20 (3.51)

CHAPTER-4
INTRODUCTION NETWORK THEORM

This chapter introduces a number of theorems that have application throughout the field of
electricity and electronics. Not only can they be used to solve networks such as encountered
in the previous chapter, but they also provide an opportunity to determine the impact of a
particular source or element on the response of the entire system. In most cases, the network
to be analyzed and the mathematics required to find the solution are simplified. All of the
theorems appear again in the analysis of ac networks. In fact, the application of each theorem
to ac networks is very similar in content to that found in this chapter.
The first theorem to be introduced is the superposition theorem, followed by Thévenin’s
theorem, Norton’s theorem, and the maximum power transfer theorem. The chapter
concludes with a brief introduction to Millman’s theorem and the substitution and reciprocity
theorems.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The superposition theorem states that “The current through, or voltage across, any
element of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced
independently by each source.”
In other words, this theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage using
only one source at a time. Once we have the solution for each source, we can combine the
results to obtain the total solution. The term algebraic appears in the above theorem statement
because the currents resulting from the sources of the network can have different directions,
just as the resulting voltages can have opposite polarities.
If we are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be
removed. Setting a voltage source to zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its
terminals. Therefore, when removing a voltage source from a network schematic, replace it
with a direct connection (short circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal resistance associated with
the source must remain in the network.
Setting a current source to zero amperes is like replacing it with an open circuit. Therefore,
when removing a current source from a network schematic, replace it by an open circuit of
infinite ohms. Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the network.
The above statements are illustrated in Fig.

EXAMPLE 9.1
a. Using the superposition theorem, determine the current
through resistor R2 for the network in Fig. 9.2.
Solutions:
In order to determine the effect of the 36 V voltage source,
the current source must be replaced by an open-circuit
equivalent as shown in Fig. 9.3. The result is a simple series
circuit with a current equal to
Examining the effect of the 9 A current source requires replacing

the 36 V voltage source by a short-circuit equivalent as shown in
Fig. 9.4. The result is a parallel combination of resistors R1 and 2.
Applying the current divider rule results in
Since the contribution to current I2 has the same direction for

each source, as shown in Fig. 9.5, the total solution for current I2
is the sum of the currents established by the two sources. That is,
EXAMPLE 9.2 Using the superposition theorem, determine the

current through the 12 Ω resistors in Fig. 9.8. Note that this is a two-source network of the
type examined in the previous chapter when we applied branch-current analysis and mesh
analysis.
Solution: Considering the effects of the 54 V source requires replacing the 48 V source by a
short-circuit equivalent as shown in Fig. 9.9. The result is that the 12 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are
in parallel. The total resistance seen by the source is therefore,
EXAMPLE 9.3 Using the superposition theorem, determine current I1 for the network in
Solution: Since two sources are present, there are two networks
to be analyzed. First let us determine the effects of the voltage
source by setting the current source to zero amperes as shown
in Fig. 9.13. Note that the resulting current is defined as I1 ’
because it is the current through resistor R1 due to the voltage
source only.
Due to the open circuit, resistor R1 is in series (and, in fact, in
parallel) with the voltage source E. The voltage across the
resistor is the applied voltage, and current I1 ’ is determined by
Now for the contribution due to the current source.

Setting the voltage source to zero volts results in the
network in Fig. 9.14, this presents us with an
interesting situation. The current source has been
replaced with a short-circuit equivalent that is
directly across the current source and resistor R1.
Since the source current takes the path of least
resistance, it
chooses the zero ohm path of the inserted short-
circuit equivalent, and the current through R1 is zero
amperes. This is clearly demonstrated by an
application of the current divider rule as follows:
THÉVENIN’S THEOREM
The next theorem to be introduced, Thévenin’s theorem, is probably one of the most
interesting in that it permits the reduction of complex networks to a simpler form for analysis
and design.
In general, the theorem can be used to do the following:
• Analyze networks with sources that are not in series or parallel.
• Reduce the number of components required to establish the same characteristics at the
output terminals.
• Investigate the effect of changing a particular component
on the behaviour of a network without having to analyze the
entire network after each change.
All three areas of application are demonstrated in the examples

to follow.
Thévenin’s theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit
consisting solely of a voltage source and a series resistor as
shown in
Fig. 9.23.
The theorem was developed by Commandant Leon-Charles
Thévenin in 1883 as described in Fig. 9.24.
To demonstrate the power of the theorem, consider the
fairly complex network of Fig. 9.25(a) with its two sources and
series-parallel connections.
The theorem states that the entire network inside the blue shaded
area can be replaced by one voltage source and one resistor as
shown in Fig. 9.25(b). If the replacement is done properly, the
voltage across, and the current through, the resistor RL will be the
same for each network. The value of RL can be changed to any
value, and the voltage, current, or power to the load resistor is the same for each
configuration.
Now, this is a very powerful statement—one that is verified in the examples to follow.
The question then is, How can you determine the proper value of Thévenin voltage and
resistance? In general, finding the Thévenin resistance value is quite straightforward. Finding
the Thévenin voltage can be more of a challenge and, in fact, may require using the
superposition theorem.
Fortunately, there is a series of steps that will lead to the proper value of each parameter.
Although a few of the steps may seem trivial at first, they can become quite important when
the network becomes complex.
Thévenin’s Theorem Procedure

Preliminary:
1. Remove that portion of the network where the Thévenin equivalent circuit is found. In
Fig. 9.25(a), this requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily removed from the
network.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this step
will become obvious as we progress through some complex networks.) RTh:
3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to
zero.) ETh:
4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the
open-circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one that
causes most confusion and errors. In all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit
potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.) Conclusion:
5. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the
placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the Thévenin equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig. 9.25(b).
level of the resulting voltage to establish the measured resistance
level. In Fig. 9.28(b), the trickle current of the ohmmeter approaches
the network through terminal a, and when it reaches the junction of R1
and R2, it splits as shown. The fact that the trickle current splits and
then recombines at the lower node reveals that the resistors are in
parallel as far as the ohmmeter reading is concerned. In essence, the
path of the sensing current of the ohmmeter has revealed how the
resistors are connected to the two terminals of interest and how the
Thévenin resistance should be determined. Remember this as you
work through the various examples in this section.
Step 4: Replace the voltage source (Fig. 9.29). For this case, the
opencircuit voltage ETh is the same as the voltage drop across the 6 Ω
resistor.
Applying the voltage divider rule gives
EXAMPLE 9.7 Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in the shaded area of
the network in Fig. 9.32.
Solution:
Steps 1 and 2: See Fig. 9.33.
Step 3: See Fig. 9.34. The current source has been replaced with an open-circuit equivalent
and the resistance determined between terminals a and b.
In this case, an ohmmeter connected between terminals a and b sends out a sensing current
that flows directly through R1 and R2 (at the same level). The result is that R1 and R2 are in
series and the Thévenin resistance is the sum of the two,
Step 4: See Fig. 9.35. In this case, since an open circuit exists between the two marked
terminals, the current is zero between these terminals and through the 2Ω resistor. The
voltage drop across R2 is, therefore,
V2 = I2R2 = (0) R2 = 0 V
and ETh = V1 = I1R1 = IR1 = (12 A)(4 _) = 48 V
Step 5: See Fig. 9.36.
EXAMPLE 9.8 Find the Thévenin
equivalent circuit for the network in
the shaded area of the network in Fig.
9.37. Note in this example that there is
no need for the section of the network
to be preserved to be at the “end” of
the configuration.
Solution:
Steps 1 and 2: See Fig. 9.38
Step 3: See Fig. 9.39. Steps 1 and 2 are relatively easy to apply, but now we must be careful
to “hold” onto the terminals a and b as the Thévenin resistance and voltage are determined. In
Fig. 9.39, all the remaining elements turn out to be in parallel, and the network can be
redrawn as shown. We have
Step 4: See Fig. 9.40. In this case, the network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 9.41. Since
the voltage is the same across parallel elements, the voltage across the series resistors R1 and
R2 is E1, or 8 V. Applying the voltage divider rule gives
EXAMPLE 9.9 Find the

Thévenin equivalent circuit for the
network in the shaded area of the
bridge network in Fig. 9.43.
Solution:
Step 3: See Fig. 9.45. In this case, the short-circuit replacement of the voltage source E
provides a direct connection between c and c_ in Fig. 9.45(a), permitting a “folding” of the
network around the horizontal line of a-b to produce the configuration in Fig. 9.45(b).
EXAMPLE 9.11 For the network of Fig. 9.54,
a. Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the
portion of the network in the shaded area.
b. Reconstruct the network of Fig. 9.54 with the
Thévenin equivalent network in place.
c. Using the resulting network of part (b) find
the voltage Va.
Solutions:
a. Steps 1 and 2: See Fig. 9.55.
Step 4: Applying the superposition theorem, we will first find the

effect of the voltage source on the Thévenin voltage using the network
of Fig. 9.57. Applying the voltage divider rule:
NORTON’S THEOREM
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be
replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source and a
parallel
resistor, as shown in Fig. 9.65.
The discussion of Thévenin’s theorem with respect to the equivalent circuit can also be
applied to the Norton equivalent circuit. The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN
are now listed.
Norton’s Theorem Procedure

Preliminary:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
RN:
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short
circuits and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to
zero.) Since RN _ RTh, the procedure and value obtained using the approach described for
Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of RN.
IN:
4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the
short-circuit current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be
measured by an ammeter placed between the marked terminals.
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
The Norton and Thévenin equivalent circuits can also be found from each other by using the
source transformation discussed earlier in this chapter and reproduced in Fig. 9.66.
EXAMPLE 9.12 Find the Norton equivalent circuit for
the network in the shaded area in Fig. 9.67.
Solution:
Step 3: See Fig. 9.69, and
Step 4: See Fig. 9.70, which clearly indicates that the

short-circuit connection between terminals a and b is in
parallel with R2 and eliminates its effect. IN is therefore
the same as through R1, and the full battery voltage
appears across R1 since
Step 5: See Fig. 9.71. This circuit is the same as the first
one considered in the development of Thévenin’s
theorem. A simple conversion indicates that the
Thévenin circuits are, in fact, the same (Fig. 9.72).
EXAMPLE 9.13 Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network
external to the 9 _ resistor in Fig. 9.73.
Solution:
EXAMPLE 9.14 (Two sources) Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the portion of the
network to the left of a-b in Fig. 9.78.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM
When designing a circuit, it is often important to be able to answer one of the following
questions:
What load should be applied to a system to ensure that the load is receiving maximum
power from the system?
Conversely:
For a particular load, what conditions should be imposed on the source to ensure that it
will deliver the maximum power available?
Even if a load cannot be set at the value that would result in maximum power transfer, it is
often helpful to have some idea of the value that will draw maximum power so that you can
compare it to the load at hand. For instance, if a design calls for a load of 100 Ω, to ensure
that the load receives maximum power, using a resistor of 1 Ω or 1 k Ω results in a power
transfer that is much less than the maximum possible.
However, using a load of 82 Ω or 120 Ω probably results in a fairly good level of power
transfer. Fortunately, the process of finding the load that will receive maximum power from a
particular system is quite straightforward due to the maximum power transfer theorem,
which states the following:
A load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance is exactly equal to
the Thévenin resistance of the network applied to the load. That is,
The total power delivered by a supply such as ETh is absorbed by both the Thévenin
equivalent resistance and the load resistance. Any power delivered by the source that does
not get to the load is lost to the Thévenin resistance.
Under maximum power conditions, only half the power delivered by the source gets to the
load. Now, that sounds disastrous, but remember that we are starting out with a fixed
Thévenin voltage and resistance, and the above simply tells us that we must make the two
resistance levels equal if we want maximum power to the load. On an efficiency basis, we are
working at only a 50% level, but we are content because we are getting maximum power out
of our system.
The dc operating efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the load (PL) to
the power delivered by the source (Ps). That is,
If efficiency is the overriding factor, then the load should be much larger than the internal
resistance of the supply. If maximum power transfer is desired and efficiency less of a
concern, then the conditions dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem should
be applied.
A relatively low efficiency of 50% can be tolerated in situations where power levels are
relatively low, such as in a wide variety of electronic systems, where maximum power
transfer for the given system is usually more important. However, when large power levels
are involved, such as at generating plants, efficiencies of 50% cannot be tolerated. In fact, a
great deal of expense and research is dedicated to raising power generating and transmission
efficiencies a few percentage points. Raising an efficiency level of a 10 MkW power plant
from 94% to 95% (a 1% increase) can save 0.1 MkW, or 100 million watts, of power —an
enormous saving. In all of the above discussions, the effect of changing the load was
discussed for a fixed Thévenin resistance. Looking at the situation from a different viewpoint,
we can say
if the load resistance is fixed and does not match the applied Thévenin equivalent
resistance, then some effort should be made (if possible) to redesign the system so that the
Thévenin equivalent resistance is closer to the fixed applied load.
In other words, if a designer faces a situation where the load resistance is fixed, he or she
should investigate whether the supply section should be replaced or redesigned to create a
closer match of resistance levels to produce higher levels of power to the load.
For the Norton equivalent circuit in Fig. 9.90, maximum power will be delivered to the load
when ,
RL = RN ........................................................ (9.5)
This result [Eq. (9.5)] will be used to its
fullest advantage in the analysis of transistor
networks, where the most frequently applied
transistor circuit model uses a current source
rather than a voltage source.
For the Norton circuit in Fig. 9.90,
To demonstrate that maximum power is

indeed transferred to the load
under the conditions defined above, consider
the Thévenin equivalent circuit in Fig. 9.85.
Before getting into detail, however, if you
were to guess what value of RL would result in
maximum power transfer to RL, you might think
that the smaller the value of RL, the better it is
because the current reaches a maximum when it
is squared in the power equation. The problem
is, however, that in the equation PL = I 2
LRL, the load resistance is a multiplier. As it gets
smaller, it forms a smaller product. Then again,
you might suggest larger values of RL because
the output voltage increases, and power is
determined by PL = V 2 L /RL. This time,
however, the load resistance is in the denominator of the equation and causes the resulting
power to decrease. A balance must obviously be made between the load resistance and the
resulting current or voltage. The following discussion shows that
maximum power transfer occurs when the load voltage and current are one-half their
maximum possible values.
For the circuit in Fig. 9.85, the current through the load is determined by
power has a maximum value of 100 W, the current is 3.33 A, or one-half its maximum value
of 6.67 A (as would result with a short circuit across the output terminals), and the voltage
across the load is 30 V, or one-half
its maximum value of 60 V (as would result with an open circuit across its output terminals).
As you can see, there is no question that maximum power is transferred to the load when the
load equals the Thévenin value.
The power to the load versus the range of resistor values is provided in Fig. 9.86. Note in
particular that for values of load resistance less than the Thévenin value, the change is
dramatic as it approaches the peak value. However, for values greater than the Thévenin
value, the drop is a great deal more gradual. This is important because it tells us the
following:
If the load applied is less than the Thévenin resistance, the power to the load will drop off
rapidly as it gets smaller. However, if the applied load is greater than the Thévenin
resistance, the power to the load will not drop off as rapidly as it increases.
CHAPTER-05
AC CIRCUIT AND RESONANCE
Direct Current Alternating Current
(1) D.C. always flow in one (1) A.C. is one which reverse
direction and whose magnitude periodically in
remains constant.
direction and whose magnitude
undergoes a definite cycle changes
in definite intervals of time.
(2) (2) Low cost of production

High cost of production.
(3) (3) By using transformer A.C. voltage
It is not possible by D.C.
can be decreased or increased.
Because D.C. is dangerous to the
transformer. A.C. can be transmitted to a long
(4) (4) distance economically.
Its transmission cost is too high.
Definition of A.C. terms :-

Cycle : It is one complete set of +ve and –ve values of alternating quality
spread over 360 or 2 radan.
Time Period : It is defined as the time required to complete one cycle.
Frequency : It is defined as the reciprocal of time period. i.e. f = 1/ T
Or
It is defined as the number of cycles completed per second.
Amplitude : It is defined as the maximum value of either +ve half cycle or –ve
half cycle.
Phase : It is defined as the angular displacement between two haves is zero.
OR
Two alternating quantity are in
phase when each pass through their zero
value at the same instant and also attain
their maximum value at the same instant in
a given cycle.
V = Vm sin wt
i = Im sin wt
Phase Difference :- It is defined as the angular displacement between two

alternating quantities.
OR
If the angular displacement between two waves are not zero, then that is
known as phase difference. i.e. at a particular time they attain unequal distance.
OR
Two quantities are out of phase if they reach their maximum value or
minimum value at different times but always have an equal phase angle between
them.
Here V = Vm sin wt
i = Im sin (wt-)
In this case current lags voltage by an angle ‘’.
Phasor Diagram :
Generation of Alternating emf :-
Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N” turns, area of cross-section is ‘A’ nt2 is
placed in
2
x-axis in an uniform magnetic field of maximum flux density Bm web/nt . The
coil is rotating in the magnetic field with a velocity of w radian / second. At
time t = 0, the coil is in x-axis. After interval of time ‘dt’ second the coil make
rotating in anti-clockwise direction and makes an angle ‘’ with x-direction.
The perpendicular component of the magnetic field is  = n cos wt
According to Faraday’s Laws of electro-magnetic Induction
d
e  N 
dt
d
 N ( cos wt)
dt m
 N (mw cos wt)
 Nwm sin wt
 2fNm sin wt(Q w  2f )
 2fNBm Asin wt
e  E m sin wt
Where Em  2fNBm A
f frequency in Hz
Bm Maximum flux density in Wb/mt2
Now when  or wt = 90
e = Em
i.e. Em = 2fNBmA
Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Value :

The r.m.s. value of an a.c. is defined by that steady (d.c.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
Sinuscdial alternating current is
i = Im sin wt = Im sin 
The mean of squares of the instantaneous values of current over one
complete cycle2 2
i .d
  (2  0)
0
The square root of this value is

2
i 2.d
  2
0
2
(I sin  )2 
  m 2 d
0
2 2
I
 m
2 0 sin  .d
2


1  cos 2 
2 2
Im
 d
2 0 
 2  
 2 2
  Im
4  1  cos 2 d
0
2   sin 2 2
I

m
4  2
0
I 2 2  sin 4 
d
4 0  2  2 
 m
 2  0
2 2
 Im
4 0
2
I Im
 m

2 2
Im
Ir .m.s   0.707 I
m
2
Average Value :

The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady
current (d.c.) which transfers across any circuit the same charge as it transferred
by that alternating current during the sae time.
The equation of the alternating current is i = Im sin 

i .d
Iav  
(  0)
0
Im.sin
 π
 Im 
  d π sin θ. dθ
0 0

Im
 cos  


Im
 cos   (cos 0 
0
π 0
π

Im
1 0(1)
π
2Im
Iav 

2  Maximum Current
Iav 
π
Hence, Iav  0.637Im
The average value over a complete cycle is zero
Amplitude factor/ Peak factor/ Crest factor :- It is defined as the ratio of
maximum value to r.m.s value.
MaximumValue I 
Ka   m  2  1.414
R.M .S.Value Im
2
Form factor : - It is defined as the ratio of r.m.s value to average value.
r.m.s.Value 0.707Im 
Kf    2  1.414
Average.Value 0.637Im
Kf = 1.11
Phasor or Vector Representation of Alternating Quantity :






An alternating current or voltage, (quantity) in a vector quantity which
has magnitude as well as direction. Let the alternating value of current be
represented by the equation e = Em Sin wt. The projection of Em on Y-axis at
any instant gives the instantaneous value of alternating current. Since the
instantaneous values are continuously changing, so they are represented by a
rotating vector or phasor. A phasor is a vector rotating at a constant angular
velocity
At t1, e1  Em sin wt1
1
At t2 , e2  Em sin wt2
2
Addition of two alternating Current :

Let e1  Em sin wt
1
e2  Em sin(wt  )
2
The sum of two sine waves of the same

frequency is another sine wave of same
frequency but of a different maximum value and
Phase.
e  e12  e22  2e1 e2 cos
Phasor Algebra :
A vector quantity can be expressed in terms of
(i) Rectangular or Cartesian form
(ii) Trigonometric form
(iii) Exponential form
(iv) Polar form
E  a  jb
 E(cos  j sin )
Where a = E cos  is the active part
b = E sin  is the reactive part
b
  tan1  a  Phase angle
 
j 1(90o )
j2  1(180o )
j3   j(270o )
j 4  1 (360o )
(i) Rectangular for :-

E  a  jb
tan  b / a
(ii) Trigonometric form :-
E  E(cos  j sin )
(iii) Exponential form :-
E  Ee j
(iv) Polar form :-
E  E/  e (E  a2  b2 )
Addition or Subtration :-
E1  a1  jb1
E2  a2  jb2
E1  E2  (a1  a2)  (b1  b2
1
 b1  b2 
  tan a  a 
 1 2 
Multiplication : -
E1  E2  (a1  ja1)  (a1  jb2)
 (a1a2  b1b2)  j(a1a2  b1b2)
1
 a 1b 2  b 1a 2 
  tan a a  bb
 1 2 1 2 
E1  E11
E2  E2 2
E1  E2  E1E2 1  2
Division :-
E1  E11
E2  E22 E
E E    1   
1
 1 1
E2 E22 E2
1 2
A.C. through Pure Resistance :

Let the resistance of R ohm is connected across to A.C supply of applied
voltage
e  Em sin wt (1)
Let ‘I’ is the instantaneous current .
Here e = iR
 i = e/R
i = Emsin wt / R------------------------ (2)
By comparing equation (1) and equation (2) we get alternating voltage
and current in a pure resistive circuit are in phase
Instantaneous power is given by
P = ei
= Em sin wt . Im sin wt
= Em Im sin2 wt
Em Im
 .2sin2 wt
2
Em Im
 . .(1  cos 2wt)
2 2
E m Im E I
P .  m . m .cos 2wt
2 2 2 2
V I I
i.e. P  m . m  Vm . m .cos 2wt
2 2 2 2
Where Vm . Im is called constant part of power.
2 2
Vm Im
. .cos 2wt is called fluctuating part of power.
2 2
Vm Im
The fluctuating part .cos 2wt of frequency double that of voltage and current
2
waves.
Vm Im
Hence power for the whole cycle is P  .  V rms .Irms
2 2
 P  VI watts
A.C through Pure Inductance :

Let inductance of ‘L’ henry is connected across the A.C. supply
v  Vm sin wt (1)
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic inductance the emf induced
across the inductance
di
V L
dt
di
is the rate of change of current
dt
di
V sin wt  L
m
dt
di Vm sin wt

dt L
Vm
 di  sin wt.dt
L
Integrating both sides,
Vm
 di   L sin wt.dt
Vm  cos wt 
i 



L  w 
Vm cos wt
i
wL
Vm
i cos wt
wL
Vm 
i sinwt  
 
VwL    2 

  m sin wt   [Q X  2fL  wL]

  L
XL  2 
MaxiVmum value of i is  
I  m when  is unity.
m sin wt 
XL  2 
Hence the equation of current becomes i  Im sin(wt   / 2)
So we find that if applied voltage is rep[resented by v  Vm sin wt , then current
flowing in a purely inductive circuit is given by
i  Im sin(wt   / 2)
Here current lags voltage by an angle /2 Radian.
Power factor = cos 

= cos 90
=0
Power Consumed = VI cos 
= VI  0
=0
Hence, the power consumed by a purely Inductive circuit is zero.
A.C. Through Pure Capacitance : 






Let a capacitance of ‘C” farad is connected across the A.C. supply of applied
voltage
v  Vm sin wt (1)
Let ‘q’ = change on plates when p.d. between two plates of capacitor is ‘v’
q = cv
q = cVm sin wt
dq d
c (V sin wt)
m
dt dt
i = cVm sin wt
= wcVm cos wt
Vm
  cos wt
1/ wc
 m  cos wt [Q X  1  1
V is known as capacitive reactance
Xc c
wc 2fc
in ohm.]
 Im cos wt
 Im sin(wt   / 2)
Here current leads the supply voltage by an angle /2 radian.
Power factor = cos 
= cos 90 = 0
Power Consumed = VI cos 
= VI  0 = 0
The power consumed by a pure capacitive circuit is zero.
A.C. Through R-L Series Circuit : 








The resistance of R-ohm and inductance of L-henry are connected in series
across the A.C. supply of applied voltage
e  Em sin wt (1)
V  VR  jVL
 V 2  V 2   tan1  X L 
R L  
 R  X
 L 
 (IR)2  (IX )2   tan1
 
L  X  R 
 I R 2  X 2   tan1 L
L  
X   R 
V  IZ  tan1 L 
  
 R 
Where Z  R2  X L2
 R  jXL is known as impedance of R-L series Circuit.
V E sin wt
I  m
Z Z
I  Im sin(wt  )
Here current lags the supply voltage by an angle .
Power Factor : It is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current.
OR
It is the ratio of active power to apparent power.
OR
It is the ratio of resistance to inpedence .
Power :
 v.i
 Vm sin wt.Im sin(wt   )
 Vm Im sin wt.sin(wt  )
1
 V I 2 sin wt.sin(wt  )
2 m m
1
 VI
[cos  cos 2(wt  )]
2 m m
Obviously the power consists of two parts.
1
(i) a constant part V I cos which contributes to real power.
m m
2
1
(ii) a pulsating component V I cos(2wt ) which has a frequency twice
m m
2
that of the voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power since its
average value over a complete cycle is zero.
Hence average power consumed
1
 V I cos
2 mm
V I
 m . m cos
2 2
 VI cos
Where V & I represents the r.m.s value.
A.C. Through R-C Series Circuit : 
The resistance of ‘R’-ohm and capacitance of ‘C’ farad is connected across the
A.C. supply of applied voltage
e  Em sin wt --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
V  VR  ( jVC )
 IR  ( jIXC )
 I (R  jXC )
V  IZ
Where Z  R  jXC  R2  X C 2 is known as impedance of R-C series Circuit.

Z  R  jX C
 R2  X C2
X 
    tan1 C 
 

 R 
V  IZ  
V
I 
Z  
E sin wt
 m
Z  
Em
 sin(wt  )
Z
 I  Im sin(wt  )
Here current leads the supply voltage by an angle ‘’.
A.C. Through R-L-C Series Circuit : 
Let a resistance of ‘R’-ohm inductance of ‘L’ henry and a capacitance of ‘C’
farad are connected across the A.C. supply in series of applied voltage
e  Em sin wt (1)
  
e  VR  VL  VC
 VR  jVL  jVC
 VR  j(VL  VC )
 IR  j(IX L  IXC )
 I[R  j( X L  XC )]
I  X L  X 
    tan1 C
R2  ( X  X )2  
L C
 R 
 IZ  
Where ZI R2  ( X L  X C )2 is known as the impedance of R-L-C Series
Circuit.
If X L  XC , then the angle is +ve.
If X L  XC , then the angle is -ve.
Impedance is defined as the phasor sum of resistance and net reactance
e  IZ  
e Em sin wt
I  IZ     Im sin(wt  )
Z   Z  
(1) If X L  XC , then P.f will be lagging.
(2) If X L  XC , then, P.f will be leading.
(3) If X L  XC , then, the circuit will be resistive one. The p.f. becomes unity
and the resonance occurs.
REASONANCE
It is defined as the resonance in electrical circuit having passive or active
elements represents a particular state when the current and the voltage in the
circuit is maximum and minimum with respect to the magnitude of excitation at
a particular frequency and the impedances being either minimum or maximum
at unity power factor
Resonance are classified into two types.
(1) Series Resonance
(2) Parallel Resonance
(1) Series Resonance :- Let a resistance of ‘R’ ohm, inductance of ‘L’
henry and capacitance of ‘C’ farad are connected in series across A.C. supply
e  Em sin wt
The impedance of the circuit
Z  R  j( X L  XC )]
Z R2  ( X L  X C)2
The condition of series resonance:
The resonance will occur when the reactive part of the line current is zero
The p.f. becomes unity.
The net reactance will be zero.
The current becomes maximum.
At resonance net reactance is zero
X L  XC  0
 X L  XC
1
W L 
o
WoC
 Wo2LC  1
1
W 2 
o LC
1
W 
o LC
1
 2fo 
LC
1
 fo 
2 LC
Resonant frequency ( f )  1 . 1
o
2 LC
Impedance at Resonance
Z0 = R
Current at Resonance
V
I 
o
R
Power factor at resonance
p. f . 
R

R
1 QZ o
 R
Zo R
Resonance Curve :-
At low frequency the Xc is greater and the circuit behaves leading and
at high frequency the XL becomes high and the circuit behaves
lagging circuit.
If the resistance will be low the curve will be stiff (peak).
 If the resistance will go oh increasing the current goes on decreasing and
the curve become flat.
Band Width :
At point ‘A’ the power loss is I0 2R.
The frequency is f0 which is at resonance.
I 2R
At point ‘B’ the power loss is 0
.
2
The power loss is 50% of the power loss at point
‘A”/
Hence the frequencies

corresponding to point ‘B’ is known as half power frequencies f1 & f2.
f1 = Lower half power frequency
 R
f1  f0 4L
F2 = Upper half power frequency
 R
f2  f0 4L
Band width (B.W.) is defined as the difference between upper half power
frequency ad lower half power frequency.
R
B.W. = f2  f1 
2L
Selectivity : 
Selectivity is defined as the ratio of Band width to resonant frequency
B.W. R R
Selectivity =  Selectivity 
f0 2L 2fo L
Quality Factor (Q-factor) :
It is defined as the ratio of 2  Maximum energy stored to energy dissipated
per cycle
1
2  LI 2
0
Q-factor = 2
I 2 RT

L 2I  2
I 2RT
L.2I 2
 2
I RT
L.2I 2
 2
I RT
2L.

RT
2f L.  1. 
Quality factor =  0 
Q  f0 
R  
I

Quality factor is defined as the reciprocal of power factor.
Q factor =  1.
cos
It is the reciprocal of selectivity.
Voltage across Inductor.
Q-factor Or Magnification factor 
Voltage across resistor
I0 X L

I0 R
X
 L
R
2f0L W0 L
 
R R
W0 L
Q- factor = 
R
Q-factor factor Voltage across Capacotor.


Voltage across resistor
I X
 0 c
I0 R
XC

R
1 1
 
2f 0C 2f 0CR
1
Q-factor 
W0CR
W0 L
Q2   1
R W0CR
1
Q2 
R2 C
1
Q
R2 C
1 L
Q
R C
Graphical Method :
(1) Resistance is independent of frequency It represents a straight line.
(2) Inductive Reactance XL = 2fL
It is directly proportional to frequency. As the frequency increases , XL
increases
(3) Capacitive Reactance XC =  1
2fC
It is inversely proportional to frequency. As the frequency increases, XC

decreases.
When frequency increases, XL increases and XC decreases from the
higher value.
At a certain frequency. XL = XC
That particular frequency is known as Resonant frequency.
Variation of circuit parameter in series resonance:
(2) Parallel Resonance :- Resonance will occur when the reactive part of the
line current is zero.
At resonance,
IC – ILsin  = 0
IC  IL sin
V V
  sin 
XC R2  X L2 
V V XL
  
R 2
 X L2
XC R2  X L2
1
  XL
XC R2  XL 2
 R2  XL 2  X L.X C
1
 Z  X .X  W L 
2
L C 0
W0C
L
Z2 
C
f0 =Resonant frequency in parallel circuit.

Current at Resonance = I L cos
V R
 .
R2  X L 2 R2  X L2
VR
 2
R  X L2

VR
Z2 
VR V
 
L /C L / RC
 V
Dynamic Impedence
L / RC  Dynamic Impedance of the circuit.
or, dynamic impedances is defined as the impedance at resonance frequency in
parallel circuit.
Parallel Circuit :

The parallel resonance condition:

When the reactive part of the line current is zero.
The net reactance is zero.
The line current will be minimum.
The power factor will be unity
Impedance Z1  R1  jX L
Z2  R2  jXC
1 1
Admittance Y1  
Z 1 R1  jX L
(R1  jX L )

(R1  jX L )(R1  jX L )
R  jX L
 12
R X 2
1 L
R1 XL
Y1  2  j
R X 2
R X2
2
1 L 1 L
1 1
Admittance Y  
2
Z 2 R1  jXC
(R2  jXC )

(R21  jXC )(R2  jXC )
R2  jX L

R22  X C2
R XC
Y2  2 2  j 
R X 2
R2X 2
2 C 2 C
1  L  CR 12 
 f   
2  L2C  LC 2 R 2 
 2 
f is called Resonant frequency.
If R 2  0
1 L  CR 2
Then f  1
2 L2 C
1 L  CR 12

2L C
1 L
  R12
2 L C
1 L R2
  1
2 L2 C L2
1 L R2
f 
2 LC  L2
1
If R1 and R2 = 0, then
1 L
f 
2 L2 C
1 1 1
f  
2 LC 2 LC
Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuit :

Item Series ckt (R-L-C) Parallel ckt (R– L and
C)
 Impedance at Resonance Minimum Maximum
V V
 Current at Resonance
Maximum= R Minimum= (L / CR)
R L
 Effective Impedance
CR
 P.f. at Resonance Unity Unity

2
1
 Resonant Frequency 1 1 R

2 LC 2 LC L2
 It Magnifies Voltage Current
WL WL
 Magnification factor
R R







Parallel circuit :







Z1  R1  jX L  R12  X L 2 1
Z2  R1  jXC  R2 12  X C 2    2
V V
I       I   
1 Z  Z

1 1 1
1 1 1
V
Where  VY
1
Z1
Here Y1  Admittance of the circuit
Admittance is defined as the reciprocal of impedence.
v
I  VY 
R1  jX L
1 1
V
I  V 1  VY2   I 22
2
Z  2  Z
2 1 2
I I 12  I 22  2I1I 2 cos(1  2 )
I  I1  1  I2 2
The resultant current “I” is the vector sum of the branch currents I1 & I2
can be found by using parallelogram low of vectors or resolving I2 into their X
– and Y- components ( or active and reactive components respectively) and then
by combining these components.
Sum of active components of I1 and I2 = I1 cos 1+ I2 cos 2

Sum of the reactive components of I1 and I2 = I2 sin 2 - I1 sin 1
EXP – 01 :
A 60Hz voltage of 230 V effective value is impressed on an inductance of
0.265 H
(i) Write the time equation for the voltage and the resulting current. Let the
zero axis of the voltage wave be at t = 0.
(ii) Show the voltage and current on a phasor diagram.
(iii) Find the maximum energy stored in the inductance.
Solution :-
Vmax  2V  2  230V
f = 60Hz, W  2f  2  60  377rad / s.
xl  wl  377  0.265  100 .
(i) The time equation for voltage is V (t)  230 2 sin 377t.
2
I max  Vmax / xl  230 /100.  2.3 3
  90 o (lag ).
QCurrente quation is.
i(t)  2.3 2 sin(377t   / 2)
or  2.3 2 cos 377t
(ii) Iti 1 1
(iii) or E  LI 2max   0.265  (2.3 2)2  1.4J

max
2 2
Example -02 :
The potential difference measured across a coil is 4.5 v, when it carries a
direct current of 9 A. The same coil when carries an alternating current of 9A at
25 Hz, the potential difference is 24 v. Find the power and the power factor
when it is supplied by 50 v, 50 Hz supply.
Solution :
Let R be the d.c. resistance and L be inductance of the coil.
R  V / I  4.5 / 9  0.5
With a.c. current of 25Hz, z = V/1.
24
 2.66
9
xl  Z 2  R 2  2.662  0.52
 2.62
xl  2  25 L
xl  0.0167
At 50Hz
xl  2.62 2  5.24
Z  0.52  5.242
 5 .06 
I = 50/5.26 = 9.5 A
P = I2/R = 9.52  0.5 = 45 watt.
Example – 03 :
A 50- f capacitor is connected across a 230-v, 50 – Hz supply. Calculate
(a) The reactance offered by the capacitor.
(b) The maximum current and
(c) The r.m.s value of the current drawn by the capacitor.
Solution :
(a) x  1  1  1  63.6
l wc 2π fe 2  50  50 106
(c) Since 230 v represents the r.m.s value
Q I rms  230 / xl  230 / 63.6  3.62 A
(b) Im  Ir.m.s  2  3.62  2  5.11A
Example – 04 :
In a particular R – L series circuit a voltage of 10v at 50 Hz produces a
current of 700 mA. What are the values of R and L in the circuit ?
Solution :
(i) Z  R 2  (2  50L) 2
 R2  98696L2
V  1z
10  700 103 (R2  98696L2 )
(R2  98696L2 )  10 / 700 103  100 / 7
R2  98696L2  10000/ 49 ----------------------- (I)
(ii) In the second case Z  R 2  (2  75L)2
Q10  500 103 R2  222066L2 )  20
R 2  222066L2 )  20
CHAPTER-7
TRANSIENTS
Whenever a network containing energy storage elements such as inductor or capacitor is
switched from one condition to another,either by change in applied source or change in
network elements,the response current and voltage change from one state to the other
state.The time taken to change from an initial steady state to the final steady state is known
as the transient period.This response is known as transient response or transients.The
response of the network after it attains a final steady value is independent of time and is
called the steady‐state response.The complete response of the network is determined with
the help of a differential equation.
STEADY STATE AND TRANSIENT RESPONSE
In a network containing energy storage elements, with change in excitation, the currents
and voltages in the circuit change from one state to other state. The behaviour of the
voltage or current when it is changed from one state to another is called the transient state.
The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady state is
called the transient time. The application of KVL and KCL to circuits containing energy
storage elements results in differential, rather than algebraic equations. when we consider a
circuit containing storage elements which are independent of the sources, the response
depends upon the nature of the circuit and is called natural response. Storage elements
deliver their energy to the resistances. Hence, the response changes, gets saturated after
some time,and is referred to as the transient response. When we consider a source acting
on a circuit, the response depends on the nature of the source or sources.This response is
called forced response. In other words,the complete response of a circuit consists of two
parts; the forced response and the transient response. When we consider a differential
equation, the complete solution consists of two parts: the complementary function and the
particular solution. The complementary function dies out after short interval, and is referred
to as the transient response or source free response. The particular solution is the steady
state response, or the forced response. The first step in finding the complete solution of a
circuit is to form a differential equation for the circuit. By obtaining the differential
equation, several methods can be used to find out the complete solution.
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐L CIRCUIT
Consider a circuit consisting of a resistance and inductance as shown in figure.The inductor

in the circuit is initially uncharged and is in series with the resistor.When the switch S is
closed ,we can find the complete solution for the current.Application of kirchoff’s voltage
law to the circuit results in the following differential equation.
Figure 1.1
V = Ri + L ……………………………………………………………..1.1
Or + i = ........................................................... 1.2
In the above equation , the current I is the solution to be found and V is the applied constant
voltage. The voltage V is applied to the circuit only when the switch S is closed. The above equation
is a linear differential equation of first order.comparing it with a non‐homogenious differential
equation
+ P x = K ......................................................................1.3
whose solution is
X= dt +c ......................................................... 1.4
Where c is an arbitrary constant. In a similar way , we can write the current equation as
i=c dt
Hence , i =c + ............................................ 1.5
To determine the value of c in equation c , we use the initial conditions .In the circuit shown in
Fig.1.1, the switch s is closed at t=0.at t=0‐,i.e. just before closing the switch s , the current in the
inductor is zero. Since the inductor does not allow sudden changes in currents, at t=o+ just after
the switch is closed,the current remains zero.
Thus at t = 0, i =0
Substituting the above condition in equation c , we have
0=c+
Substituting the value of c in equation c , we get
i= ‐
i= (1‐ )
i= (1‐ ) (where
i= (1‐ ) ( where ) ..................................................................... 1.6

Figure 1.2
Equation d consists of two parts, the steady state part V/R) and the transient part .
When switch S is closed , the response reaches a steady state value after a time interval as
shown in figure 1.2.
Here the transition period is defined as the time taken for the current to reach its final
or stedy state value from its initial value.In the transient part of the solution, the
quantity L/R is important in describing the curve since L/R is the time period required
for the current to reach its initial value of zero to the final value V/R. The time
constant of a function is the time at which the exponent of e is unity, where e
is the base of the natural logarithms.The term L/R is called the time constant and is
denoted by τ .
So, τ = sec
Hence, the transient part of the solution is
i= =
At one Time constant , the transient term reaches 36.8 percent of its initial value.
i(τ) = ‐ =‐ = ‐0.368
Similarly,
i(2τ) = ‐ = ‐0.135
i(3τ) = ‐ = ‐0.0498
i(5τ) = ‐ = ‐0.0067
After 5 TC the transient part reaches more than 99 percent of its final value.
In figure A we can find out the voltages and powers across each element by using the current.
Voltage across the resistor is
=R i = R (1‐ )
Hence , =V (1‐ )
Similarly, the voltage across the inductance is
=L =L =V
The responses are shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
Power in the resistor is
= i = V (1‐ )
= (1‐ )+
Power in the inductor is
= i= V
= ( ‐ )
The responses are shown in figure 1.4 .

Figure 1.4
Problem : 1.1
Figure 1.5
A series R‐L circuit with R = 30Ω and L = 15 H has a constant voltage V = 50 V applied at t=0 as
shown in Fig. 1.5 . determine the current i, the voltage across resistor and across inductor.
Solution :
By applying Kirchoff’s voltage Law, we get
15 +30i =60
+2i=4
The general solution for a linear differential equation is
i=c + dt
where P=2,K=4
putting the values
i=c + dt
i=c +2
At t=0, the switch s is closed.
Since the inductor never allows sudden change in currents. At t= the current in the circuit is
zero. Therefore at t= , i =0
0=c + 2
c =‐ 2
Substituting the value of c in the current equation, we have
i=2(1‐ )A
voltage across resistor ( ) =iR =2(1‐ ) x 30=60(1‐ )v
voltage across inductor ( ) = L = 15 2(1‐ ) = 30 v=
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐C CIRCUIT
Consider a circuit consisting of a resistance and capacitance as shown in figure.The capacitor in the
circuit is initially uncharged and is in series with the resistor.When the switch S is closed at t=0 , we
can find the complete solution for the current.Application of kirchoff’s voltage law to the circuit
results in the following differential equation.
Figure 1.6
V = Ri + ................................................................ 1.7
By differentiating the above equation, we get
0=R + i ……………………………………………………1.8
Or
+ i =0 ……………………………………………………1.9
Equation c is a linear differential equation with only the complementary function. The particular
solution for the above equation is zero. The solution for this type of differential equation is
i=c …………………………………..1.10
To determine the value of c in equation c , we use the initial conditions .In the circuit shown in
Fig. the switch s is closed at t=0. Since the capacitor does not allow sudden changes in voltage, it
will act as a short circuit at t=o+ just after the switch is closed.
So the current in the circuit at t = 0+ is
Thus at t = 0, the current i =
Substituting the above condition in equation c , we have
=c
Substituting the value of c in equation c , we get
i = .......................................................................... 1.11
Figure 1.7
When switch S is closed , the response decays as shown in figurre.
The term RC is called the time constant and is denoted by τ .
So, τ = RC sec
After 5 TC the curve reaches 99 percent of its final value.
In figure A we can find out the voltage across each element by using the current equation.
Voltage across the resistor is

=R i = R
Hence , =V
Similarly, voltage across the capacitor is
=‐ +c
=‐V +c
At t=0,voltage across capacitor is zero
So, c = V
And
=V
The responses are shown in Figure1.8.
Figure 1.8
Power in the resistor is
= i= V
Power in the capacitor is
= i = V (1‐
= ( ‐ )
The responses are shown in figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9
Problem : 1.2
A series R‐C circuit with R = 10Ω and C =0.1 F has a constant voltage V = 20 V applied at t=0 as
shown in Fig. determine the current i, the voltage across resistor and across capacitor.
Figure 1.10
Solution :
10i + =20
Differentiating w.r.t. t we get
10 + =0
+ i= 0
The solution for above equation is

i=c
Since the capacitor never allows sudden change in voltages. At t= the current in the circuit is
i = V/R=20/10 =2 A
. Therefore at t= 0, i =2 A
the current equation is i=2
voltage across resistor ( ) =iR =2 x 10=20 v
voltage across capacitor ( ) =V = 20(1‐ )V
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐L‐C CIRCUIT
Consider a circuit consisting of a resistance, inductance and capacitance as shown in figure.The

capacitor and inductor in the circuit is initially uncharged and are in series with the resistor.When
the switch S is closed at t=0 , we can find the complete solution for the current.Application of
kirchoff’s voltage law to the circuit results in the following differential equation.
Figure 1.11
V = Ri + L + .............................................................................1.12
By differentiating the above equation, we get
0=R + i =............................................................... 1.13
Or
+ + i =0 ........................................................... 1.14
The above equation c is a second order linear differential equation with only the complementary
function. The particular solution for the above equation is zero. The characteristics equation for this
type of differential equation is
+ D+ = 0 .............................................................. 1.15
The roots of equation 1.15 are
=‐
By assuming =‐ and =
and =
Here may be positive,negative or zero .
Case I : >
Then , the roots are Real and Unequal and give an over damped Response as shown in figure
1.12.
The solution for the above equation is : i = +
Figure 1.12
Case II :
Then , the roots are Complex Conjugate, and give an under‐damped Response as shown in
figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13
The solution for the above equation is : i =
Case III :
Then , the roots are Equal and give an Critically‐damped Response as shown in figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14
The solution for the above equation is : i =
Problem : 1.3
A series R‐L‐C circuit with R = 20Ω , L = 0.05H and C = 20 μF has a constant voltage V = 100 V
applied at t=0 as shown in Fig. determine the transient current i .
Figure 1.15
Solution :
100=30i 0.05
+20 + i =0
+400 + i =0
+ 400D + i =0
The roots of equation are
=‐
= ‐200
‐200+j979.8
‐200‐j979.8
Therefore the current
i=
i= A
Since the inductor never allows sudden change in currents. At t= the current in the circuit is
zero. Therefore at t= , i =0
i =0 =(1)
= 0 and i = A
At t=0, the voltage across the inductor is 100 V
=100 or = 2000
At t=0, = 2000=
= =2.04
The current equation is

i=
ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM

TECHNIQUE
The Laplace transform is a powerful Analytical Technique that is widely used to study the
behavior of Linear,Lumped parameter circuits. Laplace Transform converts a time domain
function f(t) to a frequency domain function F(s) and also Inverse Laplace transformation
converts the frequency domain function F(s) back to a time domain function f(t).
L { f(t)} = F(s) = f(t) dt........................................................................................................LT 1
{ F(s)} = f(t) = ds .........................................................................................LT 2
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐L CIRCUIT (LT Method)
Let us determine the solution i of the first order differential equation given by equation A which
is for the DC response of a R‐L Circuit under the zero initial condition i.e. current is zero, i=0 at
t= and hence i=0 at t= in the circuit in figure A by the property of Inductance not allowing
the current to change as switch is closed at t=0.
Figure LT 1.1
V = Ri + L ……………………………………………………………..LT 1.1
Taking the Laplace Transform of bothe sides we get,
=R I(s) + L [ s I(s) –I(0) ] ................................................................ LT 1.2
=R I(s) + L [ s I(s) ] ( I(0) =0 : zero initial current )
= I(s)[R +L s]
I(s) =................................................................................ LT 1.3

Taking the Laplace Inverse Transform of both sides we get,
I(s)} =
i(t) = ( Dividing the numerator and denominator by L )
putting we get
i(t) = = ( }
i(t) = ( } ( again putting back the value of
i(t) = ( } = ( 1‐ )= ( 1‐ ) (where
i(t)= ( 1‐ ) ( where ).................................................................... LT 1.4
It can be observed that solution for i(t) as obtained by Laplace Transform technique is same as
that obtained by standard differential method .
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐C CIRCUIT(L.T.Method)
Similarly ,
is for the DC response of a R‐C Circuit under the zero initial condition i.e. voltage across
capacitor is zero, =0 at t= and hence =0 at t= in the circuit in figure A by the property
of capacitance not allowing the voltage across it to change as switch is closed at t=0.
Figure LT 1.2
V = Ri + ............................................................................ LT 1.5
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides we get,
=R I(s) + [ +I (0) ]................................................. LT 1.6
=R I(s) + [ ] ( I(0) =0 : zero initial charge )
= I(s)[R + ] = I(s)[ ]
I(s) = [ ]= ………………………………..LT 1.7
I(s)} =
i(t) = ( Dividing the numerator and denominator by RC )
putting we get
i(t) = =
i(t) = ( putting back the value of
i(t) = (where ………………………………..LT 1.8

i(t)= ) ( where RC )
It can be observed that solution for i(t) as obtained by Laplace Transform technique in q is
same as that obtained by standard differential method in d.
DC RESPONSE OF AN R‐L‐C CIRCUIT ( L.T. Method)
Figure LT 1.3
Similarly ,
is for the DC response of a R‐L‐C Circuit under the zero initial condition i.e. the switch s is closed
at t=0.at t=0‐,i.e. just before closing the switch s , the current in the inductor is zero. Since the
inductor does not allow sudden changes in currents, at t=o+ just after the switch is closed,the
current remains zero. also the voltage across capacitor is zero i.e. =0 at t= and hence =0
at t= in the circuit in figure by the property of capacitance not allowing the voltage across it
to suddenly change as switch is closed at t=0.
V = Ri + L.......................................................... LT 1.9
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides we get,

=R I(s) ++ L [ s I(s) –I(0) ]+ [ +I (0) ] ................................................. LT 1.10
=R I(s) + [ ] ( & I(0) =0 : zero initial

charge )
= I(s)[R +L ] = I(s)[ ]
I(s) = [ ] =................................................................................ LT 1.11
I(s)} =
i(t) = ( Dividing the numerator and denominator by LC )
i(t) =
putting = we get
i(t) =
The denominator polynomial becomes =
where, = =
where, = ; = and =
By partial Fraction expansion , of I(s) ,
I(s) = +
A= s=
B= s=
= = ‐
I(s) = (
Taking the Inverse Laplace Transform

i(t) = +
Where and are constants to be determined and and aren the roots of the
equation.
Now depending upon the values of and , we have three cases of the response.
CASE I : When the roots are Real and Unequal, it gives an over‐damped response.
or ; In this case, the solution is given by
i(t) = + ) .................................................LT 1.12
or i(t) = + for t 0
CASE II : When the roots are Real and Equal, it gives an Critically‐damped response.
= or ; In this case, the solution is given by
or
i(t) = ( + ) for t 0.................................................LT 1.13
CASE III : When the roots are Complex Conjugate, it gives an under‐damped response.
or ; In this case, the solution is given by
i(t) = + for t 0
where, =
Let = =j where j= and =
Hence , i(t) = + )
i(t) =
i(t) =
i(t) =.....................................................................................................................LT 1.14
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
CHAPTER 8
TWO-PORT NETWORKS
+ i1
v One-Port
Network
-
a) One port network is a two terminal electrical network in which, current

enters through one terminal and leaves through another terminal. Resistors,
inductors and capacitors are the examples of one port network because each
one has two terminals. One port network representation is shown in the
following figure.
b) A pair of terminals at which a signal (voltage or current) may enter or leave is
called a port.
c) A network having only one such pair of terminals is called a one-port network.
d) No connections may be made to any other nodes internal to the network.
e) By KCL, we therefore havei1=i1
i 2
+ +
Two-Port
v 1
v
Network
-
i'
1 - i' 2
 two port network is a pair of two terminal electrical network in which, current
enters through one terminal and leaves through another terminal of each port. Two
port network representation is shown in the following figure.Type equation here.
 Two-port networks are used to describe the relationship between a pair of
terminals
 The analysis methods we will discuss require the following conditions be
met
1. Linearity
2. No independent sources inside the network
3. No stored energy inside the network (zero initial conditions)
4. i1 = i1 and i2 = i
72
Two Port Network Parameters
There are various parameters needed to analyze a two port
network. For examples, Z parameters, Y parameters, h
parameters, g parameters, ABCD parameters etc.
Let us discuss these network parameters one by one to gain a
better understanding of their application and uses.
Impedance Parameters
 Suppose the currents and voltages can be measured.
 Alternatively, if the circuit in the box is known,V1 and V2 can be calculated
based on circuit analysis.
 Relationship can be written in terms of the impedance parameters.
 We can also calculate the impedance parameters after making two sets of
measurements.
V1=z11I1+z12I2
V2=z21I1+z22I2
If the right port is an open circuit (I2=0), then we can easily solve for two of
the impedance parameters: Similarly by open circuiting left hand port ( I1=0 ) we can
solve for the other two parameters.
2
73
Impedance Parameter Equivalent
I ( s)
1 I ( s)
2
z 11 z 22
+ +
V (s)
1 zI 12 2 zI 21 1 V (s)
2
- -
V1=z11I1+z12I2
V2=z21I1+z22I2
 Once we know what the impedance parameters are, we can model

the behavior of the two-port with an equivalent circuit.
 Notice the similarity to Th´evenin and Norton equivalents
74
Admittance Parameters
i
2
+ +
v Two-Port
1 v 2
Network
-
i'
1 - i' 2
I1=y11V1+y12V2
I2=y21V1+y22V2
I1
Y11 = input admittance = V 0
2
V1
I2
Y = forward transfer admittance = V 0
21 2
V1
I1
Y = output admittance = V 0
22 1
V2
I1
Y = reverse transfer admittance = V 0
12 1
V2
Hybrid Parameters
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h21I1+h22V2
V1
h11 = input impedance = V 0
2
I1
I2
h = forward current ratio = V 0
21 2
I1
V1 I  0
h12 = reverse voltage ratio = 1
V2
I2
h22 = output admittance = I 0
1
V2
75
Example:
Given the following circuit. Determine the Z parameters.
I1 I2
8 10 
+ +
V1 20 20  V2
_ _
Z11 = 8 + 20||30 = 20 

Z22 = 20||30 = 12 
V1 I  0
Z12  1
I2
20xI2 x20 8xI2  8 Ω = z

V   8xI Therefore z 
1
20  30 2 12
I2 21
The Z parameter equations can be expressed in matrix form as follows.

V1    z11 z12   I1 
V  z z  I 
  2  21 22   2 
 V1  20 8 I1 


 V  8 12 I
  2    2 
Example: 
Given the following circuit. Determine the Y parameters.
I1 1
I2
+ +
1
V1 s
s V2
_ _
1 
I1 = y11V1 + y12V2
I2 = y21V1 + y22V2
76
I1 1
I2
+ +
1 s
V1
s V2
_ _
1 
To find y11
2s  2 
V1  I1 ( )  I1 
2 1 s  2s 1
I I
So
y  1 y  1  s  0.5
11 V 11 V V2  0
1 1
To find y and y we reverse things and short V
12 21 1
I2 V2  0
y21 
V1
V1   2I2
I2
y21  = 0.5 S
V1
I1
y  V 0
12 1
V2
I1
V   2I y   0.5s
2 1 12
V2
1
y  0.5 
22
s
2s 1
y  I2 V  0 V I y  0.5 
22 1 22
V2 2 2
(s  2) s
77
Problem 1
78
79
Problem 2
80
Problem 3
Problem 4
81
82
83
CHAPTER 9
LOW PASS FILTER INTRODUCTION
Basically, an electrical filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify,
reshape or reject all unwanted frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only
those signals wanted by the circuit’s designer. In other words they “filter-out” unwanted
signals and an ideal filter will separate and pass sinusoidal input signals based upon
their frequency.
In low frequency applications (up to 100kHz), passive filters are generally

constructed using simple RC(Resistor-Capacitor) networks, while higher frequency
filters (above 100kHz) are usually made from RLC (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor)
components.
Passive Filters are made up of passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so
have no signal gain, therefore their output level is always less than the input.
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they
allow to pass through them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most
commonly used filter designs are the:
 1. The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from
0Hz to its cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
 2. The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals
from its cut-off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while
blocking those any lower.
 3. The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain
frequency band setup between two points to pass through while blocking both the
lower and higher frequencies either side of this frequency band.
 4 Band Stop Filter - It is so called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters;
this kind of filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range set by
the component values.
Simple First-order passive filters (1st order) can be made by connecting
together a single resistor and a single capacitor in series across an input signal, (Vin)
with the output of the filter, (Vout ) taken from the junction of these two components.
Depending on which way around we connect the resistor and the capacitor with regards
to the output signal determines the type of filter construction resulting in either a Low
Pass Filter or a High Pass Filter.
As the function of any filter is to allow signals of a given band of
frequencies to pass unaltered while attenuating or weakening all others those are not
84
wanted, we can define the amplitude response characteristics of an ideal filter by using
an ideal frequency response curve of the four basic filter types as shown.
IDEAL FILTER RESPONSE CURVES
A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance, inductance or

resistance intended to produce high attenuation above a specified frequency and little or
no attenuation below that frequency. The frequency at which the transition occurs is
called the “cutoff” frequency. The simplest low pass filters consist of a resistor and
capacitor but more sophisticated low pass filters have a combination of series inductors
and parallel capacitors. In this tutorial we will look at the simplest type, a passive two
component RC low pass filter.
THE LOW PASS FILTER

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by
connecting together in series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below.
In this type of filter arrangement the input signal (Vin) is applied to the series
combination (both the Resistor and Capacitor together) but the output signal (Vout ) is
taken across the capacitor only. This type of filter is known generally as a “first-order
filter” or “one-pole filter”, why first-order or single-pole?, because it has only “one”
reactive component, the capacitor, in the circuit.
RC LOW PASS FILTER CIRCUIT

As mentioned
previously in the Capacitive
Reactance tutorial, the reactance of a
capacitor varies inversely with
frequency, while the value of the
resistor remains constant as the
frequency changes. At low
frequencies the capacitive reactance,
(Xc) of the capacitor will be very
large compared to the resistive value of the resistor, R and as a result the voltage across
the capacitor, Vc will also be large while the voltage drop across the resistor, Vr will be
much lower. At high frequencies the reverse is true with Vc being small and Vr being
large.
While the circuit above is that of an RC Low Pass Filter circuit, it can also
be classed as a frequency variable potential divider circuit similar to the one we looked
85
at in the Resistors tutorial. In that tutorial we used the following equation to calculate
the output voltage for two single resistors connected in series.
We also know that the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit

is given as:
Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is called impedance,

symbol Z and for a series circuit consisting of a single resistor in series with a single
capacitor, the circuit impedance is calculated as:
Then by substituting our equation for impedance above into the resistive
potential divider equation gives us:
RC POTENTIAL DIVIDER EQUATION
So, by using the potential divider equation of two resistors in series and
substituting for impedance we can calculate the output voltage of an RC Filter for any
given frequency.
86
LOW PASS FILTER EXAMPLE
A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a
capacitor of 47nF is connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output
voltage (Vout ) at a frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or 10kHz.
Voltage Output at a Frequency of 100Hz.
Voltage Output at a Frequency of 10,000Hz (10kHz).
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
We can see from the results above that as the frequency applied to the RC network
increases from 100Hz to 10 kHz, the voltage dropped across the capacitor and therefore
the output voltage (Vout) from the circuit decreases from 9.9v to 0.718v.
By plotting the networks output voltage against different values of input frequency,
the Frequency Response Curve or Bode Plot function of the low pass filter circuit can be
found, as shown below.
87
Frequency Response of a 1st-order Low Pass Filter
The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat
for low frequencies and the entire input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting
in a gain of nearly 1, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point (ƒc). This is
because the reactance of the capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks any current
flow through the capacitor.
After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit decreases to
zero at a slope of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) “roll-off”. Note that the angle of the
slope, this -20dB/ Decade roll-off will always be the same for any RC combination.
Any high frequency signals applied to the low pass filter circuit above this
cut-off frequency point will become greatly attenuated, that is they rapidly decrease.
This happens because at very high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor becomes
so low that it gives the effect of a short circuit condition on the output terminals
resulting in zero output.
Then by carefully selecting the correct resistor-capacitor combination, we
can create a RC circuit that allows a range of frequencies below a certain value to pass
through the circuit unaffected while any frequencies applied to the circuit above this
cut-off point to be attenuated, creating what is commonly called a Low Pass Filter.
88
For this type of “Low Pass Filter” circuit, all the frequencies below this
cut-off, ƒc point that are unaltered with little or no attenuation and are said to be in the
filters Pass band zone. This pass band zone also represents the Bandwidth of the filter.
Any signal frequencies above this point cut-off point are generally said to be in the
filters Stop band zone and they will be greatly attenuated.
This “Cut-off”, “Corner” or “Breakpoint” frequency is defined as being the
frequency point where the capacitive reactance and resistance are equal, R = Xc = 4k7Ω.
When this occurs the output signal is attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value or -
3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input. Although R = Xc, the output is not half of the input
signal. This is because it is equal to the vector sum of the two and is therefore 0.707 of
the input.
As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle (Φ) of the output
signal LAGS behind that of the input and at the -3dB cut-off frequency (ƒc) and is -
45o out of phase. This is due to the time taken to charge the plates of the capacitor as the
input voltage changes, resulting in the output voltage (the voltage across the capacitor)
“lagging” behind that of the input signal. The higher the input frequency applied to the
filter the more the capacitor lags and the circuit becomes more and more “out of phase”.
The cut-off frequency point and phase shift angle can be found by using
the following equation:
CUT-OFF FREQUENCY AND PHASE SHIFT
Then for our simple example of a “Low Pass Filter” circuit above, the cut-
off frequency (ƒc) is given as720Hz with an output voltage of 70.7% of the input voltage
value and a phase shift angle of -45o.
HIGH PASS FILTERS

A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that of the previously
seen Low Pass filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with
the output signal ( Vout ) being taken from across the resistor as shown.
Where as the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off
frequency point, ƒc, the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes
signals above the selected cut-off point, ƒc eliminating any low frequency signals from
the waveform. Consider the circuit below.
89
THE HIGH PASS FILTER CIRCUIT
In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low
frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals
at Vin until the cut-off frequency point (ƒc) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency
point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a
short circuit allowing the entire input signal to pass directly to the output as shown
below in the High Pass Frequency Response Curve.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A 1ST ORDER HIGH PASS FILTER.
90
The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for a High Pass filter is
the exact opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at
low frequencies with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the
frequency reaches the cut-off point ( ƒc ) where again R = Xc. It has a response curve
that extends down from infinity to the cut-off frequency, where the output voltage
amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the
input value.
Also we can see that the phase angle (Φ) of the output signal LEADS that
of the input and is equal to+45 o at frequency ƒc. The frequency response curve for a
high pass filter implies that the filter can pass all signals out to infinity. However in
practice, the high pass filter response does not extend to infinity but is limited by the
electrical characteristics of the components used.
The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass filter can be found
using the same equation as that of the low pass filter, but the equation for the phase
shift is modified slightly to account for the positive phase angle as shown below.
CUT-OFF FREQUENCY AND PHASE SHIFT
The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:
HIGH PASS FILTER EXAMPLE.

Calculate the cut-off or “breakpoint” frequency ( ƒc ) for a simple high
pass filter consisting of an82pF capacitor connected in series with a 240kΩ resistor.
91
BAND PASS FILTERS
The cut-off frequency or ƒc point in a simple RC passive filter can be
accurately controlled using just a single resistor in series with a non-polarized
capacitor, and depending upon which way around they are connected either a low pass
or a high pass filter is obtained.
One simple use for these types of Passive Filters is in audio amplifier
applications or circuits such as in loudspeaker crossover filters or pre-amplifier tone
controls. Sometimes it is necessary to only pass a certain range of frequencies that do
not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at some high frequency point but are within a certain
frequency band, either narrow or wide.
By connecting or “cascading” together a single Low Pass Filter circuit with
a High Pass Filter circuit, we can produce another type of passive RC filter that passes a
selected range or “band” of frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while
attenuating all those outside of this range. This new type of passive filter arrangement
produces a frequency selective filter known commonly as a Band Pass Filter or BPF for
short.
BAND PASS FILTER CIRCUIT
Unlike a low pass filter that only pass signals of a low frequency range or
a high pass filter which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass
Filters passes signals within a certain “band” or “spread” of frequencies without
distorting the input signal or introducing extra noise. This band of frequencies can be
any width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
Bandwidth is commonly defined as the frequency range that exists
between two specified frequency cut-off points ( ƒc ), that are 3dB below the maximum
centre or resonant peak while attenuating or weakening the others outside of these two
points.
Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define the term
“bandwidth”, BW as being the difference between the lower cut-off frequency (ƒcLOWER )
and the higher cut-off frequency ( ƒcHIGHER ) points. In other words, BW = ƒH – ƒL. Clearly
for a pass band filter to function correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter
must be higher than the cut-off frequency for the high pass filter.
The “ideal” Band Pass Filter can also be used to isolate or filter out certain
frequencies that lie within a particular band of frequencies, for example, noise
92
cancellation. Band pass filters are known generally as second-order filters, (two-pole)
because they have “two” reactive component, the capacitors, within their circuit design.
One capacitor in the low pass circuit and another capacitor in the high pass circuit.
Frequency Response of a 2nd Order Band Pass Filter.
The Bode Plot or frequency response curve above shows the

characteristics of the band pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated at low frequencies
with the output increasing at a slope of +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the
frequency reaches the “lower cut-off” point ƒL. At this frequency the output voltage is
again 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input.
The output continues at maximum gain until it reaches the “upper cut-off”
point ƒH where the output decreases at a rate of -20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave)
attenuating any high frequency signals. The point of maximum output gain is generally
the geometric mean of the two -3dB value between the lower and upper cut-off points
and is called the “Centre Frequency” or “Resonant Peak” value ƒr. This geometric mean
value is calculated as being ƒr 2 = ƒ(UPPER) x ƒ(LOWER).
A band pass filter is regarded as a second-order (two-pole) type filter
because it has “two” reactive components within its circuit structure, then the phase
angle will be twice that of the previously seen first-order filters, i.e., 180o. The phase
93
angle of the output signal LEADS that of the input by +90o up to the centre or resonant
frequency, ƒr point were it becomes “zero” degrees (0o) or “in-phase” and then changes
to LAG the input by -90o as the output frequency increases.
The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band pass filter can be
found using the same formula as that for both the low and high pass filters, For example.
Then clearly, the width of the pass band of the filter can be controlled by the
positioning of the two cut-off frequency points of the two filters.
Band Pass Filter Example

A second-order band pass filter is to be constructed using RC
components that will only allow a range of frequencies to pass above 1kHz (1,000Hz)
and below 30kHz (30,000Hz). Assuming that both the resistors have values of 10kΩ´s,
calculate the values of the two capacitors required.
The High Pass Filter Stage

The value of the capacitor C1 required to give a cut-off frequency ƒL of
1kHz with a resistor value of10kΩ is calculated as:
Then, the values of R1 and C1 required for the high pass stage to give a
cut-off frequency of 1.0kHz are: R1 = 10kΩ´s and C1 = 15nF.
The Low Pass Filter Stage

The value of the capacitor C2 required to give a cut-off frequency ƒH of 30kHz with a
resistor value of10kΩ is calculated as:
94
Then, the values of R2 and C2 required for the low pass stage to give a cut-
off frequency of 30kHz are, R = 10kΩ´s and C = 510pF. However, the nearest preferred
value of the calculated capacitor value of 510pF is 560pF so this is used instead.
With the values of both the resistances R1 and R2 given as 10kΩ, and the
two values of the capacitors C1 and C2 found for the high pass and low pass filters
as 15nF and 560pF respectively, then the circuit for our simple passive Band Pass
Filter is given as.
Completed Band Pass Filter Circuit
Band Pass Filter Resonant Frequency

We can also calculate the “Resonant” or “Centre Frequency” (ƒr) point of the band pass
filter were the output gain is at its maximum or peak value. This peak value is not the
arithmetic average of the upper and lower -3dB cut-off points as you might expect but is
in fact the “geometric” or mean value. This geometric mean value is calculated as
being ƒr 2 = ƒc(UPPER) x ƒc(LOWER) for example:
Centre Frequency Equation
 Where, ƒr is the resonant or centre frequency

 ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point
 ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point
And in our simple example above, the calculated cut-off frequencies were
found to be ƒL = 1,060 Hz and ƒH = 28,420 Hz using the filter values.
Then by substituting these values into the above equation gives a central
resonant frequency of:
95
Band-stop filters
It is so called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters; this kind of

filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range setby the component
values. Not surprisingly, it can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass filter, just like
the band-pass design, except that this time we connect the two filter sections in parallel
with each other instead of in series. (Figure below)
System level block diagram of a band-stop filter.
Constructed using two capacitive filter sections, it looks something like

(Figure below).
96
Butterworth Filter
A Butterworth filter is a type of signal processing filter designed to have a frequency
response as flat as possible in the passband. Hence the Butterworth filter is also known as
“maximally flat magnitude filter”. It was invented in 1930 by the British engineer and
physicist Stephen Butterworth in his paper titled “On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers”.
The frequency response of the Butterworth filter is flat in the passband (i.e. a bandpass
filter) and roll-offs towards zero in the stopband. The rate of roll-off response depends on
the order of the filter. The number of reactive elements used in the filter circuit will
decide the order of the filter.
The inductor and capacitor are reactive elements used in filters. But in the case of
Butterworth filter only capacitors are used. So, the number of capacitors will decide the
order of the filter.
Here, we will discuss the Butterworth filter with a low pass filter. Similarly, the high pass
filter can be designed by just changing the position of resistance and capacitance.
Butterworth Low Pass Filter Design
While designing the filter, the designer tries to achieve a response near to the ideal filter.
It is very difficult to match results with the exact ideal characteristic. We need to use
complex higher-order If you increase the order of the filter, the number of cascade stages
with the filter is also increased. But in practice, we cannot achieve Butterworth’s ideal
frequency response. Because it produces excessive ripple in the passband.In Butterworth
filter, mathematically it is possible to get flat frequency response from 0 Hz to the cut-off
frequency at -3dB with no ripple. If the frequency is more than the cut-off frequency, it
will roll-off towards zero with the rate of -20 dB/decade for the first-order filter.If you
increase the order of the filter, the rate of a roll-off period is also increased. And for
second-order, it is -40 dB/decade. The quality factor for the Butterworth filter is 0.707.
The below figure shows the frequency response of the Butterworth filter for various
orders of the filter
Frequency Response of Butterworth FilterThe generalized form of frequency response for
nth-order Butterworth low-pass filter is;
Where,
n = order of the filter,
ω = operating frequency (passband frequency) of circuit
ωC = Cut-off frequency
ε = maximum passband gain = Amax
The below equation is used to find the value of ε.
Where,
H1 = minimum passband gain
H0 = maximum passband gain
First-order Lowpass Butterworth Filter
The lowpass filter is a filter that allows the signal with the frequency is lower than the
cutoff frequency and attenuates the signals with the frequency is more than cutoff
frequency. In the first-order filter, the number of reactive components is only one. The
below figure shows the circuit diagram of the first-order lowpass Butterworth filter.
The low pass Butterworth filter is an active Low pass filter as it consists of the op-amp.
This op-amp operates on non-inverting mode. Hence, the gain of the filter will decide by
the resistor R1 and RF. And the cutoff frequency decides by R and C.
Now, if you apply the voltage divider rule at point Va and find the voltage across a
capacitor. It is given as;
Because of the non-inverting configuration of an op-amp,
WHERE
The below figure shows the frequency response of first-order lowpass Butterworth
filter.
Second-order Butterworth Filter
The second-order Butterworth filter consists of two reactive components. The

circuit diagram of a second-order low pass Butterworth filter is as shown in the
below figure.
In this type of filter, resistor R and RF are the negative feedback of op-amp. And
the cutoff frequency of the filter decides by R2, R3, C2, and C3.The second-order
lowpass Butterworth filter consists of two back-to-back connected RC networks.
And RL is the load resistance. First-order and second-order Butterworth filters are
very important. Because we can get higher-order Butterworth filter by just
cascading of the first-order and second-order Butterworth filters.
Let’s analyse the circuit of second-order Butterworth filter,
Apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law at point V1.

Rearrange this equation,
Compare this equation with the standard form transfer function for second-order
Butterworth filter. And that is,
By comparing above equations, we can find the equation of cutoff frequency and
overall gain for the second-order lowpass Butterworth filter.
The gain of filter is,

We can say that, the quality factor is only depends on the gain of filter. And the
value of gain should not more than 3. If the value of gain is more than 3, the
system will be unstable.
The value of quality factor is 0.707 for the Butterworth filter. And if we put this
value in equation of quality factor, we can find the value of gain.
While designing the second-order Butterworth filter above relation must be satisfy.
The frequency response of this filter is as shown in below figure.
Third-order Lowpass Butterworth Filter
Third-order lowpass Butterworth filter can design by cascading the first-order and
second-order Butterworth filter.
The below figure shows the circuit diagram of the third-order lowpass Butterworth filter.
Third-order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

In this figure, the first part shows the first-order lowpass Butterworth filter, and the
second part shows the second-order lowpass Butterworth filter.
But in this condition, the voltage gain of the first part is optional and it can be set at any
value. Therefore, the first op-amp is not taking part in voltage gain. Hence, the figure for
the third-order low pass filter can be expressed as below figure also;
;
The voltage gain of a second-order filter affects the flatness of frequency response.
If the gain of the second-order filter is kept at 1.586, the gain will down 3db for
each part. So, the overall gain will down 6dB at the cutoff frequency.
By increasing the voltage gain of the second-order filter, we can offset the
cumulative loss of voltage gain.
In the third-order Butterworth filter, the rate of a roll-off period is -60dB/decade.

And the frequency response of this filter is nearer to the ideal Butterworth filter
compared to the first and second-order filters. The frequ
(frequency response of this filter is as shown in the below figure.)
Fourth-order Lowpass Butterworth Filter

Fourth-order Butterworth filter is established by the cascade connection of two
second-order low pass Butterworth filters. The circuit diagram of the fourth-order
lowpass Butterworth filter is as shown in the below figure.

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CHAPTER -1

Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F) :

If I = Current through the coil (A)

Magnetic Field Intensity:

Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

Every substance possesses a certain power of conducting magnetic lines

Reluctance (s) is akin to resistance (which limits the electric Current).

Flux in a magnetic circuit is limited by reluctance. Thus reluctance(s) is a measure of the

Reluctance is the ratio of magneto motive force to the flux. Thus

Its unit is ampere turns per webber (or AT/wb).

The reciprocal of reluctance is called the permeance (symbol A).

Permeance (A) = 1/S wb/AT

Turn T has no unit.

Hence permeance is expressed in wb/A or Henerys(H).

Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

In order to demagnetise the iron bar completely, we have to supply the

If after obtaining zero value of magnetism, the value of H is made more

Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

There are two types of induced emf.

Faraday’s Laws of Electro-Magnetic :

Where e = induced emf

Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

(2) Dynamically Induced emf :→

The area swept by the conductor = l. dx

Er. AMARESH CHOUDHURY Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

1st Method for ‘L’ :→

Where L = Co-efficient of self-induction

Er.AMARESH CHOUDHURY &Er.S.K DAMINI Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

A coil is said to be a self-inductance of 1 Henry if 1 volt is induced in it.

3rd Method for L :→

Where A = Area of x-section of the coil

Er.AMARESH CHOUDHURY &Er.S.K DAMINI Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

Co-efficient of Mutual Inductance (M):

1st Method for ‘M’ :→

2nd Method for M :→

Er.AMARESH CHOUDHURY &Er.S.K DAMINI Dept. of Electrical GSE,BERHAMPUR

3rd Method for M :→

The flux φ1 produced in coil ‘A’ due to a current of I1 ampere is

Similarly the flux φ2 produced in coil ‘B’ due to I2 amp. Is

Multiplying equation (1) & (2)

Where ‘K’ is known as the co-efficient of coupling.

Inductances In Series (Additive) :→

Let M = Co-efficient of mutual inductance

Mutually induced emf in first coil

Mutually induced emf in second coil

Total induced emf

If ‘L’ is the equivalent inductance, then

Inductances In Series (Substnactive) :→

Let M = Co-efficient of mutual inductance

Mutually induced emf in first coil

Mutually induced emf in second coil

Total induced emf

Let two inductances of L1 & L2 are connected in parallel

Equating equation (3) & (5)

When mutual field assist.

When mutual field opposes.

Circuit Elements and analysis

Joules of energy be required to move positive charge Q columbs from a point a to

Voltage between a and b is given by