Session 09

Mechanical Properties of Engineering

Materials

Contents
Introduction

9.1 Stresses and strains in materials

9.2 Behavior of materials under mechnical stresses
9.3 Uniaxial tensile testing and stress- strain diagrams
9.4 Hardness, wear of materials and hardness testing
9.5 Toughness and impact testing of materials

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
As we have discussed in Session 1, the properties of materials mainly depend on the
chemical composition and the structure (microstructure) of the particular material. In
this session we are going to focus on the other factors which will influence the
properties of materials when they are in use. As an example, how the mechanical
properties such as strength and ductility of metals will vary with the temperature or
why the polymers becoming brittle when they are at lower temperatures (this was the
root cause for the ‘Challenger Accident in 1986 –one of the polymer O-rings of the
main fuel tank was cracked immediately after lift-off due to low temperature).
Furthermore, the designers are interested in using modern materials to protect the
environment and the safety of the mankind. For example, in aircraft industry
lightweight Aluminium alloys and carbon-reinforced composites are used to reduce
the fuel consumption and they are strong enough to withstand cyclic mechanical
stresses for a long and predictable period of service (Boing 787 ‘Dreamliner’
passenger aircraft).

9.1 Stresses and Strains in Materials

In load bearing applications of engineering components it is necessary to consider

whether the mechanical properties of selected material are matching with the stresses
and strains caused by the applied load. The role of the structural engineers is to

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determine the stresses and strains caused by the loads on the components using
experimental methods and/or theoretical and mathematical calculations (FEM
analysis). In contrast to that Materials and Metallurgical Engineers are concerned with
producing and fabricating materials to meet service requirements as predicted by the
stress analysis. For this task it is necessary to have an understanding of the
relationships between the microstructure of particular material and their mechanical
properties according to the service conditions. In other words, the ‘Mechanical
Behavior’ of materials under given mechanical stresses and strains. In this session we
will discuss the stress–strain behavior and the related mechanical properties of metals.

• Engineering materials are subjected to mechanical forces (stresses) during

processing, manufacturing and in service.

• If the materials are subjected to mechanical forces, depending whether forces

are tensile, compressive, and torsional or shear and the material is in solid
state, they will differently react to the forces.

• As examples, under tensile forces materials will extend in length in the

direction of the applied force or under compressive loads they will contract.

• Ability to withstanding the applied force without any deformation can be

defined in two ways; (a) Strength and (b) hardness.

• Strength is defined as ‘Resistance to deformation’ and Hardness is as

‘Resistant to indentation or scratch’.

• Depending on the magnitude of the force applied the materials will deform
‘Elastically’ (Temporary deformation) or ‘Plastically’ (Permanent
deformation).

As indicated above the deformation is depending on the type of load (Fig.9.1). As

illustrated in the figure;

(a) under tensile load the length of the cylindrical sample is increased by (∆𝑙 =
𝑙 − 𝑙0 )
(b) under compressive load length is reduced by ( ∆𝑙 = 𝑙0 − 𝑙)
(c) under shear load the block shaped sample deformed at a shear angle of γ
(d) under torsional load (torque) the deformed at an angle of twist φ

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 Fig.9.1 Deformation of Solid Materials Depending on Type of Load
(a) Tensile (b) Compressive (c) Shear (d) Torsional

In all deformations the strain (magnitude of deformation) is directly depend on stress

magnitude of load).

✓ Different materials behave in different manner under in different conditions.

✓ Mainly, deformation of materials can be temporary or permanent.

✓ Temporary deformation is reversible and disappears after removal of the

applied forces i.e. the deformation is recoverable.

✓ Permanent deformation is irreversible i.e. the deformation stays even after

removal of the applied forces and it is non-recoverable.

✓ Temporary deformation is also called as ‘Elastic Deformation’, and

permanent deformation as ‘Plastic Deformation’.

✓ Depending on the load, processing and service conditions the same materials
can deform elastically and/or plastically. Normally, with increase of load all
the materials are initially deforming elastically followed by plastic
deformation.

✓ Above mentioned 2 types of deformations are time independent (material

deforms spontaneously once the stress is applied). Observed mainly in metals.

✓ There are other types of deformations also observed in materials;

Anelastic Deformation -recoverable but time dependent.

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 Visco-elastic Deformation -recoverable and non-recoverable but time
dependent
Creep - progressive permanent deformation under constant load/stress
but time dependent

(These types of deformations are observed in plastics and metals at high

temperatures)

9.2 Behavior of Materials under Mechanical Stresses

Now we discuss how materials, especially metals behave (how it reacts) under
mechanical stresses. As discussed earlier metals will deform elastically and/or
plastically, depending on the amount of stress. Also, we have to remember that this
behavior depends also on other factors such as;
(1) Type of metal
(2) Type of stress system
(3) Temperature
(4) Rate of load

(1) Type of Metal: Generally, metals with FCC structure show less strength and
more ductility. E.g. in descending orders Steel, copper, aluminum, lead.
(2) Type of stress system: Metals behave ductile under uni-axial stress but under
complicated stress structure (combination of two or more stress types such as;
tensile and torsional) they become brittle.
(3) Effect of Temperature: At low temperatures most metals show high brittleness
and strength compared to that of room temperature. With increase of
temperature strength drops drastically (some alloying elements in steel can
reduce the drop of strength - high temperature steel).
(4) Effect of Rate of Load: This is also defined as Deformation Rate or Strain Rate
which is determined by the speed at which the mechanical stress is applied.
Metals become brittle under high deformation rates.

Note: These behaviors are only applicable for metals and other materials such as
polymers and composite show different behavior and will be discussed in later
sessions.

9.3 Uniaxial Tensile Testing and Stress- Strain Diagrams

To have more understanding of the mechanical behavior of metals we now consider
the easiest mechanical testing method ‘Tensile Testing’ of metals. The tensile testing
is used to evaluate primarily the strength of metals and alloys. This test is carried out
by subjecting a metal sample, with known dimensions, to a uniaxial tensile load up to
failure (fracture) with a known and constant strain rate. For this test it is necessary to
have are ‘Tensile Testing Machine’ normally, computer assisted for calculations and
graphical illustrations (Fig.9.2).

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 Fig.9.2 Universal Tensile Testing Machine

Normally, the testing is done according to a particular standard depending on the

material to be tested and customer request (if you are testing for a company). Typical
standards are; ISO (International Standard Organization), Euro Standards, Japanese
standards, ASTM (American Society for Testing of Metals) etc. The preparation of
the samples for testing is done according to the selected standard. Different types of
samples and their features are illustrated in Fig.9.3

(a) (b)
Fig.9.3 (a) Types of Tensile Testing Samples and (b) Their Features

After fixing the sample in the machine the cross head will be moved vertically at a
constant speed and the load will be measured by the Load Cell and the extension is
measured by Extensometer. Both readings (load and extension) will be recorded in a
computer and then necessary calculations are done. Graphical or tabulated data can be
now printed.

9.3.1 Mechanical Properties Obtained from Tensile Testing

Following mechanical properties of metals and alloys can be obtained by tensile
testing;

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 ✓ Modulus of Elasticity
✓ Yield Strength (YS)
✓ Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
✓ Percentage Elongation at Fracture (Φ%)
✓ Percentage reduction in area at Fracture
✓ Ductility (indirectly)

Using the typical diagram which we get from the machine (can also be drawn by hand
if the readings are noted) all above-mentioned properties can be calculated. If we
draw a graph load against extension, then for a metal we will get a curve as illustrated
in Fig.9.4

Activity 1

Compare Load-Extension and a Stress-Strain diagrams.

Fig.9.4 Typical Load-Extension Curve for a Metal

As illustrated in the Fig.9.4 it can be observed that with increasing load the metal will
extend initially showing a linear relationship between load and extension and then the
curve will be non-linear before it come to a maximum. After that the elongation will
be reduced and finally ends with the fracture of the sample.

For more understanding and to standardize (generalize) the experimental values the
Load-Extension curve will be transformed to ‘Stress-Strain’ diagram. For that instead
of loading the stress is calculated according to the following equation;

Stess ( ) =
Load P −2
= [Nmm ] or [MPa]
Original Cross Sectional Area of the Sample A0

The extension is transformed to strain;

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 Extension (Increase in Length) Δl
Strain (ε ) = = [no units]
Original Length of the Sample l0

Now we can draw the stress-strain curve. Then the shape of the curve will be the same
since A0 and l0 are constants. A typical Stress-Strain curve in illustrated in Fig.9.5.

Fig.9.5 A Typical Stress-Strain Curve of a Metal

In the Fig.9.5 some salient points are highlighted and those points are better discussed
in the following paragraph. For this purpose, we will take a stress-strain diagram of a
ductile material. (e.g. mild steel)

E
O F
O

Fig.9.6 Stress-Strain Diagram of a Ductile Metal

In the Fig.9.6 some particular points are labeled as O, A, B, C, D, E and F.

✓ Point O: At the origin, no stress is applied to the sample. Therefore, no

extension (strain).

✓ Point A: Up to point A, the stress-strain relationship is linear. In other words,

stress is directly proportional to the strain. In this region obeys ‘Hooke's Law’
and the point A is also known as proportional limit. This straight line region is

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 known as elastic region and the material can regain its original shape after
removal of the stress.

✓ Point B: The portion of the curve between AB is NOT a straight line and
strain increases faster with the stress. After point B increasing stress results in
permanent, non-recoverable or plastic deformation. Thus, point B is known as
the ‘Elastic Limit’ or ‘Yield Point’.

✓ Point C & D: Beyond the point B, the material goes to the plastic region and
from point C the cross-sectional area of the sample material starts to decrease
and the stress decreases to point D. From point D the work piece changes its
length significantly with a little increase in stress up to point E.

✓ Point E: Point E indicates maximum value of stress and this stress level is
called as ‘Ultimate Stress’ (since we are applying a tensile stress it is also
known as ‘Ultimate Tensile Stress – UTS’). The portion DE is called the
‘Yielding of the Material’ and point E onwards, the strength of the material
increases (call as ‘Work Hardening’) and requires more stress for
deformation, until point F is reached.

✓ Point F: Between point E and F the cross-sectional area of the sample

decreases significantly (called as ‘Necking’) and the sample completely failed
once it reaches the point F. This point is called as point of fracture.

There are many important features, which can be used to define properties of metals
in a stress-strain diagram (Fig.9.7):

Fig.9.7 Stress-Strain Diagram of a Ductile Metal Showing Important Features

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 (1) Linear range of the curve denoted by OA line. This is a straight line and has a
slope to the x-axis θ and
StressValue
tan =
StrainValue

tan θ is defined as the ‘Modulus of Elasticity (E)’ or as Young’s Modulus.

This gives the stress-strain relationship in the elastic region and described as
‘Hooke’s Law’ (Robert Hooke, English Physicist 1635 – 1703). This is a
measure for the ‘Stiffness’ of the tested material under uniaxial tensile stress.


Therefore, E= …………………… (1)

E - Modulus of Elasticity (Nmm-2 or MPa)
σ - Stress (Nmm-2 or MPa)
ε - Strain (dimensionless)

(2) The point B is defined as Yield Point and respective stress value is called as
‘Yield Strength’ (σ0). This is a very important value for mechanical
engineering since normally, the designers take this value as the maximum
stress which should not be exceeded in a load-bearing engineering component
(otherwise the component will deform permanently - damaged). Respective
strain value is named as ‘Strain at Yield Point’.

(3) Points C and D are called as ‘Upper Yield Point’ and Lower Yield Point’
respectively.

(4) Point E denotes ‘Ultimate Tensile Strength’. Respective strain value is called
as ‘Strain at UTS’.
(5) Point F shows the ‘Fracture Strength’ of the metal and this value has less
interest for the design engineers. The respective strain value is ‘Strain at
Fracture’.

Activity 2

Why fracture strength is less important to Design Engineers?

(6) Some more important features/mechanical properties can be derived from the
stress-strain diagram i.e.

✓ Elongation: ‘The amount of elongation of the sample is defined as the

percentage length increase with respect to original length of the sample
i.e.

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % = . 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

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 l − lo
= .100%
lo
The percentage elongation at fracture is an important feature as a
measure of ductility of the metal.
(Note: commercially available Aluminium in annealed condition has a
high percentage of elongation about 35% and mild steel has about
20%. Hardened steel has around 9%)

✓ Reduction in area: This is also a measure for the ductility of the

metal. This value is calculated using the percentage difference between
initial area of the sample and area after fracture;

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 % = . 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Ao − A f
=.100%
Ao
✓ Resilience: Absorbed (Elastic Strain) energy up to Yield Point.

✓ Ductility: This property of the metal is defined as ‘ability of the metal

to undergo appreciable plastic strain (deformation) before fracture
under tensile stress’. The plastic strain is the total strain WITHOUT
elastic strain (Fig.9.8). Approximately, it can be expressed as percent
elongation or percent reduction in area from a stress-strain curve of a
tensile test.
Ductility is a very important factor during wire drawing and it is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Also
ductility of steel for concrete reinforcement can be defined as an ability
to achieve significant deformations without marked increase of stresses
beyond the yield strength of steel (for earthquake resistant concrete
structures).
A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon
fracture is termed ‘Brittle’.

Fracture

Strain (ε)
Elastic Strain Plastic Strain

Total Strain

Fig.9.8 Stress-Strain Diagram Showing Elastic and Plastic Strain

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 ✓ Toughness (under tensile load): This is defined as ‘the ability of a
metal to deform plastically and absorb energy in the service before
fracture’. The absorbed amount of (strain) energy per volume is a
measure for the toughness of the metal. Toughness is a major
consideration for all structural materials and a term ‘Fracture
Toughness’ is also an important property of a metal and this will be
discussed later.
(note: Ductile materials are not tough. The key to toughness is a good
combination of strength and ductility).

Example 1 The figure below shows a load-extension curve obtained in a tensile

test on a specimen with 50 mm gauge length and a cross-sectional area
of 150 mm2. Estimate the following properties.
(i) The Ultimate tensile strength
(ii) The yield strength
(iii) Proof stress at a strain off set of 0.1%
(iv) Modulus of elasticity
(v) The Ductility of the material in terms of percentage elongation, if the
final gauge length is 60 mm.

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 Answers:
(i) The Ultimate tensile strength =13000 N/150mm2 =86.67 N/mm2

(ii) The yield strength=11200 N/150mm2 = 74.67 N/mm2

(iii) Proof stress at a strain off set of 0.1% =11400/150 =76 N/mm2
(iv) Modulus of elasticity =(8000/150 x10-6-0 )/(0.22/50-0) = 12.1x109
N/m2
= 12.1 GPa
(v) The Ductility of the material in terms of percentage elongation, if the
final gauge length is 60mm.
% elongation = Lf – L0 x 100 = (60 -50) x100 = 20%
L0 50

Generally, by observing a stress-strain curve of a particular metal the formability

(ductility) or the brittleness can be predicted (Fig.9.9).

Fig.9.9 Stress-Strain Curves of Brittle and Ductile Metals

Further, the stress-strain curves of 3 different steel types are given in Fig.9.10 and it
can be observed that with decresing carbon content (high, medium and low) the
mechnical properties of steel under uniaxial tensile stress are changing drastically.
(Note: Slope of the linear part won’t change)

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 Fig.9.10 Change of Mechanical Properties of Steel with Different Carbon Content

9.3.1.1 Proof Stress of Metals

In some metals (highly ductile copper) the yield point in the stress-strain curve is not
clear and it is difficult to locate (Fig.9.11). Then a geometrical method which is based
on materials science will be used to determine the location (point) of the yield point.
This is done as follows;

Fig.9.11 Determination of Proof Stress in a Stress-Strain Diagram

✓ Find the linear portion of the curve and draw a straight line on it.
✓ Draw a parallel line intersecting the x-axis at the point0.2%.
✓ Find the intersecting point of this line with the stress-strain curve.
✓ That is the point where the yielding starts
✓ Draw a horizontal line (parallel to X-axis).

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 ✓ Find the intersecting point of this line with Y-axis.
✓ This point is named as the ‘0.2% offset Yield Point’ and corresponding
stress value as ‘Proof Stress (0.2%)’ of the metal.
✓ Depending on the design offset can be 0.1%, 0.2% or 0.5%.

9.3.1.2 True Stress and True Strain

• Normally, during construction of the stress-strain curve the calculations of the

stress values are done by dividing the applied load (P) on the tensile test
specimen by its original cross sectional area (A0).
• This is actually not accurate since the cross sectional area of the specimen
changes continuously during whole test.
• Therefore, this stress is called as ‘Engineering Stress’.
• The strain is called as ‘Engineering Strain’ (l0 also changes).
• During the test especially, just after the maximum point (UTS value) a drastic
change of cross sectional area (necking) can be observed.
• Therefore, once necking begins the stress is much higher than the engineering
stress.
• This particular higher stress is the true stress existing in the sample and it is
called as ‘True Stress’.
• Corresponding strain is named as ‘True Strain’.
• These ‘true’ values are more important during the calculation of metal forming
processes.

A true stress-strain curve of a metal is illustrated in Fig.9.12 and calculation of True

stress and true strain will be done as follows;

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃𝑡 ) 𝑃𝑡

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑡 ) = = ……(2)
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴0 ) 𝐴0

𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑑𝑙) 𝑑𝑙
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =∫
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑙) 𝑙0 𝑙
𝑙
= 𝑙𝑛
𝑙0

A typical true stress-strain diagram can be seen in Fig.9.12.

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 Fig.9.12 True Stress-Strain Curve of a Metal

Other materials such as polymers and ceramics show different engineering stress-
strain behavior.

Fig.9.13 Engineering Stress-Strain Curves of Different Materials

True Stress and True Strain Calculation

Example 2
A circular rod with 5 cm length made out of aluminium alloy has been subjected to
uniaxial tensile load and its length at maximum load was 5.3 cm. The maximum load

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indicated in the machine was 35580 N at the maximum load and at fracture it was
33800 N.
Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and strain of the rod at the;
(a) maximum load and (b) fracture.
The diameter at maximum load was 1.263 cm and at the fracture it was 0.995 cm.
Length of the rod after fracture was 5.5125 cm.

Solution:

(a) At the maximum load:

F 35580 N
Engineering Stress = = = 284.13Nmm −2
A0 ( / 4)(1.263 cm )2
F 35580 N
True stress = = = 284.13Nmm −2
A ( / 4)(1.263 cm )2

l − l0 5.3 − 5
Engineering strain = = = 0.060 cm / cm
l0 5
l 
 = In 
5.3 
True strain = ln  = 0.058 cm / cm
 l0   5 
(b) At the fracture:
F 33800 N
Engineering stress = = = 269.7 MPa
A0 ( / 4)(1.263 cm )2

F 33800 N
True stress = = = 434.5 MPa
A ( / 4)(0.995 cm )2

l 0.5125
Engineering strain = = = 0.1025 cm / cm
l0 5

 = ln  ( / 4)(1.263) 
A   2

= ln 0
A 
 ( / 4)(0.995) 
True strain 2
 f 

= In (1.610) = 0.476 cm / cm

Note: The true stress becomes much greater than the engineering stress only after
A 
necking begins. Note the true strain was calculated using In  0 
A 
 f 

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9.4 Wear of Materials, Hardness and Hardness Testing
Wear of metals is a vital aspect in design of engineering components. Especially, in
mechanical engineering components such as bearing where two metallic components
are in contact and have a relative movement to each other (in roller bearings metallic
cylindrical rollers are rotating between two metallic …….). If a load is acting
perpendicular to the rotating direction, then the metal surfaces are subject to wear.
Therefore, it is important to make the interacting surfaces ‘wear resistant’. Common
way to make wear resistant metallic surfaces is ‘harden’ those using different
techniques (heat treatment). Once the hardening process is done it is essential to
assure that the surfaces are hardened enough. For that it is the practice to measure the
‘hardness’ of the surface.

Hardness is the measure of the resistance to the penetration of the surface of a metal
by a harder object. Hardness is also defined as resistance to ‘scratching’. Practically
hardness is measured by penetrating a hard ‘tool’ with a known load and measuring
the depth of penetration or area of penetration. Hardness has a relationship with the
strength of the metal since during hardness measurement also a significant plastic
deformation will be taken place.

There are many standard methods to measure hardness;

(a) Brinell Hardness measurement
(b) Vickers Hardness measurement
(c) Rockwell Hardness Measurement
(d) Knoop Hardness Measurement
(e) Shore Hardness Measurement

(a) Brinell Hardness Measurement: Brinell hardness measurement is done mainly for
large metallic components and a hard metal ball with 10mm diameter will be
penetrated to the surface of the metal with load of 500kg, 1500kg or 3000kg
(Fig.9.14).

F - Load (kg)
D - Diameter of the Indenter
Surface of the component (mm)
D - Diameter of the Indentation

Fig.9.14 Brinell Hardness Measurement

The area of the indentation is measured and hardness value (HB) is calculated
using following equation;

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This method is mainly used in research laboratories as well as on the factory shop
floor. The main limitation in usage is that this method is not suitable for thin sheets
(min. 3 mm).
Applicable standards: ASTM E 10, EN ISO 6506-1, 2 & 3

(b) Vickers Hardness measurement: This is an accurate method to measure the

hardness. The indenter is a diamond tip cut in the form of a right pyramid with a
square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces. The loads
applied are from 1 to 120 kg (Fig. 9.15). A well prepared smooth surface is
essential for this testing method.

Average distance between the edges of the indentation will be measured and the
hardness value is calculated according to the following equation;

1.854P
HV30 =
d

HV30 - Hardness Value with load 30kg

P - Load (kg)
d + d2
d - Average distance ( 1 )
2

(a)
(b)

Fig.9.15 Vickers Hardness Measurement (a) Diamond Tip (b) Indentation

This method can be used for thin sheets of metals and micro hardness measurement
can be done to very thin sheet using low loads.

Applicable standards: ASTM E 92, EN ISO 6507-1, 2 & 3

(c) Rockwell Hardness Measurement: This hardness measurement is used mainly on

the shop floor for a quick measurement and has a good accuracy. Indenters used in
this method are (Fig.9.16);

• diamond cone with an apex angle of 120 degrees (for scales A, C and D)
• hardened steel ball with 1.6mm diameter (for scales B, F or G)

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 • hardened steel ball with 3.2 mm diameter (for scale E)

It is important to mention that not like in previous method the depth of the
indentation is taken as the measurement. In this method initially, a preliminary test
force (as preload) is applied to a sample using the indenter. This load represents
the zero or reference position that breaks through the surface to reduce the effects
of surface finish. After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is
applied to reach the total required test load. Then the depth of penetration is
measured and it is converted to a hardness number (Fig.9.16).

Fig.9.16 Rockwell Hardness Measurement

Main advantage of this method is that it is not necessary to have a well prepared
surface of the test piece. Even with a slight corrosion layer the hardness can be
measured.

Standard used: ASTM E-18, ISO 6508-1:2015,

(d) Knoop Hardness Measurement: Knoop hardness testing micro hardness test
method and mainly used for very brittle materials or thin sheets. A diamond
pyramid is used as the indenter and it is pressed into the well-polished surface of
the test material with a known (100g) load, for a specified dwell time. The area of
the indentation is measured using a microscope and harness value is calculated
according to the following formula;

P
HK =
C p .L2

L - length of indentation along its long axis

Cp - correction factor related to the shape of the indenter, ideally 0.070279
P - load

This hardness test method is mainly used for the measurement of hardness of
minerals.

Applicable standards: ASTM C1326, ISO 4545-1:2005

19
 (e) Shore Hardness Measurement: This method is also called as Durometer Shore
Hardness testing and mainly used to measure the hardness of soft materials
such as plastics, elastomers and rubber. A hardened steel rod with known
dimensions will be pressed in to the material with a known load and depth of
penetration is measured by the machine. Calculation of the hardness value is
done in relationship with Young's modulus (E) of the material.

Applicable standards: ASTM D2240

(f) Portable Hardness Testing: All above-explained conventional hardness

testers require the test piece be brought to the testing device and it is
practically not always possible (e. g. very large castings). Portable testing
devices have been developed that permit in-situ hardness measurements
offering quick and economic advantages. There are two different physical
methods;
(a) An ultrasonically activated indenter will be penetrated in to the
surface of the sample (like in Vickers method) and the indentation
area is electronically detected by measuring the shift of an
ultrasonic frequency (UCI - Ultrasonic Contact Impedance
method).
(b) A mass (e. g. a spherical tungsten carbide tip) is accelerated to the
surface of the test object and impinges on it at a defined speed
(with a certain amount of kinetic energy). The impact creates a
plastic deformation of the surface, i.e. an indentation, due to which,
depending on the hardness of the surface, moving body loses part
of its original speed or kinetic energy. The velocities after and
before the impact are each measured in a non-contact mode
electronically. The difference in velocities gives indirectly the
hardness of the surface.

A comparison of the different hardness testing methods is given in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Comparison of Different Hardness Testing Methods

20
9.5 Toughness and Impact Testing of Materials
As discussed earlier toughness is an important property which should considered in
the materials selection in design process. In the earlier section we have discussed or
defined toughness as the ‘the ability of a metal to deform plastically and absorb
energy in the service before fracture’. It is important to mention that the measurement
of toughness using stress-strain curve is limited to the toughness of the metal only
under ‘uniaxial tensile load’ and ‘slow loading rates’ but in the reality the components
are subjected to complex stress structures (2 or 3 dimensional) which certainly reduce
the toughness of the material. Therefore, it is necessary to find out a method to
measure the actual toughness of a material under severe conditions. One of the
simplest methods of measuring toughness is to use ‘Impact Testing Device’. For this
testing two different types of samples are used i.e. Charpy (Georges Charpy - 1901,
French Scientist) and Izod samples. Most common sample is the Charpy V-Notch
sample (Fig.9.17).

Impact Load

21
 (a)
(b)

Fig.9.17 (a) Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing Machine (b) Dimensions of Standard
Sample

✓ As shown in Fig.9.17 a heavy pendulum with a hammer fixed to a rigid frame

creates the impact load.
✓ A Charpy samples with a V-notch prepared according to the given dimensions
will be placed at the most bottom location of the path of the pendulum across
the parallel jaws of the machine.
✓ The heavy pendulum will be released from a known height and the pendulum
strikes the sample on it’s downwards swing breaking the sample.
✓ By knowing the mass of the sample, the difference between its initial and final
heights the energy absorbed due to the fracture of the sample can be
calculated.
✓ This energy (given in Joules) can be given as the ‘Toughness’ of the material
at the temperature at which the testing was done.
✓ It is possible to measure the energy absorbed by a particular material at
different temperatures (see Fig.9.18)

TDBTT Temperature (T)

Fig.9.18 Change of Energy Absorbed (Toughness) by Charpy V-Notch Samples of

Metals with the Temperature

It is possible to observed that low strength metals with BCC structure (e.g. low carbon
steel) has an extreme drop of toughness at a particular temperature. This is called as
‘Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)’and it is a very important

22
parameter to consider when metallic components are used at low temperatures. DBTT
temperature of some plain carbon steels are given in Fig.9.19.

Fig.9.19 Effect of Carbon Content on the Impact Energy of Annealed

Steel at Different Temperatures

It is possible to observe that steel with 0.11% carbon has a DBTT of approximately -
60 ºC and steel with 0.22% carbon has only around -10 ºC. That means a medium
strength plain carbon steel should not be used for the components which operates at
subzero temperatures. This was the root cause for the ‘Titanic’ disaster.

Applicable standards for impact testing: ASTM A370 (for Charpy Samples), ASTM
E23 (for the testing method).

Summary
In this session we have concentrated on the behavior of materials, especially, metals
under mechanical stresses. To understand the behavior laboratory tests were proposed,
such as tensile testing, hardness testing and impact testing which are more essential
for the selection of suitable material for a particular engineering application. Initially,
we have concentrated on uni-axial tensile testing of metals and understood the main
features of a stress-strain diagram, such as elastic & plastic regions, yield point,
ultimate tensile strength and fracture strength of metals. In addition to that we have
discussed the other properties like ductility and toughness. Under hardness testing we
learned different hardness testing methods for materials, such as Brinell, Vickers,
Rockwell, Knoop and Shore hardness and their applications in industry. Finally,
measurement of toughness of metals under complicated stresses structure using
Charpy impact testing process. Change of impact strength of steel at different
temperatures was also studied.

Learning Outcomes

23
After studying this session, you should be able to;
1. Understand the behavior of materials under mechanical stresses
2. Perform tensile testing of metals and determine the tensile properties of metals
3. Select suitable hardness testing method for a particular material.
4. Understand toughness of metals and change of impact strength of metals
according to service temperature.

Session 10

Behavior of Engineering Materials under

Mechanical Stresses

24
Contents
Introduction

10.1 Introduction to yielding

10.2 Fracture and failures in materials
10.3 Basic fracture mechanics
10.4 Fatigue behavior of materials and fatigue testing
10.5 Creep Behavior of Materials

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
In previous session we have discussed the basic mechanical properties of metals and
how those properties influence the performance of a metal. Especially, how metals are
reacting (behavior) to mechanical stresses. Also we learned how these properties are
measured. During the design process of engineering components, it is very important
to consider ‘design to avoid failure’. Especially, if you are designing with metals the
main ‘failure mechanisms’ are; ‘Ductile Failures, Brittle Failures’ and ‘Fatigue
Failures’. In addition to that components used at elevated temperatures can experience
‘Creep Failures’. The air craft jet engine design engineers give more attention to this
type of failure of jet engine blades, especially which are working in the hot area (after
combustion) and experiencing a temperature of approximately 900 ºC and very high
mechanical stresses. The other common problem is that most of the engineering
components are failing due to fatigue and this session we are going study how these
failures will be initiated and how they can be avoided.

10.1 Introduction to Yielding

With respect to the stress-strain curve of metals we learned many important features
and one of the most important features for mechanical components is yield point.
Normally, during the design of load bearing engineering components any plastic
deformation is not desired. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the stresses induced due
to service well below the yield stress of the materials (with a safety factor).
Calculation of service stress is, to certain extends, complicated since in a component
it is very rarely that only a uniaxial stress is existing. There may be in addition to
tensile stresses, shear stresses due to torsion stresses, tension/compression stresses due
to bending etc. applied to the component. These all stresses contribute to the
deformation of the component and it is necessary to find a one ‘equivalent uniaxial
stress’ which creates the deformation and it should be less than the yield stress of the
metal. The design engineers use the ‘Yield Criteria’ for this calculation. In other
words, the design engineers should design the components so that the stress induces
during service should well below the yield stress to avoid ‘yielding’.

25
This phenomenon is applied mainly for the design of components under ‘static
loading conditions’ and for ‘fluctuating or dynamic load conditions’ it necessary to
consider many other factors since a failure (fracture) of the components can be
initiated during service even well below the yield stress.

10.2 Fracture and Failures in Materials

Fracture is a kind of failure and defined as the separation or detachment of a solid

material to two or more parts under the applied stress.

✓ During increasing the applied stress progressively strain energy is stored in the
material.
✓ Stored strain energy in the material can exceed the amount of energy that the
material can absorb (depending upon the ‘toughness’).
✓ Once it has reached the maximum amount of energy that the material can
absorb, a certain amount of energy will be released by making ‘new surfaces’.
Any fracture has at least two surfaces (initiation of the crack).
✓ Normally, surfaces are having ‘surface energy’ and by creating new surfaces
(during opening of a fracture) the material attempts to make new surfaces to
consume externally induced strain energy.
✓ With the increase of strain energy due to increase of applied stress, more and
more new surface areas are generated - ‘Propagation of the Crack’.
✓ Once the crack has reached a critical value the material will completely
separate.

A failure due to fracture occurs in three stages;

• Crack Initiation
• Crack propagation
• Final separation

In the design process it is necessary to (a) avoid crack initiation (b) slow down crack
propagation and (c) ‘postpone’ the final fracture.

Fractures in materials can occur in three modes;

o Ductile or brittle fracture: Occurs over a short period of time and
normally ductile fracture occurs with an extensive plastic deformation. In
contrast to that brittle fracture occurs spontaneously without any prior
indication and with less plastic deformation.
o Fatigue or progressive fracture: Occurs in most of the machine part
which are under ‘fluctuating stresses’.
o Delayed fracture (fracture due to creep): A delayed mode of fracture
which occurs statistically loaded components or structures which are at
elevated temperatures for long time duration of time (e.g. Tungsten
filament of a filament bulb).

(a) Ductile Fractures

26
As earlier discussed, the ductile fracture occurs after an extensive plastic deformation.
A good example is the fracture in tensile testing and it is possible to observe that the
fracture proceeds by a localized reduction in cross sectional area which is called as
‘necking’. This is initiated at a place where the increase of local stress concentration
at a place due to a micro level structural inhomogeneity is present. Structural
inhomogeneity is created through micro voids, inclusions, hard second phase etc. At
those places the stress system becomes 3-diamentional and effective stress level
becomes higher than the yield stress. With further increase of the stress (more strain
energy will be induced) in the necked region more plastic deformation will occur (in
micro level, slip of atom layers – shear slips) due to extensive shear stresses at an
angle of approximately 45º to the main axis. Once the stresses go beyond the fracture
stress of the material then the micro defects mentioned above will coalesce (merge)
and forms an elliptical shaped crack which propagates through the cross section of the
sample and finally separates the sample. After separation, the fracture surfaces can be
observed and if the material is ductile then the so called ‘Cup & Cone’ fracture can be
observed. This process of formation of ductile fracture is illustrated in Fig.10.1. The
propagation of the ductile fracture is predominately ‘Trans-Granular’ or ‘Trans-
Crystalline’ (along grain boundaries).

Fig.10.1 Formation of a Ductile Fracture

By observation of the topography of the fracture surface under scanning electron

microscope (Fractography) it is possible to identify whether a fracture is ductile or
not. The surface has a dull, fibrous appearance and some spherical dimples can be
seen (Fig.10.2).

27
 Fig.10.2 SEM Micrograph of a surface of a Ductile Fracture

(b) Brittle Fractures

Normally, brittle fractures occur with little or no plastic deformation and it can take
place with unpredictable stress levels, especially when the stress system is 3-
dimentional. The crack propagation is nearly perpendicular to the direction of the
applied stress. The crack propagates due to successive and repeated breaking of
atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes. Brittle fractures mainly
propagate ‘Trans-granular ’or ‘Trans-crystalline’ (across the grains) and if the grain
boundaries are brittle due to deposition of brittle constituents then intergranular. The
surface appears to be more shiny, smooth and the shows cleavage (a sharp division; a
split) patterns Fig.10.3.

Fig.10.3 SEM Micrograph of a Surface of a Brittle Fracture

It is also emphasized that in most of the practical situations a pure ductile or pure
brittle fracture will not exists. Normally, a ‘mixed’ type of fracture is observed in
most of the cases (Fig.10.4)

28
 Fig.10.4 SEM Micrograph of a Surface of a Ductile/Brittle Mixed Fracture

A good example is that the fracture surface of a sample after tensile testing. As
illustrated in Fig.10.5 (a) you will find mainly a ductile fracture, with an extensive
plastic deformation but at the center of the fracture a small area is visible which has a
brittle nature. This is due to the heavy true stress acting on a very small area and due
to necking the stress structure has become 3-dimential.

Brittle Fracture

(a) (b)
Fig.10.5 (a) Ductile (Cup & Cone Appearance) and (b) Brittle Fracture Surfaces

A comparison of the features of ductile and brittle fractures are given in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 A comparison of the features of ductile and brittle fractures

29
 Character/Parameter Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture
Required amount of Strain Energy High Low
Stress during cracking Increasing Constant
Rate of Crack Propagation Slow Fast
Prior Warning Signs Plastic Deformation None
Deformation Extensive Little
Necking Yes No
Crack Propagation Inter- or Trans- Mainly Trans-
granular Granular
Appearance of Crack Surface Rough and Dull Smooth and
Shining
Types of Materials Pure Metals Ceramic, Glasses

10.3 Basic Fracture Mechanics

In earlier chapters we have learned the property of a material which influence the
fracture initiation and propagation (toughness) and also types of fractures which can
exist in materials. Now we are concentrating on the ‘Fracture Toughness’ of a
material and the mechanism of initiating and propagation of fractures. A fracture of a
material, especially, in a metal, will be initiated where the mechanical stress
concentration in maximum (highest). As examples sharp corners, sudden change of
cross section, micro cracks, hard particles etc. can create locations (point) with high
stress concentrations.

If we consider a sample form a metal plate which is under uniaxial tension and with
an edge crack (Fig.10.6 – (a)) or an internal crack (Fig.10.6 – (b)) then the stress
concentration at the crack tip can be schematically illustrate as shown in the (Fig.10.6
– (c)).

Fig.10.6 (a) Edge Crack and (b) Internal Crack in a Plate Sample.
(c) High Stress Concentration at the Crack Tip

30
In both types of cracks, the stress intensity at the crack tip is significantly high and
depends on the applied external stress and the width of the crack, better said the
geometrical shape of the crack tip. Now we can define a ‘Stress Intensity Factor’
which is created by external stresses as follows;

KI = Yσ√𝜋𝑎 Where KI = Stress Intensity Factor

σ = applied external nominal stress
a = length of the crack
Y = constant (normally = 1)

Note: The subscript I in KI denotes the ‘Fracture Mode – I’ (see Fig.10.7).

Fig.10.7- 3 Types of Fracture Modes in Metals

Now we consider the fracture toughness (a material constant) of a metal from which
the plate is made and it can be defined as denoted as ‘KIC’. If the value of KI exceeds
the KIC value of the metal, then the crack propagation is unstable i.e. the crack cannot
be arrested and the crack can propagate which can lead to a complete separation of the
component. Therefore, designers have to design the component so that the KI value is
less than the KIC value of the metal at a particular temperature (as we know the
fracture toughness heavily depends on the service temperature and stress condition).

Typical fracture toughness values of some materials are given in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2 KIC Values of Some Materials

Type of Material Material KIC Value [MPa m1/2]

Metal Aluminum alloy (7075) 24
Steel alloy (4340) 50
Titanium alloy 44 - 66
Aluminum 14 - 28
Ceramic Aluminum oxide 3- 5
Silicon carbide 3- 5
Soda-lime glass 0.7 - 0.8
Concrete 0.2 - 1.4
Polymer Polymethyl methacrylate 0.7–1.6
Polystyrene 0.7–1.1
Composite Mullite- fibre composite 1.8–3.3

31
 Silica aerogels 0.0008–0.0048

10.3 Fatigue Behavior of Materials and Fatigue Testing

Fatigue is a type of condition of materials in which a failure can occur due to its
‘tiredness or weakness’ after working under dynamic and fluctuating stresses for
considerable time duration. (In normal life also we use the word ‘Fatigue’ when you
are extremely tired). Especially, in metals these types of fatigue failures are very
common and statistics shows most of the failure occurs in metals are due to fatigue.
Fatigue failures are very common in rotating machine components such as automobile
crankshafts, aircraft components, metallic bridges and structures etc. The danger is
that fatigue failure can occur in stress levels much lower than the yield stress and it is
mostly unnoticed in routine inspections and occurs very suddenly and without
warning (this was the root cause for the catastrophic high speed train accident in
Germany in year 1999 killing about 165 people). Approximately 90% of the failures
in metal components are due to fatigue and it is important to study the behavior of
metals under influence of fatigue.

Fatigue occurs due to fluctuating (dynamic) stresses and they may be fluctuating
between;
• tension and compression
• high tension and low tension or
• high compression and low compression.
These stresses can be developed in the component during service due to rotating,
bending, twisting or shearing. If we measure the magnitude of the stress with the time
and plot the curve stress level verses time then we get, in general, six different modes
as illustrated in Fig.10.9.

Stress fluctuates only in tension Stress fluctuates between high tension and low
compression

32Stress fluctuates between tension and

Stress fluctuates between low tension and high
compression with equal magnitude
compression
 Stress fluctuates randomly in
Stress fluctuates only in compression amplitude and frequency

Figure 10.9 Types of Stress Fluctuations

There are important parameters of fluctuating stress cycles and they are noted below;

• Mean Stress σm : Algebraic mean of the maximum and minimum stresses in

the cycle

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑚 =
2

• Range of Stress σr: Difference between σmax and σmin

𝜎𝑟 = σmax–σmin

• Stress Amplitude σa :Half of the Stress Cycle

𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
2 2

• Stress Ratio R: Ratio of minimum and maximum stresses

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
R=
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

Out of these parameters the stress ratio reflects the ‘severity of the stress’ on the
component. The value -1 is the most severe one where the stress fluctuates from
maximum tension to maximum compression equally.

• If the stresses are fully reversed, then R = -1.

• If the stresses are partially reversed, R = a negative number less than -1.
• If the stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, R = zero.

33
 • If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, R = a positive number
less than 1.

E.g. if a component is subjected 270MPa in tension and 270MPa in compression

considering, tension as ‘-‘ and compression as ‘+’, the value of R will be σmin/σmax and
it will be -270MPa/270MPa which is equals to -1.

If a homogeneous specimen is subjected to these fluctuating stresses, then it will

undergo following structural changes;

(a) Crack initiation: A tiny crack is initiated mostly, on or near to the surface of
the component where the stress is at maximum. The location of the initiation is
normally where a surface defect such as scratch, pit, minor damage due to
improper handling of a tool, sharp corners due to poor design, hard particle,
inclusion etc.

(b) Crack Propagation: The initiated crack will now grow under local plastic
deformation in one direction and then in the reverse direction since the stresses
are reversing. Plastic deformation is irreversible and it causes surface ridges
and grooves called as ‘slip band extrusion and intrusions’ (see Fig.10.10).

Fig.10.10 Formation of Extrusion and Instructions under Cyclic Load

These extrusions and intrusions will propagate into the materials with time
(no. of cycles) and leave so called ‘Beach Marks/Striations’ on the crack
surface. These marks can be seen by naked eye or under microscope once the
crack is opened (Fig.10.11). Normally, beach marks can be observed by naked
eye and striations are more in micro level and can be observed on by
microscope with higher magnification.

34
 Striations

Fig.10.11 Striations on a Fatigue Fracture Surface (SEM Micrograph X1000)

(c) Sudden Fracture: Finally, a sudden fracture ruptures the component

when the remaining cross section of the material is too small to withstand the
applied load. In other words, the area which should carry the load is too
miniscule so that stress will increase above the fracture stress of the material.
Due to this reason in normal fatigue fracture the final fracture area shows a
brittle nature.

A typical macrograph of a surface of a fatigue fracture is illustrated in Fig.10.12(a). In

Fig.10.12(b) it is possible to observe the crack initiation, propagation and final
fracture.

(a) (b)

Fig.10.12 A Typical Fatigue Fracture Surface (a) Schematic Illustration (b) Real
Micrograph

From the topography of the fracture surface it is also possible to observe the
distinguish characters which reflects the type of stress applied (Fig.10.13)

35
(Normal Bending) (Axial Tension) (Torsional)

Fig.10.13 Fracture Surfaces of Machine components und Different Stress conditions

10.3.1 Fatigue Testing

The fatigue properties of materials can be determined by laboratory experiments. For
that normally, samples are prepared with given dimensions and subjected to
fluctuating stresses. A relatively large maximum stress amplitude, usually on the
order of two-thirds of the static tensile strength will be applied. A schematic
illustration of the testing apparatus is given in Fig.10.14.

Fig.10 14 Fatigue Testing Apparatus

✓ One end of the sample is fixed in a chuck which is rotating with a certain
rotational speed and the other end is loaded with a known load.
✓ Due to this load the sample will be slightly bent and during rotation the
surface of the samples will be subjected to tension and compression stresses.
✓ The number of cycles to failure of the sample is counted.
✓ This procedure is repeated on other samples with decreasing loads and data are
plotted as stress (S) versus the logarithm value of number of cycles to fracture
N.
✓ This curve is named as S-N Curve (Fig.10.15).

36
 Fracture

No Fracture

Fig.10.15 S-N Curves of Steel and Aluminium

In this figure two distinct types of fatigue behaviors are visible;

(1) At higher values of stresses, the number of cycles before the fracture is lower
than that of lower stresses and in steel after a certain stress level the curve is
parallel to the x- axis. That means lower than that stress level, no fracture will
occur and the sample can sustain any number of cycle without breaking. This
particular stress level is known as ‘Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit’.

Fatigue limit is related to tensile strength of the material, and the ratio of
fatigue limit to tensile strength is known as ‘Endurance Ratio’. Most steels
have distinct fatigue limit, and is usually about 0.4-0.5 of tensile strength.

(2) Unlike steels, most nonferrous metals do not show fatigue limit i.e. S-N curve
continues to fall steadily with decreasing stress and therefore, fracture will
ultimately occur even at a very low value of applied stress.

In practice, the designers are calculating the ‘Fatigue Strength’ of materials as the
stress in which the material can sustain without fracture at the number of stress cycles,
normally 107. Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue
behavior is ‘Fatigue Life’ (Nf,-number of cycles to cause fatigue failure at a specified
stress level).

In ceramics normally fatigue strength is not considered since ceramics fail in brittle
manner because they are having very low fracture toughness. Therefore, designers do
their design with ceramics so that the ceramic components are loaded only with
compressive stresses but not with tensile stresses.

Polymers show fatigue but the mechanism is not as in metals. Due to degradation they
can fail prematurely due to creep behavior.

Following steps can be taken to increase the life of metals:

37
 ✓ Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining the part
✓ Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching, stamping, shearing,
or other processes
✓ Prevent the development of surface discontinuities during processing.
✓ Reduce or eliminate tensile residual stresses caused by manufacturing.
✓ Improve the details of fabrication and fastening procedures.

10.5 Creep Behavior of Materials

Creep is progressive plastic deformation over a period of time under constant
load/stress at high temperature. In other words, it is a time-strain behaviour of metals.
Boilers, gas turbine blades, and structural elements of large furnaces and ovens are
some of the systems that have components which experience creep. An understanding
of high temperature behaviour of materials is beneficial in evaluating failures in these
types of systems.
The failures involving creep are usually easy to identify due to the deformation that
occurs. Failures may appear ductile or brittle. Cracking may be either trans-granular
or inter-granular.

Creep behaviour of metals can be observed during creep testing. For this a simple
mechanism to load the metal would be enough (Fig.10.16).

Fig.10.16 Schematic Illustration of a Creep Testing Machine

The sample is fixed to the chucks and loaded with weights to achieve desired stress
level. Arrangements should be made to keep the sample (with given dimensions) at
high temperature. High temperature is a relative term and that is dependent on the
materials being testing. Normally, in metals creep begins with a temperature
approximately 35% of the melting point (0.3 -0.4Tm in Kelvin). The sample can be
kept in a furnace or oven and the strain will be measured using strain sensors over the
given period of time. The strain (ε) will be plotted against the time (Fig.10.17).

38
 Fracture

Stage III

Stage I Stage II

Instantaneous Elastic & Plastic

deformation

Fig.10.17 Typical Creep Curve of Metals

The creep curve can be divided into three segments;

(1) Primary Creep
(2) Secondary Creep
(3) Tertiary Creep
At the beginning of the test there is an instantaneous elongation of ε0 then,
✓ Primary creep (Stage I) is a period of decreasing creep rate and primary
creep is a period of primarily transient creep. During this period deformation
takes place and the resistance to creep increases until next stage.
✓ Secondary creep (Stage II) is a period of roughly constant creep rate. Stage
II is referred to as steady state creep.
✓ Tertiary creep (Stage III) occurs when there is a reduction in cross sectional
area due to necking or effective reduction in area due to internal void
formation
✓ Final Fracture comes after the tertiary creep.

A typical creep failure of a jet engine blade is illustrated in Fig.10.18

Direction of Stress
due to Centrifugal
Force

Fig.10.18 Creep Failure of a Jet Engine Turbine Blade

39
Standards Involved: ASTM E139 – 11, ISO 204:2009 (for metallic materials), ISO
899-1:2003 (for plastics),

Summary

In the previous session we have concentrated on the behavior of materials, especially,

metals under mechanical stresses and in this session, we have further learned about
special mechanical properties of metals, especially, about how metal behave at the
yield point, fracture mechanics of them, their fatigue behavior and creep behavior.
Also, we discussed how fatigue and creep strength of metals are experimentally
determined.

Learning Outcomes
After studying this session, you should be able to;
1. Understand the behavior of metals during yielding.
2. Know how fracture in metals initiated and propagated.
3. Understand the fatigue behavior of metals and identify surface features of metal
fractures.
4. Practice fatigue and creep testing of metals.

40
Session 11

Strengthening and softening of

engineering materials

Contents
Introduction

11.1 Solid Solution Strengthening of Metals

11.2 Strain Hardening (work hardening)of Metals
11.3 Grain Refinement of Metals
11.4 Precipitation Hardening of Metals
11.5 Heat Treatment for Hardening and Softening of Metals
11.6 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Metals
11.7 Strengthening and Softening Mechanisms of Polymers, Glasses &Ceramics

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
Materials Engineers are requested by the designers of engineering components to
produce materials with high strength and adequate toughness/ductility. Generally,
when the materials are produced, from nature, they have a certain amount of strength
and ductility. In most of the cases subsequent steps are taken to strengthen the
materials by keeping the ductility constant. However, it is a known factor that if a
material, especially a metal is subjected to strengthening the ductility drops
proportionally. On the other hand, in some cases the materials have to be soften when
they are too hard and brittle to use or difficult to machine. Therefore, it is important
learn the strengthening and softening mechanisms of materials at this stage. In this
session we are going to discuss those two processes, their mechanisms and practical
applications.
A classification of strengthening and softening mechanisms of different materials is
given below;

41
Table 11.1: Strengthening and Softening Mechanisms of Different Materials

Material Strengthening mechanisms Softening Mechanisms

Metals • Solid Solution Strengthening Annealing
(Alloying)
• Strain/Work Hardening
• Grain Size Reduction
• (Grain Refinement)
• Age Hardening
• Heat Treatment (Normalizing,
Quenching & Tempering)

Polymers/Composites • Increasing Molecular Mass Annealing

• Increasing Crystallinity
• Cross Linking (Vulcanization)
• Linking Groups to main Carbon
Chain
• Bonding High Polar Atoms to
main Carbon Chain
• Fibers Reinforcement

Ceramics/Glasses • Heat Treatment (Tempering) Annealing

• Molten Salt bath treatment

11.1 Solid Solution Strengthening in Metals

Metals can be strengthened by adding foreign atoms to its atomic structure (alloying).
Those foreign atoms (may be impurity atoms) will ‘dissolve’ in parent metal
physically by substituting parent atoms or placing at ‘interstitial’ (voids) positions in
the atomic structure of the parent metal. Therefore, these two mechanisms can be
named as;

• Substitutional Solid Solution

• Interstitial Solid Solution

(a) (b)
Fig.11.1 Different Types of Solid Solutions (a) Substitutional Solid
Solutions (b) Interstitial Solid Solution

42
In both cases the main mechanism is that;

✓ Those foreign atoms (solute atoms), depending on the size difference between
parent and foreign atoms, will create a strain field where those atoms are
positioned.
✓ During deformation of the metal the movement of dislocations will be
interacted by those strain fields and will restrict the moment of dislocations.
✓ Also, those points can ‘anchor’ the dislocations and restrict their moment.
✓ As a result of it stress required for plastic deformation will be increased.
✓ That means the yield point of the metal will increase.

Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys and effectiveness of solid
solution strengthening depends on two factors;

• Size difference between solute and parent atoms

• Concentration of solute atoms (alloying atoms).

Fig.11.2 shows the effect of size and concentration of alloying atoms on the increase
of yield point of pure copper.

Fig.11.2 shows the Effect of Size and Concentration of Alloying Atoms on Increase
of Yield Point of Pure Copper

Examples for these types of alloying can be given as

(i) Adding Carbon in interstitial position of Iron to make steel.

(ii) Super alloys used for jet engine blades are made by alloying Nickel with
Chromium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Titanium etc.

43
11.2 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening) of Metals
Soft and ductile metals can be strengthened and hardened by strain hardening process.
This process is also named as ‘Work Hardening’ and normally, done at room
temperature, well below the melting point of the metal (below 0.4 Tm in K) and called
as cold working. Therefore, it is also called as ‘Cold Working’. It is also important to
know that during strain hardening process the ductility of the metal will be reduced
and therefore, during this process it is important to control the process parameters so
that no fracture will be initiated during the process.
This process is done by subjecting the metal to a plastic deformation by means of
external load. During plastic deformation ‘Dislocation Density’ increases due to many
mechanisms and lightly cold worked material may have a dislocation density in order
of 1012 m-2, while a very heavily cold worked material may have 1016 m-2. Before cold
working, it was around 1010 m-2. Due to severe increase of dislocation density their
movement will be significantly restricted. The result is strength increase.
This can be shown by a simple experiment where a metal sample is drawn using a
tensile testing machine to a certain extension (strain) and then releasing the load. Then
the same sample will be stressed again from zero and observed the stress-strain
behaviour (Fig.11.3).

Fig.11.3 Stress-Strain Behaviour of a Metal Sample under Repeated Loading

It is clearly visible that the yield strength and tensile strength have been increased due
to the plastic deformation. The amount of strength increase is depending on the degree
of prior cold working and this can be calculated in percentage of cold work (%CW)
using following equation.
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑢
%𝐶𝑊 = % Where Ao - Original Cross-Sectional Area
𝐴𝑜
Au - Ultimate Cross-Sectional Area

44
In Fig.11.3 the increase of yield and ultimate tensile strength with the amount of cold
working is illustrated. Also, it is important to observe that the ductility (area between
the curve and the X-axis) will be decreased with the strength.

Fig.11.4 Increase of Yield and Ultimate Tensile Strength and

Decrease of Ductility of a Metal Sample

This strengthening mechanism is used to manufacture high strength steel wires for
brake cables in automobile industry and to produce steel cables for cranes. In
electrical cable manufacturing industry, copper and aluminium rods are cold drawn to
thin wires with a certain amount of strength. An intermediate softening process will
be used if the wire is over-hardened.

Fig.11.5

11.3 Grain Refinement of Metals

Almost all metals and alloys are polycrystalline i.e. they are having a multi-grain
structure. As we discussed earlier the grains are surrounded with grain boundaries and

45
those boundaries support to increase the strength of the metal by acting as barriers to
the movement of dislocations. Therefore, more the grain boundaries higher the
strength. To increase the amount of grain boundaries with the constant volume the
number of grains should be increased. That means the average size of the grains
should be decreased. This phenomenon is called as ‘Grain Refinement’.
Grain refinement can be performed by different methods such as, heat treatment,
adding hard particles before solidification to promote heterogeneous nucleation.
As you know the grains in metals are having different grain sizes. Therefore, it is
fairly difficult to determine the ‘average’ grain size. This is normally done according
to the ASTM standard (ASTM E112 – 12) and a ASTM grain size numbers are given
to different grain sizes. Larger the ASTM grain size number smaller the average grain
diameter (Fig.11.6).

Fig.11.6 ASTM Grain Size Numbers (at the center of the circle) and respective Grain
Sizes

Since fine-grained metals and alloys are stronger and harder than that of coarse
grained in industrial application, fine grain metals and alloys are preferred. As an
example, if fine-grained steels are used in particular components of structures less
material will be needed due to high strength-to-weight ratio. Household gas cylinders
are made out of fine grain steel to make the gas cylinders easy to handle due to light
weight. For high pressure vessels fine grain steel is used to reduce the thickness of the
wall to minimize residual stresses during welding. For the components used at
elevated temperature fine grain metals are in disadvantage since ‘grain Boundary
Creep’ will be promoted due to high amount of grain boundaries.

11.4 Precipitation Hardening of Metals

This strengthening mechanism is based on the formation of extremely small

uniformly dispersed particles of a second phase within the parent matrix. These
particles will effectively retard the movement of dislocations and due to that the
strength and hardness of the metal will be enhanced.
This method is mainly used for non-ferrous alloys and it is named as ‘Precipitation
Hardening’ since we ‘precipitate’ this new face in the parent matrix. Examples of
alloys that are hardened by precipitation treatments include aluminium–copper,
copper–beryllium, copper–tin, and magnesium–alumini. However, some steel types
also can be hardened by this method. Some special type of stainless steel (grades 693

46
and 2960) are precipitate hardened to increase the strength and hardness to be used in
oil and gas, nuclear and aerospace industries where a combination of high strength,
corrosion resistance is required. However, process technology is different from that of
nonferrous alloys.

Precipitation hardening is done in two different heat treatment processes;

(1) Solution Heat treatment: As the first step the alloy is ‘solution heat treated’ in
which all solute atoms are dissolved to form a single phase solid solution with
parent matrix. Then this alloy is quenched in water/oil so that dissolved
second phase will be forcefully kept in the matrix. This super saturated solid
solution is now ‘meta stable’ at room temperature and alloy is still relatively
soft and weak.

If we keep this super saturated solid solution at room temperature for long
time then 2nd phase will start to accumulate (by diffusion of atom) to
statistically distributed location to form very small particles. With the time, the
size of those particles is increased by accumulating more and more second
phase atoms and act as barriers for the movement of dislocations. That means
strength and hardness of the alloy will gradually increase. This phenomenon is
called as ‘Age Hardening’. Therefore, this hardening process is also called as
age hardening.

(2) Precipitation Heat Treatment: At this stage the age hardening action will be
accelerated and for that the alloys should be again heated up to a higher
temperature but below the solution heat treatment temperature. More and more
second phase particles will be formed and the strength and hardness of the
alloys will be increased rapidly.

11.5 Heat Treatment for Hardening and Softening of Metals

In the previous section, we have discussed about the methods to increase strength and
hardness of metals and alloys. Now we will discuss the ‘heat treatment of metals and
alloys’ which can be used to increase as well as ‘reduce’ the strength and hardness
(increase ductility) of metals and alloys.
During heat treatment depending on the process parameters, the structure of the metal
will be changed and therefore, the properties of the metal will change.

Normally, heat treatment of metals and alloys consists of many steps;

(a) kept in a furnace,
(b) slowly heated to a desired temperature
(c) kept for a given time and
(d) cooled with different cooling rates.

Following table summarizes 5 different heat treatment processes giving important

process parameters.

47
Table11.2 : Different Heat Treatment Processes for Metals

Process Temp. Time* Cooling Effect

(°C)
Stress 400 - 450 1h / 1 inch In furnace Lower residual
Relieving stresses. No change
in strength &
hardness.
Annealing 870 – 900 1h / 1 inch In furnace Reduces the strength
&hardness, ductility
is increased
Normalizing 850 - 920 1h / 1 inch In air Moderate hardness
& strength. Low
ductility.
Quenching 900 - 920 1h / 1 inch In Very high hardness,
water/oil highly brittle. Very
low ductility.
Tempering 200 - 400 Depends In furnace Fairly high hardness
on & strength with
required adequate ductility.
hardness
* This value is applicable only for steel
If you read the last column you can see only ‘Tempering’ soften the metal.
There are other heat treatment processes such as Carburizing, Nitriding and Carbo-
nitriding used to increase the surface hardness of steel components.

It is possible that defects are created during heat treatment of metals and some of
them are given below.

• Oxidation of the surface

• Scaling in steel
• Decarburization in carbon steels
• Grain growth
• Residual Stresses
• Cracks

Fig.11.7 shows heat treatment of a large semi-finished steel components and heat
treatment of steel tube using ring gas burner.

48
Fig.11.7 Heat Treatment of (a) Large Steel Components (b) Axel Using Ring Burner

11.6 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Metals

Now we know that once a metal is work hardened due to changes of the structure. If
working is at room temperature, then the process is called as cold working. The
deformation of grain structure of a metal sheet is illustrated in Fig.11.8. Due to
‘Squeezing’ of grains or in other words, flattening of the grains the free movement of
dislocations is restricted and also the density of dislocations will be increased.
Therefore, the strength and hardness of the metal will be increased

Fig.11.8 Deformation of Grains during Cold Working

Now the question is whether the properties of this ‘Work Hardened’ metal can be
‘reversed’ if needed. The answer is ‘yes’ and it can be done by heat treatment process.
As an example, ‘Annealing’ can be done to ‘regain’ the structure and properties of a
work hardened metal. The following steps are involved in annealing process;

49
 • Recovery
• Recrystallization
• Grain growth

(a) Recovery: During recovery, which takes place at relatively low temperatures
(less than 0.3Tm)of annealing the increased vibration of atoms allows them to
approach their equilibrium positions. The point defects will be absorbed at the
surface and dislocations pileups will be eased. Thereby, the structural strain will
be reduced. However, decrease of the density of dislocations is not very
significant at this stage. During recovery there is no change in the distortion of
the grain structure and no reduction in the hardness and tensile strength of the
metal.

(b) Recrystallization: At this stage a nucleation and formation of new stress-free

crystals, which replace the deformed crystal, can be observed. This process starts
on heating to temperatures above 0.3 - 0.5 Tm, which is above recovery range.
The strain energy difference between cold worked and strain-free material is the
driving force for recrystallization. The nuclei for the recrystallization are formed
points of high-energy regions such as grain boundaries (places where dislocations
are piled up). A significant drop in strength/hardness and increase in ductility can
be observed at this stage.

(c) Grain growth: This refers to the increase in the average grain size during further
annealing, after all the cold worked material has recrystallized. As a reduction in
the grain boundary area per unit volume of the material occurs during grain
growth, there is a decrease in the free energy of the material. Further drop of
strength/hardness is possible at this stage. However, in practical applications,
grain growth is usually not desirable.
Fig.11.9 shows the influence of cold working and annealing temperature on the
mechanical properties of metallic materials.

Fig.11.9 Change of Mechanical Properties during Cold Working and Annealing of

Metals

50
In Fig.11.10 change of microstructure during cold working is schematically
illustrated.

(a) Original Grains (b) Cold Worked

Grains

(c) Recrystallization (d) Freshly Nucleated Grains

(e) Newly Formed Grains

Fig.11.10 Schematic Illustration of Changes in Grains of Metals

during Cold Working & Annealing

51
11.7 Strengthening and Softening Mechanisms of Polymers,
Glasses &Ceramics

Strengthening of Polymers: If we consider thermoplastics, following methods are

used to increase the strength.
✓ Increasing average molecular mass of the polymer chains:
Normally, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene can be
strengthened by this method. However, after a critical molecular mass
the increase in strength of these polymers is limited.

✓ Increasing the degree of crystallinity of the thermoplastic:

Polymers are crystallized during polymerization process through
cooling from the melt, mechanical stretching or during solvent
evaporation. The polymers are solidifying to make amorphous
structure but with controlled process parameters polymer chains will
rearrange upon freezing to form partly ordered regions with a typical
size of the order 1 micrometer. Normally, in these ordered structure
(crystalline) the polymer chains are not really ‘crystallized’ as in
metals but are folded and aligned. Therefore, under mechanical load
those polymers show higher strength than normal polymers.

✓ Anchor pendent atomic groups on the main carbon chain;

Slipping of chains on each other during permanent deformation can be
restricted by ‘hanging’ heavy atomic group such as benzene or methyl
groups on the main carbon chain.

✓ Introducing Oxygen and Nitrogen atoms in the main carbon chain:

This method also functions somewhat same as above-mentioned
method.

✓ Vulcanization of rubber using sulfur:

By mixing and heating rubber with sulfur the cross links between
rubber molecular chains will be strengthened and therefore, the
strength of rubber will be significantly increased.
Softening of Polymers: During heating, some polymers are softened by breaking
weak intermolecular forces between chains. Sometime this action is named also as
‘melting’. However, this is not to compare with melting of metals. After softening
those polymers can be easily formed to different shapes. After shaping polymers will
undergo ‘annealing’ and this is done by heating the polymer below its glass transition
temperature and slowly cooling to room temperature in order to relieve the internal
stresses induced into the part during its fabrication.

Strengthening of Glasses: Most of the silicate glasses show good strength under
compressive stresses but weak under tensile stresses. Glasses can be strengthened by
inducing compressive stresses at the surface. To achieve this, the surface of the
glasses is rapidly cooled by air jets after hot forming. Since the surface cools faster

52
than the core compressive stresses will be induced at the surface. With this method
the tensile strength of the glasses can be substantially increased.
Strengthening of glasses can also be done by increasing the crystallinity. For that,
during melting of glass TiO2, as very fine granular, is added to the melt. After forming
and cooling the product is heated up again to a certain temperature (below melting
point of glass) to form crystals in the glass structure. Hard TiO2 act as heterogeneous
nucleation agent and promote fine grain crystals in the glass. This ultra-fine grain
promotes high mechanical strength and thermal shock resistance of the glass products
and they are called as pyrocerams (Pyrex). Cookware made by pyroceram can be
heated under direct fire on gas flame or in an oven, without the risk of cracking.
Safety glasses in automobile industry (vehicle wind screens) are manufactured
according to the above-mentioned process.

Annealing of Glasses: The glass products are normally slowly cooled down to the
room temperature during manufacture. This step is taken to minimize residual stresses
which can be induced during cooling due to rapid cooling of the surface compared to
the center region. This may be severe if the cooling rate is not optimized, the product
has complicated geometry, presence of impurities etc.
Therefore, cooled glass products are annealed to eliminate those residual stresses.
This process contains two steps;
(1) Heat-soaking the glass for a period of time at a high temperature
(2) Cooling the glass slowly to relieve internal stresses.
These processes are carried out in a temperature-controlled kiln called as ‘Lehr’.
Heating temperature and cooling rate during annealing process is decided on the type
of glass, viscosity, thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the glass, geometrical
complexity of the product, highest wall thickness etc.

Strengthening of Ceramics: Ceramics are considered as high strength, brittle and

hard materials. Therefore, they should be loaded with tensile stresses but possibly
with compressive stresses. In addition to that Materials Engineers are trying to
strengthen the ceramics, especially ‘Structural Ceramics’ using different techniques;
✓ Adding better sinter additives such as Yttrium Oxide (Y2O3)
✓ Proper control of the sintering process (less defects)
✓ Particle toughening the ceramics matrix (for Zirconium Oxide - ZrO2)
✓ Glazing the surface of ceramics to create compressive stresses on the surface
(for traditional ceramics)
✓ Thermal tempering to create compressive stresses on the surface (or high-
performance ceramics)
✓ Heat treatment to blunt the sharp corners and edges of Silicon Nitride (Si3N4)
ceramics.
Annealing of Ceramics: This is similar to annealing of glasses and main aim is to
minimize the internal residual stresses by heat treatment process.

53
Summary
In this session, we discussed about the strengthening and softening of engineering
materials and this is a very important aspect to the industry when they use engineering
materials for their products. Initially we started with the possible strengthening
mechanisms, such as solid solution hardening, work hardening, strengthening through
grain refinement & heat treatment. Then we have discussed about the theoretical
aspects in softening mechanisms of metals explaining how recovery, recrystallization
and grain growth in metals are functioning. Finally, the basics of strengthening and
softening mechanisms of other materials such as Polymers, Glasses & Ceramics were
discussed.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this session, you should be able to;

1. Understand the mechanisms of strengthening and softening of engineering
materials.
2. Explain those mechanisms.
3. Select suitable strengthening and softening methods for engineering materials.
4. Understand the theory related to softening of metals.

54
Session 12

Types, Designations and Processing of

Engineering Materials

Contents
Introduction

12.1 Types and designation of ferrous alloys

12.2 Types and designation of non ferrous metals and alloys
12.3 Introduction to fabrication of metals(casting, forming, joining, sintering etc.)
12.4 Types and processing of polymers
12.5 Introduction to ceramics
12.6 Introduction to composites

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
After discussing the basics of the structure, the formation of structure and structure-
property relationship of engineering materials, now we are going to focus on the
different types and fabrication of them. First, we will discuss the types and standard
designations of metals and their alloys including their fabrication. Also, it is planned
to discuss the types and processing of non-metallic engineering materials such as
polymers, ceramics and composites.

55
12.1 Types and Designation of Ferrous Alloys

In this session our intention is to discuss the types and designation of ferrous metals.
The number of industrially used ferrous alloys is enormous and they are mainly
categorized according to chemical compositions. However, it is more meaningful to
classify them according to applications and it is more useful to designers in the
process of selection of materials and for metal fabricators to find out the most
appropriate fabrication process. Internationally, metals are classified/designated by
different standard method and those standards are available issued by various
institutes such as International Standards Organization (ISO), American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), European Standards
Organization (CEN), Japanese Standards Association (JSA) etc. More details are also
available in Metal Handbooks and from many metals manufactures. Therefore, it is
not necessary to learn designations and properties of various metals by heart.

12.1.1 Types of Ferrous Alloys

As shown in Fig.2.2 (Session 02) ferrous alloys are classified according to the
chemical composition and in Table 2.1(Session 02) a brief introduction to their
properties including some applications are given. Basically, ferrous alloys are divided
in to two groups’ steel and cast iron. These two types will be handled separately to
have a better understanding of the content.

12.1.1.1 Types of Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with other alloying elements such as Manganese,
Silicon, Sulfur and Phosphorous. The latter two elements are considered as impurity
elements which accompanied with iron ore and reduced as much as possible during
purification of iron. Depending on quality of iron ore and required level of quality the
reduction or adding of carbon, manganese and silicon is done by mixing materials
such as Ferro-carbon, Ferro- manganese and Ferro-silicon. Those steel containing
ONLY above-mentioned alloying elements are called as ‘Plain Carbon Steel’.
However, addition of more alloying elements is necessary for many reasons such as
improving mechanical properties, improving corrosion resistance, etc. Those steels
with added alloying elements are called as ‘Alloy Steel’.

(I) Plain Carbon Steel: Since most of the mechanical properties of steel are very
sensitive to carbon content the plain carbon steel is classified in to mainly three
groups i.e.;

✓ Low Carbon Steel (<0.3 % C)

✓ Medium Carbon Steel (0.3%< C < 0.6%)
✓ High Carbon Steel (C > 0.6% up to 1%)

56
(a) Low carbon steel:

• This type of steel is the mostly used in industrial and domestic

applications due to its technological and economic benefits (TMT steel
for the reinforcement of concrete).
• The percentage of carbon is fairly low and it is not enough to
strengthen by heat treatment.
• The only strengthening mechanism applicable for this steel is cold
working.
• The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 12.1).
• Therefore, the mechanical strength is relatively low but it is ductile and
has high toughness.
• Easily workable and weldable.
• It has a wide range of applications commencing from beverages cans
and automobile body parts to structural applications such as buildings.

Ferrite

Pearlite
(dark)

Fig.12.1 Microstructure of Low Carbon Steel

A special category of low carbon steel is ‘High Strength Low Alloyed

(HSLA)’ steel which contains a small quantities (less than 0.5 % each) of
alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, copper, niobium, vanadium,
molybdenum, titanium etc. This special type can be heat treated and used in
construction industry for columns, bridges and for pressure vessels.

(b) Medium Carbon Steel

• These steels have higher carbon content and are stronger than low
carbon steel.
• Therefore, they are relatively less ductile.
• Due to fairly high carbon content medium carbon steel can be heat
treated to improve mechanical strength.

57
 • Hardenability of these steel is low; only thin sections can be heat
treated using very high quench rates.
• However, hardenability can be increased by adding small number of
alloying elements such as Ni, Cr or Mo.
• Typical applications are wheel elements, gears, shafts and many other
machine components where good combination of strength and
toughness is required.
• The microstructure consists ferrite and higher amount of pearlite than
that of low carbon steel (Fig. 12.2).

Ferrite

Pearlite
(dark)

Fig.12.2 Microstructure of Medium Carbon Steel

(c) High Carbon Steel

• These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels.
• Ductility is very limited.
• Heat treatable and mostly used in hardened and tempered conditions.
• Possess very high wear resistance and capable of holding sharp edges.
• Used manufacture tools such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc.
• With addition of alloying elements like Cr, V, Mo, W wear resistance
of high carbon steels can be improved considerably.
• Microstructure consists of very low amount of ferrite and high amount
of pearlite (Fig. 12.3).

Ferrite
(small amount of
white areas
Pearlite
(all dark areas)

58
 Fig.12.3 Microstructure of High Carbon Steel

(II) Alloy Steel: Steels in which an appreciable number of alloying elements is added
are called as alloy steels. Generally, the alloying elements added to make alloy
steels are mainly; Manganese, Silicon, Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum and
Tungsten. In addition to that following elements can also be added to improve the
properties; Vanadium, Cobalt, Boron, Copper, Aluminium, Lead and Titanium.
Certainly, the properties of those steels are directly influenced by the number of
alloying elements added. Therefore, alloy steels are again categorized in two
types;
‘Low Alloy Steel ’which contain 1 -7% total amount of alloying
elements
‘High Alloy Steel’ which contain more than 7% up to 50% alloying
elements
Normally, low alloy steels are low in cost and used in manufacture of engineering
and domestic components. Main advantage of this type of steel is that they have
a good strength with appreciable ductility and workability. These steels also show
a good weldability.
In contrast to low alloy steels the high alloy steels are more expensive and used
for more specific applications such as;
✓ High corrosion resistance
✓ High temperature resistance
✓ Heat treatable to achieve high hardness and wear
resistance
✓ High hardenability
Stainless Steels: Mostly used high alloy steel is ‘Stainless Steel’ which is
used due to its excellent resistance to corrosion. Due to high content of
Chromium this steel becomes stainless. To make the steel ‘stain-less’ the
Chromium content should be at least 12%. Chromium protects the steel
surface by reacting with Oxygen in air forming a very thin layer of
Chromium Dioxide (Cr2O3) which is an inert ceramic and adheres to the
steel surface well. Since Chromium make steel brittle to compensate an
appreciable amount of Nickel is also added. Therefore, the underlying
steel is well protected against oxidation and corrosion. There are mainly 4
types of stainless steels;
✓ Ferritic Stainless Steel
✓ Austenitic Stainless Steel
✓ Martensitic Stainless Steel
✓ Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steels
Ferritic Stainless Steels are relatively cheap and contain 12-14% Cr and
a small amount of Mo, V, Nb, and Ni. They show a less corrosion
resistance compared to austenitic stainless steels. Used for general
purposes such as automotive applications, kitchenware, and industrial
equipment. They are magnetic and not suitable for welding. In ASTM

59
 standard they are categorized under series 4 (e.g. A430, A446, A410,
A440 etc.).
Note: For ASTM designation of steel see 12.1.2 in this Session

Austenitic Stainless Steels are vastly used and show excellent corrosion
resistance. Austenitic stainless steels usually contain at least 18% Cr and
8% Ni and in addition to that they may contain minor alloying elements
such as Ti, Nb, Mo (to prevent weld decay). Ni stabilizes the austenitic
phase assisted by C and N. They are non- magnetizible and used in
various industrial applications such as chemical & food processing
equipment, pressure vessels, tubing for chemical transportation etc. They
are categorized in ASTM standard under series 3 (A301, A304, A316,
A316L etc).

Martensitic Stainless Steels are used where corrosion resistance and

hardness is required (e.g. kitchen knives). These alloys are heat treatable
and contain major alloying elements such as Cr, Mn and Mo.

Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steels are named also as ‘Duplex Stainless

Steel’ since they have phases ferrite and austenite. They hardened and
strengthened by only cold working because they are not heat treatable.
These type of steels offer good strength and higher resistance to stress-
corrosion cracking than most other types of stainless steels, and is used
mainly in desalination plants, heat exchangers, and marine applications.

(III) Tool Steel

Tool steels are categorized under carbon and alloy steels that are mainly
used for making tools. They have distinguished properties suitable for
processing materials such as strength, hardness, resistance to abrasion,
deformability, corrosion resistance and high temperature stability.
Depending on the application, whether tools are used for room
temperature or at elevated temperatures the alloying elements are added
appropriately.

Normally, tool steels contain a carbon percentage from 0.5% to 1.5%

and they are carefully heat treated to achieve desired properties. Tool
steels for high temperature processing of metals (e.g. hot rolling, hot
forging etc. alloying elements like tungsten, chromium, vanadium and
molybdenum are added. These alloying elements make with carbon
metal carbides (very hard particles) to retard movement of dislocation
especially at elevated temperature. These carbides are finely dispersed in
a soft matrix so that the tool is hard as well as tough.

(IV) Cast iron

Cast iron contains more than 1% (typically 2 - 4.5%) carbon in iron. In
addition to that other elements such as Mn, Si, S, P can be present in the
alloy. Due to presence of significant amount of carbon this ferrous alloy
is melted at lower temperature than steel (see Fe-C phase diagram).

60
Therefore, it is easy to cast and maintain its fluidity for a broader
temperature range. The main disadvantage of this alloy is its brittleness,
however, by adding certain alloying elements (see below) and modifying
the microstructure their toughness can be improved significantly. There
are mainly two types of cast iron and they are;
• White Cast Iron
• Gray Cast Iron

Grey cast iron is further categorized in to 3 groups such as;

✓ Ductile Cast Iron.
✓ Malleable Cast Iron.
✓ Wrought iron.

White Cast Iron:

✓ When Si content is low (< 1%) and under faster cooling rates,
cast iron solidified to hard cementite (Fe3C) and ferrite/perlite
structure (Fig. 12.4).
✓ Due to presence of cementite, fractured surface appears white;
hence they are named as ‘white cast iron’.
✓ They are very brittle and extremely difficult to machine.
✓ Hence their use is limited to wear resistant applications such as
rollers in rolling mills, crushing and grinding components.

Cementite
(white)

Ferrite/Pearlite
(dark)

Fig.12.4 Microstructure of White Cast Iron

Gray Cast Iron (with Graphite Flakes):
✓ These alloys consist ‘free’ carbon in the form of graphite flakes
(Flake Graphite), which are surrounded by either ferrite or
pearlite (Fig. 12.5).
✓ Due to the presence of free graphite, the fractured surface of
these alloys looks grayish. Therefore, they are named as ‘grey’
cast iron.

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 ✓ Mainly Si (normally 1 – 3%) is responsible for decomposition of
cementite to free graphite and for the fluidity. Thus, castings of
complicated shapes can be easily made.
✓ Due to graphite flakes, gray cast irons are weak and brittle.
✓ Because of their good mechanical damping properties, this cast
iron type is used to manufacture base structures, bed for heavy
machines, etc.
✓ They also show relatively high resistance to wear, corrosion
resistance and are easy to machine.

Graphite
Flakes

Ferrite/Pearlite
Ferrite

Fig.12.5 Microstructure of Gray Cast Iron (with Lamella Graphite Flakes)

Gray Cast Iron (with Globular Graphite):

✓ In this alloy ‘free’ carbon is embedded in ferrite/pearlite

structure in globular form (Fig. 12.6).
✓ This type is also named as ‘Nodular Cast Iron’ or ‘Ductile Cast
Iron’.
✓ The particular shape of free graphite is made by adding small
amount of Mg or Ce to the melt just before the pouring. This
makes the flakes to globular form (sphere-like particles) and it
is called as ‘Graphitization’.
✓ It is desirable with respect to the strength, fracture propagation
and fatigue strength of the component made by this alloy.
✓ Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or
pearlite depending on the heat treatment.
✓ These are stronger and ductile than normal gray cast irons and
typical applications include pump bodies, crank shafts,
automotive components, etc.

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 Free Graphite in
form of Globules

Ferrite/Pearlite
Ferrite

X
200

Fig.12.6 Microstructure of Gray Cast Iron (with Globular Graphite)

Malleable Cast Iron

✓ Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating white cast iron.
✓ Heat treatment involves heating the material up to 800-900 ºC
and keeps it for long hours (about 10 - 12 hours) before cooling
it to room temperature.
✓ High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose
and form ferrite and graphite (Fig. 12.7).
✓ Thus, these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of
ductility.
✓ Typical applications include: rail road, connecting rods, marine
and other heavy-duty services.

Graphite
Flakes

Ferrite/Pearlite
Ferrite

Fig.12.7 Microstructure of Malleable Cast Iron

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12.1.2 Designation of Ferrous Alloys

As we have discussed earlier in Session 02, the alloys containing Iron as the main
element can be classified as ferrous alloys. The main ferrous alloy that vastly used in
the industry is steel. This alloy is manufactured in most of industrial countries such as
USA, UK, Germany, France, Belgium and Japan as well as in Sweden, South Africa,
India and many other countries and all those nations has their own
designation/classification systems. Since all the designation system of different
countries cannot be handled in this course book. We will consider the system adopted
by USA since this system is worldwide well accepted and used. If anyone needs the
equivalent national designation of particular steel designated by American system can
use metal handbooks/standards where all the designations are given with respective
equivalent designations.
Steel can be designated according to their chemical composition, manufacturing
process or their industrial usage. The German designation (DIN -Standards) of steel is
mainly based on chemical composition and classified according to the alloying
elements of steel. If the designation is according to the manufacturing process, which
is partly done in USA designation system, can be designated according to Crucible
steel, Bessemer steel, Open-hearth steel, basic oxygen steel and Electric-furnace steel.
The designation according to industrial usage is based on Machine steel, Spring steel,
Boiler steel, Structural steel or Tool steel.
Three designation systems are used in USA;

(a) The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) System
(b) The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) System
(c) The Unified Numbering System (UNS)

(a) Designation of Steel According to the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Systems;

The SAE system uses a basic four-digit system to designate the chemical
composition of carbon and alloy steels. The simplest system for designation of
steel is schematically shown below.

X XXX - First two digits denotes type of materials selected

-Last two digits denotes amount on carbon present in steel

1 - Plain carbon steel

2 - Nickel steels;
3 - Nickel-chromium steels;
4 - Molybdenum steels;
5 - Chromium steels;
6 - Chromium-vanadium steels;
7 - Tungsten-chromium steels;
9 - Silicon-manganese steels.

64
 Only for plain carbon steel (without
alloying elements)
0 – Non- modified Plain carbon
1 – Re-sulfurized
2 – Re-sulfurized and re-phosphorized
5 – Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0%

For alloy steel

Second digit indicates the approximate
percentage of the predominant alloying
elements (1 means 1%).

As examples;
- AISI/SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of carbon
- AISI/SAE 1137 means resulfurized carbon steel, containing 0.37% of carbon
- AISI/SAE 5135 means a chromium steel alloy, containing 1% of chromium and
0.35% of carbon.
- AISI/SAE 9148 means silicon-manganese steel, containing 1% of silicon and
0.48% of carbon.

Note: Resulfurized means these steels are containing added sulfur. The higher
sulfur level in the resulfurized steels imparts improved machinability to the
steel because of the chip-breaking effect of the manganese sulfides (MnS).
Re-phosphorized means added phosphorus which increases the strength of
the steel and promotes chip breaking during machining operations.

Ferrite Grains

MnS particles

Pearlite Grains

Fig.12.8 Microstructure of Re-sulfurized and re-phosphorized AISI/SAE 1213 Steel

In addition to the numerals, AISI specification may include a letter prefix

before the four-digit number to indicate the steel making process as under.
A – Alloy, basic open hearth
B – Carbon, acid Bessemer
C – Carbon, basic open hearth

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 D – Carbon, acid open hearth
E – Electric furnace
Thus AISI B1025 means non modified carbon steel, produced by acid
Bessemer process and containing 0.25% of carbon.

(b) Designation of Steel According to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) System
Generally, ASTM system is not based on chemical composition and covers not
only the designation of steel but also many other areas such as;
✓ Product group (steel sheets, bars, pipes etc.),
✓ Applications (railroad rails, boiler tubes, plate, and bolts)
✓ Manufacturing processes (forging, rolling, casting, wire drawing etc.),
✓ Coatings on steel (galvanizing, phosphating, etc.),
✓ Steel product testing methods (hardness, hardenability etc.)
In ASTM designations all above-mentioned areas which are related to steel start
with the letter” A”, followed by arbitrary selected three digits.
ASTM A XXX

As an examples;
ASTM A108: Standard Specification for Steel Bar, Carbon and Alloy, Cold-
Finished.
ASTM A276: Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes.
ASTM A6xx: Standard specification for general requirements for rolled
structural steel bars, plates, shapes, and sheet piling.
ASTM A148: Standard Specification for Steel Castings, High Strength, for
Structural Purposes.

The complete specification number also includes two additional digits at the end
(as in”A 210-73” ) which indicate the year in which the specification was issued
or revised.

(c) Designation of Steel According to the Unified Numbering System (UNS)

Unified Numbering System also covers all metals and alloys and there is a UNS
designation for each steel composition, and it consists of a letter followed by five
digits.
X XXXXX
Example: UNS S30400 is Cr/Ni 18/10 Stainless Steel
This system fully incorporates the AISI/SAE system. For example, the UNS
designation for AISI/SAE 1040 is G10400. Following table gives Designation of
Metals and Alloys According to UNS System.

Table 12.1 Designation of Metals and Alloys According to UNS System

UNS No. Metal type(s)

A00001 to Aluminum and aluminum alloys
A99999
C00001 to Copper and copper alloys (brasses and bronzes)
C99999

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 D00001 to Specified mechanical property steels
D99999
E00001 to Rare earth and rare earthlike metals and alloys
E99999
F00001 to Cast irons
F99999
G00001 to AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels (except tool steels)
G99999
H00001 to AISI and SAE H-steels
H99999
J00001 to Cast steels (except tool steels)
J99999
K00001 to Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys
K99999
L00001 to Low-melting metals and alloys
L99999
M00001 to Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys
M99999 M1xxxx - Magnesium Alloys
N00001 to Nickel and nickel alloys
N99999
P00001 to Precious metals and alloys
P99999
R00001 to Reactive and refractory metals and alloys
R99999 R03xxx- Molybdenum Alloys
R04xxx- Niobium (Columbium) Alloys
R05xxx- Tantalum Alloys
S00001 to Heat and corrosion resistant (stainless) steels
S99999
T00001 to Tool steels, wrought and cast
T99999
W00001 to Welding filler metals
W99999
Z00001 to Zinc and zinc alloys
Z99999

There are many other standards existing in USA such as American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), which oversees codes that pertain to pressure
vessels, fittings and pipe. The American Petroleum Institute (API) maintains some
500 standards which cover the oil and gas industry. Those systems have also some
designations system according to their specifications however, they are powerfully
linked with AISI/ASE/ASTM/UNS systems.
Other international steel designation system are; European Standards (EN), Japanese
standards (JIS), Indian Standards (IN), German Standards (EN/DIN) etc.

12.2 Types and Designation of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Non-Ferrous metals are all the metals excluding iron. Some examples for non-ferrous
metals which extensively used in the industry are Aluminium, Copper, Magnesium,
Nickel, Chromium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Molybdenum etc. Those metals are alloyed
with different metals, depending on their solubility in each other, including iron are
named as non-ferrous alloys.
Non-ferrous metals and alloys of them have distinguish advantages over ferrous
alloys. The main advantage is the light weightiness compared to ferrous alloys i. e.
they have higher strength-to-weight ratio than that of ferrous alloys. They can be
fabricated easily, and have high electrical and thermal conductivities, better corrosion

67
resistance, in some cases they have high temperature refractoriness. However
different materials have distinct characteristics, and are used for specific purposes
industrially and in domestic usage (Gold, Silver, Platinum, Palladium). In this session
we are concentrating on the types and designation of those metals and alloys.

12.2.1Types of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

These metals especially, the alloys of them are mainly categorized in to two group
such as;
• Cast Alloys (which are relatively difficult to form and shape due to their
brittleness)
• Wrought Alloys (which can easily be deformed)
Depending on the alloying elements, process and application the above-mentioned
characters are changed.
In Table 2.2 of Session 02, most of the properties of non-ferrous alloys and their
applications are given. Some more physical and mechanical properties of those metal
and alloys are given in the following Table 12.2.

Table12.2 Physical Properties of Selected Non-Ferrous Metals an Alloys

Metal & Alloy Melting Density Therm. Exp. Therm. Major UTS
Point [ºC] [gcm-3] at Coeff. [ºC-1] Conductivity Alloying [MPa]
20ºC [Wm-1K-1] Elements
Copper 1084 8.94 - 207 (annealed)
Cu - Alloys
Brass
Bronze
Sn, Zn, Be,
Gun Metal 8,95 -8.71
Al, Fe, Ni
Cartridge-
Brass

Aluminium 660 2.71 - 90 (annealed)

Al-Alloys
Cu, Si, Mn,
2.71 – 2.82
Mg, Zn
Magnesium 650 1.73 - 159 (annealed)
Mg-Alloys 1.73 – 1.75
Titanium 1670 4.50 -
Ti – Alloys 4.51 Al, V
Molybdenum 2610 1.01 -
Nickel 1453 345 (annealed)
Tungsten 3410 19.6 -
Gold 1063 19.3 -
Silver 961 10.4 -
Platinum 1770 21.4 -
Iron 1538 7.85 -

12.2.2 Designation of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Since the number of alloys of deferent non-ferrous metals is numerous their

designation is very complicated. It becomes more difficult in some designation
systems since the designation is given according to the applications also (e.g. ASTM
standards). However, in practice those metals and alloys are categorized in to mainly
2 groups as mentioned above i.e. Cast alloys and Wrought alloys. The best way of

68
giving designations to non-ferrous metals and alloys is practiced by UNS (Unified
Numbering System) which is established in accordance with ASTM E527 and SAE
J1086. Following table gives the designations;

Table 12.3 Designation of Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys According to UNS System

Designation Type of Metal/Alloys

A00001-A99999 Aluminum and aluminum alloys
C00001-C99999 Copper and copper alloys (Wrought Alloys)
C80100-C81200 Copper and copper alloys (Cast Alloys)
E00001-E99999 Rare earth and rare earth-like metals and alloys
E.g. Actinium, Yttrium, Actinium etc.
L00001 - L99999 Low-melting metals and alloys
E.g. Bismuth, Cadmium, Lithium, Mercury, Tin, Lead
etc.
M00001-M99999 Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys
E.g. Antimony, Arsenic Magnesium, Silicon,
Manganese etc.
P00001-P99999 Precious metals and alloys
E.g. Gold, Silver, Platinum, Rhodium, Palladium,
Iridium, etc.
R00001-R99999 Reactive and refractory metals and alloys
E.g. Chromium, Tantalum, Titanium, Zirconium,
Vanadium etc.
W00001-W99999 Welding filler metals, classified by weld deposit
composition
Z00001-Z99999 Zinc and zinc alloys

In addition to this many associations have their own designation systems.

• Aluminium Association (AA) – for aluminium and aluminium alloys
• Copper Development Association (CDA) – for copper and copper
alloys

12.3 Introduction to Fabrication of Metals

Metals and alloys are fabricated to desired shape and characteristics (properties).
There many types of metal fabricating techniques and selection of suitable type
depends on Type of metal or alloy, desired properties, desired shape/size and cost etc.
There are 4 types of metal fabrication techniques;
✓ Casting-To give a shape by pouring in liquid metal into a mold that
holds the required shape, and letting harden the metal without external
pressure
✓ Forming- -To give shape in solid state by applying pressure
✓ Machining - In which material is removed in order to give it the
required shape.
✓ Joining - where different parts are joined by various means. One of
the most
Important miscellaneous techniques are powder metallurgy.

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 ✓ Changing Material Characteristic -Thermal processing of metals and
alloys.

Metal casting: This technique is employed when product is large and/or complicated
shape, particular material is low in ductility and number of item is high. This is one of
the oldest system of metal fabrication and economical compared with other
techniques. There are 6 types of techniques available i.e. sand, die, pressure,
centrifugal, investment and continuous casting.
Metal forming: In this method a bulk material is plastically deformed using relatively
high loads to achieve the desired shape. Normally, during this process the volume of
the metal is constant and only the geometrical shape will be changed. There are two
variants of this process; Hot forming and Cold forming. Most common forming
techniques are: Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, and Drawing
Machining: This technique uses a tool to remove material from the raw/semi-finished
material. Actually, this can be named as ‘controlled fracture’ where removal of
material is performed by separating excess metal as a ‘chips’. Machining usually is
used to produce shapes with high dimensional tolerance, good surface finish, and
often with complex geometry when number of items to be produced is less.
Joining: The technique is used to join two or more materials (may be same or
different materials) to produce components with complicated geometrical shapes.
There are many joining techniques such as Welding, Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive
Bonding, Nut &Bolt fixing, Riveting, Stapling etc.

Thermal processing of metals and alloys (Heat Treatment): In addition to the

mechanical processing metals and alloys are subjected to thermal processing to
change their/structure/character. With that it is possible to either strengthen or soften
the material by changing the microstructure and some examples are; minimize
residual stresses, refine grain structure/size, phase changes, surface modifications etc.

There are many techniques of heat treatment methods for metal and alloys i.e. Stress
Reliving, Annealing, Quenching, Tempering, Martempering, Austempering, Case
Hardening, Induction hardening, Flame hardening, Laser Hardening, Carburizing,
Nitriding, Carbo-nitriding, Cyaniding etc..

There is a very important technique to shape metal and it is called as ‘Powder

metallurgy’. In this process pure metal or a mixture of different metal powders are
compacted into the desired shape (in a container) and will be heated to certain
temperature with a relatively high load (pressure) in a controlled atmosphere
(Sintering). Under these conditions the metal powder(s) will be allomarated and form
a bulk material with desired shape. This method suitable, especially, for producing
components with metals which have low ductility and high melting points.

12.4 Types and Processing of Polymers

In the modern era of industrial and social development, polymers became important
and essential material for the mankind. In some applications, metal and wood parts
have been successfully replaced by polymers, which have satisfactory properties and
may be produced at a lower cost. There are natural polymers such as proteins,
enzymes etc. which are constituent of animal body as well as occurring in nature such

70
as wood, rubber, leather and silk. The other type of polymers is synthetic (man-made)
materials like plastics, synthetic rubber, fiber etc. Normally, polymers are made out of
long hydro-carbon chains (also many other elements can also be anchored to the
chain). Since the chains are consisting of combination of many ‘small parts’ or ‘mers’
(originated from Greek word ‘meros’) the name for this material has been given as
‘Poly-mers’.

12.4.1 Types of Polymers

Industrial polymers are classified into two main groups according to their mechanical
and thermal behavior i.e. ;
(a) Plastics and
(b) Elastomers (see also section 2.3.2 in Session 02).

(a) Plastics:
They are normally moldable organic resins and they are important engineering
materials for many reasons such as;

✓ Light weight
✓ Wide range of available colors
✓ Low thermal and electrical conductivity
✓ Less brittle
✓ Good toughness
✓ Good resistance to acids, bases and moisture
✓ High dielectric strength (used in electrical insulation)
✓ Low material & processing cost
Certainly, there are some limitations in plastics compared to other materials;
✓ Low strength at elevated temperatures
✓ Sensitivity to degradation under UV-light
✓ Less abrasion resistance
✓ Difficult to recycle (some plastics)

Plastics are classified in two groups depending on their mechanical and

thermal behavior as;
(1) Thermoplastics (Thermoplastic Polymers)
Thermoplastics are temperature sensitive and they soften
when heated and will come back to original condition when
cooled. This is a totally reversible process and it is used to
fabricate components out of thermoplastics. The long
chains of these polymers are bonded each other with
secondary bonds which are broken during heating. This
makes the polymer soft and plasticity will be increased.
There is less cross linking between the chains of these
types of polymers. Examples for thermoplastics are:
acrylics, PVC, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethyl
methacrylate etc.

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 (2) Thermosets (Thermosetting Polymers).
Thermosetting polymers can be molded to a required shape
by heating and applying pressure. Under these conditions
the polymer is cured by chemical reactions which make
intensive cross linking between chains. Therefore, they
cannot be re-melted, reshaped or recycled once cured. If we
heat further it will decompose and cannot be reused. The
3D structure of these polymers makes them more brittle
and harder than thermoplastics. They have high electrical
and thermal insulating properties, are resistance to creep
and also less degradable under normal atmospheric
conditions. Cross linking can be initiated by;
✓ Heating
✓ Mixing two components (resin and hardener) (e.g.
Araldite)
✓ Evaporating the solvent (e.g. Multi Bond)

(b) Elastomers:
These types of polymers are also named as Rubbers and Latex. They show
very large elongations under mechanical loads and come to original condition
when the load is released. They have coil-like polymer chains and extensive
cross linking. These chains can be stretched reversibly by applying load. There
are natural rubbers which are made out of sap from rubber tree (latex and
synthetic rubber which made by petroleum chemicals). Normally rubber is
vulcanized using sulfur to make cross links to make rubber more durable.
Following are the main properties of elastomers;
✓ Good oil, fuel and ozone resistance
✓ High heat resistance
✓ Very good chemical Resistance (including acids and petroleum
products)
✓ Excellent thermal resistance
✓ ‘Glass Temperature’ is normally above 0ºC

Generally, all polymers are having an amorphous structure, in which instead of well-
structured arrangement of atom as in metals a chain-like arrangement of carbon atoms
combined with mainly hydrogen. Depending on the type of polymer those chains can
be linear (but not straight line), branched and/or interconnected. Fig.12.9 shows how
the polymer chains are arranged.

72
 Fig.12.9 Schematically Illustrated Linear and Branched Polymers (a) Linear
Unbranched Polymer (b) Linear Branched Polymer (c) Thermoset Polymer
without Branching but Interconnected (d) Thermoset Polymer with Branches
and Chains Interconnected with Covalent Bonds (blue and black color
represent two different polymers)

Polymers mainly consist of chains formed by carbon and hydrogen. As an example, in

polyethylene (simplest polymer) two hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded with one
carbon atom. A series of those C-H ‘monomers’ make the chain. This configuration of
chains can be illustrated in different forms (Fig.12.10)

Fig.12.10 Details of Polymer Chains (a) Solid 3D model (b) 3D Space model (c) 2D
Model

73
In contrast to that more complicated polymer (polystyrene) can have a benzene ring
attached to the chain (Fig.12.11).

(a) (b)

Fig.12.11 Configuration of Polystyrene (a) A Single Molecule of Styrene (b)

Chain of Polystyrene

Note: The double bond between carbon atoms of the single styrene molecule is
broken to make the chain.

Example 1
Design the type of polymer material you might select for the following applications; a
surgeon’s glove, a beverage container and a pulley.

Solution: The glove must be capable of stretching a great deal in order to slip onto the
surgeon’s hand, yet it must conform tightly to the hand to permit the maximum
sensation of touch during surgery. A material that undergoes a large amount of elastic
strain particularly with relatively little applied stress might be appropriate; this
requirement describes an elastomer.
The beverage container should be easily and economically produced. It should have
some ductility and toughness so that it does not accidently shatter and leak the
contents. If the beverage is carbonated, diffusion of CO2 is a major concern. A
thermoplastic such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) will have the necessary
formability and ductility needed for this application.
The pulley will be subjected to some stress and wear as a belt passes over it. A
relatively strong, rigid, hard material is required to prevent wear, so a thermosetting
polymer might be most appropriate. It may also be possible to use a material like
nylon.

12.4.2 Processing of Polymers

Generally, polymers can be processed by synthesizing particular raw materials which

are derived from petroleum products and forming them into required geometrical
forms. During synthesizing process, the molecules (monomers) joined over and over
to make large molecules/chains. This process is called as ‘Polymerization’. There are
two types of polymerization processes;

74
 • Addition Polymerization
• Condensation Polymerization
Addition Polymerization:
In this process multi-functional monomer units are combined together to make chain
like 3D macro molecules. The composition of the macro-molecule is the same and
multiples of the composition of original reactant monomer. There are 3 stages in this
polymerization process;
✓ Initiation (to initiate the process an initiator such as benzoyl peroxide is
added)
✓ Propagation (more and more monomers will be attached to the chains)
✓ Termination (when polymerization is nearly completed, remaining monomers must
diffuse a long distance to reach reactive site, thus the growth rate decreases and
comes a still stand.

Addition polymerization of polyethylene can be explained as follows:

With suitable heat, pressure and catalyst (initiator) unsaturated double bond between
carbon atoms of ethylene monomer will be broken. This makes two active bonds on
the both side of the ethylene monomers which attract active bond of another ethylene
monomer in the same condition. Then more and more ethylene monomers are
attached to make a chain (Fig.12.12).

Fig.12.12 Addition Polymerization of Polyethylene

Condensation Polymerization:

In this polymerization process two different types of monomers are

reacted/combined together to form a different polymer which has completely
different character. As a result of these reaction by-products such as water, ethanol,
and methanol etc. can be formed. Polymerization of dimethyl terephthalate and
ethylene glycol to produce polyethylene terephthalate (also named as polyester and
used as PET bottles for storage drinking water). In this condensation reaction the
OCH3 group of dimethyl terephthalate and one hydrogen atom removed from
ethylene glycol will combined to from methyl alcohol as by product. The result is
the formation of the polymer polyethylene terephthalate (Fig.12.13)

75
 Fig.12.13 Formation of Polyethylene Terephthalate through Condensation
Polymerization

Industrial Processing of Polymers:

For the manufacture of components with thermoplastics following processes are used;
• Injection Molding: Polymer granules are heated to melting and the melt is
pressed to a mold cavity with a desired shape using a revolving-screw
barrel).
• Blow Molding: To form a bottle, a section of a thermoplastic tube will be
introduced into a bottle shape open mold (with two halves). Then the mold is
closed and air pressure is applied to the heated polymer. Due to the heat and
pressure the tube will expand to fill the mold. After cooling plastic bottle will
be taken out by opening the mold).

For thermosetting polymers following processes are used;

• Compression molding: The polymer is pre- heated and loaded into a mold
(lower mold) with a negative cavity of the product shape and the upper mold
with negative cavity of the desired shape and pressed with heat. Then the
plastic will be softening and flow into the cavity/cavities. After certain
duration (approx. 1-3 min) the part can be ejected from the mold.
• Transfer Molding: This is somewhat similar to the compression molding but
instead of directly placing the plastic in the mold cavity it is placed in a
chamber outside the mold cavity/cavities and heat & pressure is applied to
cure the plastic. Then the part can be removed by an ejection mechanism.

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Stress-Strain Behavior of Polymers:

Behavior of polymers under mechanical stresses is different and show a visco-elastic

behavior (i.e. time delayed plastic deformation combined with elasticity). A typical
stress-strain curve of a thermoplastic polymer (6, 6-nylon) is given in Fig.12.14.

Fig.12.14 Stress-Strain Curve of a Thermoplastic Polymer

Some mechanical properties are given in following Table.

Table 12.4 Properties of Thermoplastics

77
Application Areas of Polymers:

For general purposes: Household containers, bottles, house ware, Chemical tubing,
Rainwear, upholstery, Textile, Floor mats, Garden hoses, Dials & Knobs, Sweaters &
Blankets, Computer housings & Covers, Non-stick coatings, latex articles.

For electrical purposes: Electrical insulators, Electrical conduits, Electromagnetic

shielding, Plugs & Switches, Mounts, Relay covers, Capacitor films.

For mechanical purposes: Gears, Small bearings, Fan blades, valve covers, Dash
boards, Exterior grills, Impellers, Frames, tires, engine mounts.
For Biomedical purposes: Heart valves, Intraocular lens (artificial lenses for human
eyes), Biodegradable drug capsule cover,

12.5 Introduction to Ceramics

Generally, ceramics can be divided into two types;

✓ Traditional Ceramics
✓ High Performance Ceramics

(a) Traditional Ceramics: These types of ceramics are used mainly to

manufacture household item such as pots, cups & sauces, white ware ceramic
articles, ornamental articles, bricks, wall & floor tiles, roof tiles, bath ware,
abrasives, cement.

These ceramics are also known as ‘Pottery Ware’ which means the ceramics
produced using clay, silica and feldspar and formed (kneaded) to desired
shape and fired in a high temperature kiln to remove almost all the water
from clay. Normally, clay consists mainly of hydrated aluminium silicates
with small amounts of other minerals.

Usually, the structure of traditional ceramics is porous but according to the

applications the porosity can be reduced to nearly zero. Also those ceramics
as ‘Glazed’ i.e. a glass-like surface coating is applied to reduce the surface
porosity to be reduced and to minimize the water absorption. Ornamental
articles are usually, decorated before glazing.

(b) High Performance Ceramics: These ceramics are also named as Technical
Ceramics, Engineering Ceramics and Functional Ceramics. This
classification depends on the application of a particular ceramic. In contrast
to traditional ceramics, which are based on clay, these ceramics are based on
compounds such as oxides, carbides or nitride which are nearly in pure form.
Technically important ceramics are Alumina (Al2O3), Silicon Carbide (SiC),
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4), Zirconia (ZrO2), Boron Nitride (BN) etc.

Main advantages of these ceramics are;

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 ✓ High strength (even at elevated temperatures)
✓ High Hardness (even at elevated temperature)
✓ Resistant to abrasion and wear
✓ Resistant to high temperature creep
✓ Low thermal and electrical conductivity (electrical & thermal
insulators)
✓ Chemically inert
✓ Low specific weight

The limitations are;

✓ High brittleness at room temperature

✓ Low toughness at room temperature
✓ High machining cost therefore, high production cost
✓ Low thermal shock resistance
✓ Low recyclability

Normally, high performance ceramics are produced by Hot Isostatic Pressing

(HIP) or Hot Uniaxial Pressing in which a mixture of highly pure ceramics
powder and sintering additives (MgO, Y2O3) will be compressed under high
pressure. In this process, ceramic particles will be ‘sintered’ (particles are
coalesced to form a solid body without melting) and form a solid ceramic
with nearly zero porosity. The microstructure of Silicon Nitride
Sintered with MgO is illustrated in Fig.12.15

α- and β-Si3N4 Grains

(Dark Areas)

Mg-Si-O-N Phase
(White Areas)

Fig.12.15 Microstructure of Hot Pressed Silicon Nitride Ceramic

There are some other manufacturing processes also available for traditional and high-
performance ceramics such as tape casting, slip casting, extrusion and injection
molding.

79
Applications of High Performance Ceramics:

There are many applications of ceramics in the industry & society and they are given
in Table 12.5

Table 12.5 Functional classification of ceramics

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12.6 Introduction to Composites

Composites are materials which contain two or more different materials and used
together to achieve a combination of positive properties (advantages) of participating
materials. Depending on the constituents, composite show extra ordinary strength,
stiffness, low weight, toughness, corrosion resistance, hardness, insulating properties
etc.
There are natural and artificially made composites. Wood, animal bones, teeth etc. are
examples for natural composites. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), Glass
Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP), Para-aramid synthetic fiber composite (Kevlar),
Glass laminate Aluminium reinforced epoxy (GLARE) are some of the famous
composites which are used extensively in automobile and aerospace industries.
Development of ‘Nano-Composites ‘in which one or more phases with nanoscale
dimensions (0-D, 1- D, and 2-D) are embedded in a metal, ceramic, or polymer matrix
has given a boom to use light weight composites in aircraft industry.
Fig.12.16 shows microstructure of different types of composites and manufacture,
properties and application of composites.

Fig.12.16 Microstructure of Some Composites (a) Plywood

(b) Shell of a Marine Snail (c) Fiber Glass (d) Concrete

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Summary

The main topic we have discuss in this session were types and designations of metals
and polymers. For metals we have used maily the ASTM designation for the
classification. In addition to that we have discussed thr types of steel and cast iron and
their defferences and technical applications. Also we have learned introdution to
fabrications of metals. Then we discussed the types of polymers and their processing
methods as well as their applications in product development. Finally, lerned the
introduction to ceramics and composite as engineering materials.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this session you should be able to;

1. Understand how the metals and alloys are classified according to the
internation desigantion systems.
2. Explain the difference between steel and cast iron and their applicaitons.
3. Select suitable metals and alloys for a particular engineering application.
4. Distinguish types of polymers and their applications
5. Understand the basics of ceramics and composites

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Session 13

Degradation of Engineering Materials

Contents
Introduction

13.1 Introduction to Corrosion of metals

13.2 Galvanic cells and their applications
13.3 Types of corrosion in metallic materials and prevention methods
13.4 Oxidation of metals
13.5 Corrosion control

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction

Normally, all the materials are exposed to various types of environments with
possible diverse effects. Atmospheric moister (humidity) with or without acidity,
temperature, different types of gasses, UV-radiation, dust or any other constituents in
air can have adverse effects on materials. According to the nature of the environment
the material can negatively affected so that its performance may degrade. As an
example the degradation of a metal can be observed as loss of its strength, ductility,
appearance or other physical properties. During the design process the designer
should take care of this matter since during service the material can fail due to its loss
of properties.

In this session we are planning to discuss this material deterioration due to

atmospheric condition as well as due to any other external conditions.

13.1 Introduction to Corrosion of Metals

There are different types of degradation mechanisms of materials. Normally, the
metals can lose its material by dissolution, actual loss of material, which is named as
‘Corrosion’ or by the formation of nonmetallic at compounds as a scale or film,
which is named as ‘Oxidation’. Usually, ceramics can also lose its properties at
elevated temperatures or under any other extreme conditions and polymers can
degrade due to alternation of its molecular structure because of heat, chemical (liquid
solvents), UV-radiation etc.

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 ✓ Generally, corrosion can be explained as degradation of metal due to ‘electro-
chemical’ reaction. This is normally initiated at the external surface of the
metal
✓ The driving power for this reaction is that the metal, under certain conditions,
tends to reduce its binding energy.
✓ Therefore, corrosion can be considered as a ‘natural process’.
✓ Ability to withstand corrosion is named as ‘Corrosion Resistance’.
✓ Under the same condition some metals are corrosion resistant than another
metals.
✓ In corrosion process one or more electron(s) from a metal loses and leaves the
metal surface
✓ This is called as ‘Oxidation’ or as ‘Anodic Reaction’

𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 −

✓ As examples oxidation of some metals can be given as follows;

𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −1 or 𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 −1

✓ Metal ‘M’ becomes positively charged ion an ‘n’ number of electrons will be
freed.
✓ Freed electrons will combine with another positive ion and become stable.
E.g.; metal corrosion in acid because in an acid solution high amount
of hydrogen ions H+ is there. Then
2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2

✓ This reaction is called as ‘Reduction’ or ‘Cathodic reaction’ where metal

plus ions (H+) become neutral molecules.
✓ Unstable Metal (Fe) ion can combine with minus charged, for example, Cl -
ions in Hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution and become stable
3𝐶𝑙 − + 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 or after balancing the equation
6𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐹𝑒 → 2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐻2

✓ That means Fe reacts (oxidized) with HCl and makes stable compound FeCl3
and hydrogen will be released as gas.

Not all metals will be oxidized to form ions with same manner. Depending on the
nature of the metal they have their own potential to be ions. To examine this
following arrangement can be considered as given in Fig.13.1.

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 e-

Fig.13.1 Electro-Chemical Cell with Fe and Cu in their Respective Solutions

A pure iron sample is immersed in a solution containing Fe2+ ions and in the same
container pure Cu sample is immersed in a solution containing Cu2+ ions. Two
solutions are separated with a special membrane and samples are connected
electrically through a voltmeter.

In this arrangement it is possible to observe that copper ions will deposit as metallic
copper on the copper sample while iron dissolves to the solution. At the same time,
we can observe a voltage about 0.78V due to flow of electron through the circuit. The
reactions have been taken place can be written as follows;

𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −

𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢

That means iron sample dissolves in the solution at the expense of oxidation of iron.
That means iron sample becomes Anode and Cu becomes Cathode.

Or the total equation can be written as;

𝐶𝑢2+ + 𝐹𝑒 → 𝐶𝑢 + 𝐹𝑒 2+

If we do the same experiment with zinc and iron then the experimental procedure will
be as given in Fig. 13.2.

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 e-

Fig.13.2 Electro-Chemical Cell with Fe and Zn in their Respective Solutions

In this arrangement zinc dissolves at the expense of iron. The flow of electron is on
the other direction and the voltage is about 0.323V. In this case iron sample becomes
cathode and zinc sample becomes anode. Exactly the opposite of the previous
experiment.

Why this happened? The answer is that every metal has its own character/properties
compared to other metal. If a pair of metals (called as ‘Electro-Chemical Galvanic
Couple’) is considered, then the metal that has more negative oxidation potential will
be oxidized (i.e. it loses electrons and dissolve). The other metal has more positive
potential will be reduced and gains electrons and with that more metal ion will be
neutralized to form more bulk metal (metal deposition).

Now we can consider the electrochemical potential (Eo) of Fe-Cu couple (Fig. 13.1)
then with the half-cell equation can be written for iron;

𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 − Eo = -0.440V

For Cu; 𝐶𝑢 → 𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 − Eo = + 0.337V

The electrochemical potential of Fe is negative and less than that of Cu and therefore,
Fe dissolves.

In the latter case (Fig. 13.2) the electrochemical potential (Eo) of Fe-Zn is considered
and that is;

𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 − Eo = - 0.440V

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For Zn; 𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 − Eo = - 0.763V

In this case electrochemical potential of Zn is less than that of Fe and therefore, Zn

dissolves.
In above-mentioned cases we observed cell voltages (potential deference) depending
on a pair of metals. That means the cell voltage is depend on the type of metals used
and always we have to have two metals to measure the potential difference. Now the
problem is whether we can measure the potential of one metal. The answer is yes, but
for that we need a Reference Electrode which can be used to express the potential of a
metal in a galvanic cell.

For this purpose, we use a ‘Standard Hydrogen Electrode’ which is illustrated in

Fig.13.3.

Fig.13.3 Standard Hydrogen Electrode

In this standard electrode a pure platinum metal sheet is immersed in a 1M solution of

H+ and saturate with continues supply of hydrogen gas with a pressure of 1 bar. The
temperature of this arrangement should be kept at a temperature of 25ºC. Since
platinum does not take part in the electrochemical reaction and act as only an inert
surface on which hydrogen atoms will be oxidized to make hydrogen ions or
hydrogen ions will be reduced to make hydrogen atoms.

Now we can connect this standard electrode with a half-cell made using any particular
metal and measure the electro potential deference. This value represents the
‘potential of a metal to dissolve or gain in mass’ or ‘Corrosion Tendency’ of that
particular metal with respect to the reference electrode. This is measured in volt and
named as ‘Electro Motive Force (EMF)’ of a metal. A list of selected metals and their
EMF values are given in Table 13.1.

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Table 13.1: Standard EMF Series of Selected Metals

13.2 Galvanic Cell Corrosion with Single Electrode

If a piece of zinc is immersed in diluted hydrochloric acid the zinc electrode will be
dissolved /corroded. How it can happen if there is no any other electrode? Actually,
there will be an anode and a cathode formed due to either structural or chemical
inhomogeneity of the zinc piece (Fig. 13.4). The oxidation reaction will be;

𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 − (Anodic reaction)

And reduction reaction will be;

2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (Cathodic reaction)

Fig.13.4 Oxidation of Zn in Diluted HCl

Rusting of iron/steel can also be explained under this phenomenon. If a piece of iron
is immersed in water (containing oxygen) iron will be oxidized to form ferric
hydroxide. In this case also a microscopic anode/cathode pair will be formed locally
and oxidation reaction will be;

88
 𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 − (Anodic reaction)

The Reduction reaction will be;

𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻 − (Cathodic reaction)

Total equation will be;

2𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒 2+ + 4𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 ↓ (Precipitate –Rust)

Fig.13.4 Oxidation/Rusting of Iron/Steel in Water

13.3 Galvanic Cells and their Applications

As discussed in the previous session, the phenomenon galvanic cells can be
practically used to generate current through chemical reactions (batteries). There are
many types of batteries available in the market (Table 13.2).

Table 13.2: Different Types of Batteries with Galvanic Cell -Principle

Type of Cathode Anode Electrolyte Function Voltage
Battery [V]
Zinc-
Single use
Silver Ag2O Zn KOH/H2O 1.55
(Button type)
Oxide
Single use
Zinc- NH4Cl/ZnCl2/Mn
Graphite Zn (Torch 1.50
Carbon O2
battery!)
Single use
Zinc-
MnO2 Zn Alkaline KOH (Torch 1.50
Alkaline
battery!)
Rechargeable
Lead-Acid PbO2 Pb H2SO4/H2O 2.00
(Car Battery)
Nickel- Ni(OH)2 Cd KOH/H2O 1.20

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Cadmium Rechargeable

Nickel-
Intermetallic Rechargeable
Metal NiO(OH) KOH/H2O 1.20
Compound
Hydride
Lithium-
Lithium salt Rechargeable
ion * LiCoO2 Graphite ~ 3.60
/Organic solvent

* This type of battery is used in Nissan Leaf car

13.4 Types of Corrosion in Metallic Materials and Prevention

Methods

As we discussed, for corrosion of metals the basic principle is the formation of

galvanic cell. If a metal is exposed to an active (corrosive) environment, then
depending on many factors local galvanic cells are formed and metals start to
chemically deteriorate. There are diverse mechanisms which create galvanic cells and
according to that the corrosion of metals can be mainly categorized into different
mechanisms and they are listed below;

✓ Uniform Corrosion (General Attack Corrosion)

✓ Galvanic Corrosion (Two Metal Corrosion)
✓ Crevice Corrosion
✓ Pitting Corrosion
✓ Inter Granular Corrosion
✓ Stress Corrosion (Stress Corrosion Cracking)
✓ Selective Corrosion (Selective Leaching)
✓ Erosion Corrosion
✓ Fretting Corrosion
✓ Hydrogen Damage (Hydrogen Embrittlement due to corrosion)
✓
(a)Uniform Corrosion (General Attack Corrosion):

Uniform corrosion can be observed mainly on steel components and corrosion attack
is evenly distributed over the entire surface area or a large portion of the total area
(Fig. 13.5). This is one of the most occurring corrosion and it is the major concern of
the industry since the components are losing tons of parent material due to thinning
and therefore, wastage is enormous. However, uniform corrosion is easily detectable,
measured and predicted making any disastrous failures of the components relatively
rare. Remedial measures to minimize this type of corrosion are protective coating,
inhibitors and cathodic protection.

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 Fig.13.5 Uniformly Corroded Steel Item

(b)Galvanic Corrosion:
As discussed in session 13.1 and 13.2 if two metals are in touch with each other and
in presence of an electrolyte a galvanic cell is formed. As a result of that the metal act
as the anode will lose its electrons and corrode. Therefore, in practice or in the design
phase it is important to avoid contact of two metals in one component to avoid
electrochemical potential.

Fig.13.6 Galvanic Corrosion of Cadmium Plated Steel Washer in

Contact with Stainless Steel Screw

The mechanism of Galvanic corrosion is used as a beneficial method to protect steel.

If steel is coated with zinc (Galvanized Steel) then zinc act as anode and steel act as
cathode in the presence of oxygenated moisture (water). Therefore, in this galvanic
cell, zinc will corrode sacrificing to protect steel (Fig. 13.7).

Fig.13.7 Galvanic Corrosion Process

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(c) Crevice Corrosion:

Crevice corrosion is a localized electrochemical attack which occurs under shielded

surfaces where an electrolytic solution is present. In practice these conditions are
satisfied in gaskets, rivets, nut & bolt joints (especially, near washers), lap joints,
under surface deposits etc. This type of corrosion can occur even in some stainless
steels and many other metals such as aluminium, copper even in titanium.

Crevice corrosion is initiated by difference in chemical concentration, especially

oxygen, which forms an electrochemical cell outside the crevice oxygen concentration
is higher (anode) and inside lower (cathode). Under stagnant conditions oxygen
needed for cathodic reaction is used and not replaced. However, the anodic reaction;
𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 − continues to proceed and form more and more positively charged
metal ions (decaying the metal). To balance the positive charges more and more
negatively charged ions, mainly Cl- ions from air, will travel into the crevice forming
metal chlorides which then reacts with moisture (H2O) to form HCl (Fig.13.8). This
can break, for an example, passive film of stainless steel and promote corrosion.

Fig.13.8 Crevice Corrosion Process

Following are some remedial measures to minimize the crevice corrosion:

✓ Use welded butt joints instead of riveted or nut & bolt joints
✓ Eliminate crevices in existing lap joints by continues welding or brazing
✓ Avoid stagnant conditions near the joint
✓ Use non-absorbent solid non-metallic materials as Teflon gaskets
✓ Use special alloys which have resistant to crevice corrosion

(d) Pitting Corrosion:

This is an extremely localized corrosion attack on metals and sometimes difficult to

detect. Pitting holes (pits) on the surface may be observed by naked eye but in some
instants, they may be very small (Fig. 13.9). The pits are sometimes isolated or so
close together so that they appear just as a rough surface. Since the depth of the pits is
not possible to assess the extent of corrosion cannot be evaluated. Therefore, pitting
can often result in sudden and unexpected failures.

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 Fig.13.9 Pitting Corrosion on a Stainless Steel Extruder Shaft

In pitting corrosion process, as an example, at bottom of the pit the metal comes under
anodic reaction and the surface surrounding the pit will be catholically protected. The
result is decay of the metal at the bottom of the pit and it becomes deeper and deeper.
Pitting corrosion of steel under oxygenated and salt containing moister is illustrated in
Fig.13.10.

Fig.13.10 Pitting Corrosion Process

(e) Intergranular Corrosion: This is also a localized corrosion process and the attack
is at the region adjacent to the grain boundaries. Since the grain boundaries are
relatively energy rich and therefore, more reactive, the corrosion can proceed along
the grain boundaries into the depth of the steel. This will significantly affect the
strength of the component and the consequence is severe. For example, high strength
aluminium alloys and some copper alloys are susceptible to intergranular corrosion. In
some austenitic steels (18/8 Cr-Ni) this type of corrosion occurs if the alloy is heated
or cooled slowly through the temperature range from 500 to 800ºC (e.g. during
welding). In this temperature range chromium carbides (Cr23C6) are formed
(precipitated) at the grain boundary depleting (reducing) the region adjacent to the
grain boundaries of chromium. Consequence is lack of chromium in those areas and
they lose the passivity and prone to corrosion if the alloy is exposed to aggressive
atmosphere making adjacent area anodic and the grain body cathodic (Fig. 13.11).
This process is called as ‘Sensitization’ or ‘Weld Decay’ of stainless steel.

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 Fig.13.11 Intergranular Corrosion in Stainless Steel

The remedial measures to avoid the grain boundary corrosion of stainless steel
(sensitization) are;

✓ Heat the welded stainless steel up to high temperature and quench in water to avoid
slow cooling in the said temperature range and therefore, formation of chromium
carbide.
✓ Add elements such as Ti, Mo, Ta which have more affinity to form carbides than
chromium. Then carbon in stainless steel will react with those elements but not with
chromium.
✓ Lower the carbon content of stainless steel (e.g. 304L or 316L instead of normal 304
or 316 stainless steel).

(f) Stress Corrosion: If a metal component is in service under tensile stresses and in
corrosive atmosphere then the component will undergo a ‘stress corrosion cracking
(SCC)’. Even with a minimum corrosion attack the component will fracture due to the
influence of mechanical stress AND chemical attack. The anodic dissolution of metal
at the crack tip the propagation of the crack will be very fast. By preventing higher
stresses and avoiding corrosive atmosphere the stress corrosion cracking can be
minimized. Selecting metals which are not susceptible to SCC can also avoid such
failures. As an example, the condenser tubes of the Norochcholai power plant are
made out of titanium instead of stainless steel since in this power plant the cooling
media is sea water (highly corrosive!). Crack propagation due to stress corrosion in a
metal tube wall is illustrated in Fig.13.12.

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 σ σ

Fig.13.12 Stress Corrosion on a Metallic component

(g) Selective Corrosion:

This type of corrosion is also called as ‘Selective Leaching’ and the consequence of
this process is the removal of solid alloy (in macro level) from the bulk material
(deallying). As an example, removal of zinc from brass (Cu-Zn alloy) can be
considered as selective leaching. This action is also named as ‘Dezincification’. Loss
of nickel from tool steel, loss of iron from cast iron, loss of Ni, Sn Cr and loss of
cobalt from Satellite (high alloyed cobalt based powder) can be considered as
selective leaching. By removing the corrosive environment and/or using cathodic
protection (this will be discussed later) selective leaching can be minimized.

(h) Erosion Corrosion:

Erosion corrosion is defined as a corrosion process of metals which is accelerated or

significantly increased through relative movement between corrosive fluid and metal
surface. Normally, this relative movement is quite rapid so that the solid corrosion
products are mechanically swept from the metal surface exposing the fresh metal for
further corrosion. Therefore, the corrosion rate is significantly increased with
compared to corrosion rate under stagnant conditions.

This type of corrosion can be detected by observing the surface where severe wear
patterns such as surface grooves, pits, dells rounded holes etc. are visible. Typically,
erosion corrosion can be observed in inner side of the penstocks in hydro power
plants, pipe lines carrying debris, slurries, sand, wet concrete mixtures etc. Remedial
measures to minimize this type of corrosion are; change the design of the component,
use fluid dynamically optimized geometrical shapes etc.
Similar type of degradation can be observed in metals which form cavities due to
formation and collapse of air bubbles or vapour filled voids in a fluid near metal
surface. This is named as ‘Cavitation Damage’ which is typical for ship and boat
propellers, pumps impellors etc.

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(i) Fretting Corrosion:

Normally, fretting corrosion is observed between shafts and bearings or sleeves where
a tight fitting and mechanically loaded vibration or slip is present. Grooves and pits
filled with accumulated and stagnated corrosion products can be observed on the
surface. Consequence of fretting corrosion is abnormal wear, loss of dimensional
accuracy, loosing of parts, initiation of fatigue failures even a seizure of the machine
part.

(j) Hydrogen damage:

Hydrogen atoms can diffuse into meals and alloys during processing or subsequent
service. Some of the common ways for this diffusion are dissociation of moisture
(water) during casting, welding or pickling and electro-plating or during galvanic
corrosion. These hydrogen atoms can subsequently migrate to energy rich areas such
as stagnated dislocations, grain boundaries, micro-structural inhomogeneity etc. and
form hydrogen molecule which are much larger than hydrogen atoms. This make
severe stress concentration in the structure and reduce ductility even can initiate
cracks (Hydrogen Embrittlement).

13.4 Oxidation of Metals

Up to now, we have discussed the oxidation of metals and alloys where a liquid
electrolyte is present. However, metals and alloys can also be oxidized by reacting
with air or gasses. Particularly, if the service temperature is high the oxidation process
has severe effect on the material (e.g. components of turbines, rocket engines,
components of nuclear reactors, High temperature petro-chemical components etc.).
Most metals are oxidized by oxygen in air. Therefore, it can be considered as
‘atmospheric corrosion of metals and alloys’.

✓ If a fresh metal surface is reacting with oxygen in air it produces an oxide

layer.
✓ However, further reaction of fresh metal with oxygen depends on the
availability of oxygen at the interface between fresh metal.
✓ Existence of an oxide layer between fresh metal and oxygen rich air hinder the
further oxidation
✓ If the oxide layer is porous to oxygen, then oxidation process can proceed
progressively.
✓ If not, the oxidation process retards (process is non-progressive).
✓ That means the oxidation process will be terminated. This is called as
‘Passivation of Metals’.
✓ In this case oxide layer act as a protective layer against further oxidation.
✓ To check whether an oxide layer of a particular metal protective ‘Pilling-
Bedworth’ ratio (P. B. Ratio) can be used.
✓ E.g. Na has P. B. Ratio of 0.576 (it is less than 1) – oxide layer is porous – not
protective.

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 ✓ Fe has P. B. Ratio of 2.15 (far away from 1) - oxide layer is porous and chips-
off – not protective
✓ Al has P. B. Ratio of 1.38 (Close to 1) - oxide layer (Al2O3) is not porous –
protective
✓ Cr has P. B. Ratio of2.07 (away from 1) - oxide layer (Cr2O3) is may be
porous but not peeling off– protective

13.5 Corrosion Control

Generally, following steps can be taken to control corrosion of metals;

• Selection of suitable material - Nickel and copper alloys for non-oxidizing

conditions
- Chromium containing alloys for oxidizing
conditions
- Titanium alloys for extreme powerful
oxidizing conditions

• Apply protective coatings - Metallic coatings (Sn, Zn, Cr or Ni)

- Inorganic coatings (porcelain, ceramic, glass –
Enamel)
- Organic coatings (paints, varnishes, lacquers,
polymers)

• Change the design - Allow more thickness (high safety factor)

- Weld rather than riveting to reduce crevice
- Avoid contact of galvanically deferent metals
- Avoid residual stresses (less stress
concentrations)
- Avoid sharp bends and corners
- Avoid stagnation of liquids
- Make easy to maintain, repair and service
- Avoid ‘hot spots’ (locations with high
temperature)
• Change the environment - Lower the service temperature
- Decrease the velocity of flowing of liquids
- Remove oxygen from water solutions
(deaerated/deionized water)
- Add corrosion inhibitors

• Cathodic protection - Electrically connect a metal with a negative EMF

value (more anodic)

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Summary
Degradation of engineering materials was the main area we dicussed in this session.
Initially, we defined what degradation as a commen aspect for all engineering
materials and then oxidation which is relevant to metals. Further, following were
dicussed in detail; anodic & cathodic reactions, galvanic cell, standard hydrogen
electrode, EMF series of selected metals etc. Also we discussed about different types
of corrosion proccesses such as general, crevice, pitting, fretting, erosion and stress
corrosion as well as other processes related to the degrdation such as selective
leaching, hydrogen embrittlement and how to reduce them.

Learning Outcomes
After studying this session you should be able to;
1. Understand the degradation processes of engineering materials.
2. Explain the chemical reactions which governs the degradation and oxidation
of engineering materials.
3. Understand the basic principles of different types of corrosion processes of
metals and alloys
4. Select suitable methods to mitigate degradation and oxidation of engineering
materials.

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Session 14

Thermal Properties of Engineering

Materials

Contents
Introduction

14.1 Important thermal properties of materials

14.2 Thermal residual stresses in engineering components
14.3 Practical aspects of thermal behavior of engineering materials

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
During design stage of engineering components, it is important to select a suitable
material for the specific application. Up to now we learned many properties of
materials which should be considered during the selection. However, Selection of
materials for the service at elevated temperatures and/or temperature changes require
an engineer or a designer to know and understand their thermal properties as well as
behavior at elevated temperatures. In this session, we are planning to study about
various thermal properties such as thermal capacity, thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity and thermal behavior of engineering materials.

14.1 Important Thermal Properties of Materials

Thermal behavior of a material refers to the response of that material to the

application of heat. When a material set at an elevated temperature it absorbs thermal
energy and its temperature increases with respect the applied heat. With that the
vibration of atoms in the material around its equilibrium status will be increased and
the material will physically expand by increasing the dimensions.

✓ The amount of expansion depends directly on the temperature increase and

that depends on the amount of heat absorbed by the materials i.e. Heat
Capacity.

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 ✓ The quantity of change in dimensions depends on the Thermal Expansion
Coefficient and

✓ The rate of change in dimensions is influenced by Thermal Conductivity of

that material which refers to the velocity of heat transfer into the block of
material.

Also, if the material is restricted to expand then it will come under mechanical
stresses which create an elastic deformation and if these stresses are increased beyond
the compressive yield strength of the material then the material will deform
plastically. This is the main reason for the Thermal Stresses which leads even to a
failure of engineering components or structures.

In addition to that at elevated temperatures the material starts to oxidize if the

environment in which the material is heated not inert. The oxidation of a material can
be considered as degradation which definitely has safety and economic consequences.

Further, the ‘Thermal Shock Resistant’ of a material is also one of the most
important thermal properties of a material. Especially, if the material is subjected to
elevated temperature and this temperature is fluctuating rapidly then material will
undergo a severe stress fluctuation as well. This may create either a sudden fracture of
the component or a time delayed fracture (a fatigue fracture) during service. The latter
action is called as ‘Thermal Fatigue’. Thermal shock resistant of a material is
depending on the coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, and fracture strength. Generally, most of the ceramics have relatively less
thermal shock resistant and therefore, the research on replacing metallic super alloys
by high performance ceramics is still not come up to satisfactory level due to poor
thermal shock resistant of ceramics.

With further increase of temperature, the vibration of atoms in the materials will
severely increase and the bonds between the atoms will be destroyed. Then solid
materials become a liquid with disorderly moving individual atoms (melting).

All these processes depend on the type, size, configuration atoms and their bonding
mechanisms.

14.1.1 Heat Capacity

As discussed earlier if a material is heated, it absorbs heat energy and the vibration of
atoms will increase. Material’s ability to absorb heat energy is called as ‘Heat
Capacity’. More scientifically it can be defined as the ‘amount of energy required to
increase the temperature of the material by one degree’. Therefore, this can be
expressed as;
𝑑𝑄
𝐶=
𝑑𝑇
Where dQ is the heat energy required to increase the temperature of the material by
dT degrees.

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The units will be then Jmol-1. K-1. Since the amount of energy absorbed by a material
depends on mass/volume then a parameter ‘Specific Heat Capacity - c’is defined.
Then the unit of the specific heat capacity will be J. K-1. kg-1.

With the absorption of heat energy, the vibration of constituent atoms and molecules
of a material increases and therefore, the vibration frequency also increases with the
temperature. According to this phenomenon the vibrations of adjacent atoms which
are coupled with atomic bonds are also starting to vibrate. This makes the lattices to
move and the movement will travel along the lattices with speed of sound.

Note: The volumetric heat capacity exponentially increases with the temperature.

14.1.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient

With the increase of vibration of atoms due to absorbed heat energy the atoms behave
such a manner that they have larger atomic radius which leads to expansion of the
material. The expansion of material is normally volumetric but for practical
application sometimes linear and area wise expansion are considered. Linear
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (α) is defined as the change of dimension of the
material per unit length. This can be given as;
𝑙1− 𝑙0 ∆𝑙
𝛼= =
𝑙0 [∆𝑇] 𝑙0 [∆𝑇]

Where; 𝑙1 - Final length

𝑙0 - Original length
∆𝑙 - Length increase
∆𝑇 - Temperature increase

Or increase in length ∆𝑙 = α. 𝑙0 . ∆𝑇
α has the unit as (°C)-1and;
Values of α for metals: 5.0 – 25.0 x10-6,
Ceramics 0.50 – 15.0 x10-6,
Polymers 50.0 – 400.0 x10-6.

14.1.3 Thermal Conductivity

The ability of a material to transport heat energy is known as ‘Thermal Conductivity’.

This is also considered as the ‘thermal conduction’ and the amount of heat (Heat Flux
- Q) transported from a hot location to a cold location is proportional to the area of the
∆𝑇
heat travel (A), temperature gradient( ∆𝑙 ) (difference in temperature in given length -
l) I.e.
∆𝑇
𝑄 ~ 𝐴.
∆𝑙
∆𝑇
Or 𝑄 = 𝑘. 𝐴.
∆𝑙

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Where k –Thermal conductivity (a material constant)

This equation applies only for a steady-state heat flow in which the heat flux does not
change with time.
K has the unit as W. m-1. K -1and
Values of k for metals : 20 - 400 (relatively high)
Ceramics: 2 - 50 (relatively low)
Polymers: 0.3 (very low)

With the values given above it can be observed that metals have relatively high
coefficient of thermal conductivity and ceramics and polymers show very low value.
In other words, it can be said that the metals have lower resistivity to heat flow
(Thermal Resistance) while ceramics and polymers are very good insulators.
Therefore, in practice polymers are used as insulators at room temperature or below
(foamed polystyrene drinking cups, polyurethane cool boxes etc.) and ceramics for
elevated temperature (as refractory bricks of furnaces and metal melting crucibles
etc.).
The heat transportation in solid materials depends on (a) Lattice vibration waves
(phonons) and (b) Number of free electrons. Total conductivity is the sum of the two
factors. Since in metals the valance band is not completely filled the availability of
free electrons is higher than that of ceramics and polymers. Therefore, in metals the
thermal conduction is much higher than in ceramics and polymers. This phenomenon
is applicable for the higher electrical conduction of metals as well.

Activity 1

Explain why, on a cold day, the metal door handle of an automobile feels colder to the
touch than a plastic steering wheel, even though both are at the same temperature.

Heat capacity, thermal expansion coefficient, Thermal conductivity of selected

materials is given in Table 14. 1.

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Table 14.1 Thermal properties for a variety of materials

Note: you can observe that there are metal alloys with very low thermal expansion
coefficients such as Kovar, Invar and Super Invar

14.2 Thermal Residual Stresses in Engineering Components

✓ If a homogeneous and isotropic solid rod is uniformly heated to a certain

temperature and slowly cooled back to the original temperature, then
theoretically no thermal stresses will be induced in the rod provided that the
rod is free to expand and free to contract.
✓ However, if the rod is fixed to rigid supporters so that its expansion and
contraction is constrained, then thermal stresses are induced in the rod. These
thermal stresses are also named as ‘Thermal Residual Stresses’.
✓ Those residual stresses are undesirable and difficult to measure. Therefore, the
components which undergo these types of heating and cooling may have,

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 depending on certain conditions, relatively high stresses in the body of the
component.
✓ These residual stresses can have a high value close to the yield stress, then the
component will deform plastically although the stress generated during service
is less than the yield stress (the residual stresses will be added to the service
stress). Furthermore, if the induced stresses exceed the fracture strength of the
material, then the result is the fracture and may create catastrophic situation.
✓ Good example for this phenomenon is that the induction of thermal residual
stresses during fusion welding. During fusion welding only a particular
location will be heated to the melting point (steel approx. 1650 ºC). This
heated area is surrounded by cold metal therefore, the heated area is restricted
to expand and contract.
✓ Thermal residual stresses can be induced also during casting, machining,
forming operations etc. as well.
✓ The stress (σ) induced in a material can be theoretically calculated using
following equation;

𝜎 = 𝐸. 𝛼𝑙 . ∆𝑇
Where; E - Modulus of Elasticity
𝛼𝑙 - Linear exp. Coeff
∆𝑇- Change in temperature

Remedial measures to reduce (thermal) residual stresses:

• Try to use materials with low coefficient of expansion

• Avoid rapid heating and cooling during processing.
• Optimize the geometrical form of the component by reducing the complicity.
• Let the work piece expand and contraction easily (clamping to avoid
deformation will induce thermal residual stresses).
• Perform pre- heating in case of metals.
• Avoid heat generation during manufacturing (use coolants)
• Perform stress relieving post heat treatment.

14.3 Practical Aspects of Thermal Behavior of Engineering

Materials

Thermal behavior of materials is to be explicitly considered during following

manufacturing processes;

✓ Casting:
- Crucible selection and furnace properties & heating parameters,
during mold design, melting, cooling etc.

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 ✓ Welding:
- During groove design, welding sequence planning, procedure
planning, selection of welding parameters, pre- heating, cooling rate
after welding, post heating
Post heating etc.

✓ Machining:
- Selection of tools, selection of cooling method, optimizing machining
parameters

✓ Forming:
- Selection of forming parameters, design and selection of tools,
selection of machine parameters, post heating.
(Cambering steel beams and bridge girders: selection of heating
parameters, heating geometry, cooling rate etc.)
(During hot forming of ship hulls: Select in of heating parameters,
heating loan, cooling parameters etc.
(Gaps between rails: Fixing of rails to sleepers,

✓ Heat treatment:
- Heating and cooling parameters, Soaking time, Cooling media etc.

Summary

As one of the most important property of engineering materials, thermal properties

were discussed in this session. Starting with heat capacity we have studied the thermal
expansion cofficient, thermal conductivity and thermal residual strersses. In that
context we learned the equations wich can be used to calculate the thermal behavior
of engineering materials. In addition to that learned practical aspects of thermal
behavior of engineering materials and use of this knowledge in designing of
engineering components.

Learning Outcomes
After studying this session you should be able to;
1. Understand the thermal properties of engineering materials
2. Calculate the physical change of dimensions of engineering components
3. Explain the physical changes of enginering materials due to absorbsion of heat
4. Understand the effect of thermal properties of materials on industrial
applications.

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Session 15

Electrical and Electronic Properties of

Engineering Materials

Contents
Introduction

15.1 Electrical conduction in metals

15.2 Semi-Conductivity of materials
15.3 Dielectric, ferro-electric and piezoelectric behaviour of materials
15.4 Introduction to superconductivity

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
Engineering materials are one of the most important in developing all the products
which we are using in everyday life. Because of their diverse properties, especially
their physical properties, the engineering materials are playing a vital role in the
product development process. Therefore, the designers, engineers, architects,
technologists etc. should have a broad knowledge in properties and behavior of
engineering materials under specific service conditions. Since the modern society is
inclined to use products functioning with electrical energy the electrical behavior of
materials is one of the most important aspects which should be studied well. In this
session we are planning to discuss basic electrical properties of materials such as
conductivity, semi-conductivity, super conductivity and non-conductivity. In addition
to that we will be studying the special physical phenomena like ferroelectricity and
piezoelectricity as well.

15.1 Electrical Conduction in Metals

Electrical conduction in metals is defined as the ease of transporting electric current in

solid. According to the classical model the free valance electrons in metal actively
participate in this transportation process be means of charge particles. That means
negatively charged electrons are apparently travelling from one end to the other end
of the solid once an electrical potential is present. If there is no electrical potential is
present those electrons will be travelling around the metallic cores forming an
electron cloud. The core of the atoms with positive charge (positive ions) will just

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vibrate around the fix point with an amplitude depending on the temperature at which
the solid is placed. At absolute zero temperature the vibration is nil and with the
increase of the temperature the vibration amplitude is increased proportionately.

This means that at room temperature the travelling of free electrons under electrical
potential is hindered by vibrating atom cores of the metal. Therefore, it can be
concluded that there is a ‘resistance’ in the metal for the transportation of electrons
due to the vibration of atoms cores and with increasing temperature the resistance also
increases. Now we can understand that there is a relationship between (a)flow of
electrons (b) resistance in the solid and (c) magnitude of electrical potential.

Ohm’s Law: A German Scientist, Gorge Ohm (1789 – 1854) has proved that the flow
of current (I) (assumed as flow of positive ions in the opposite direction to the flow of
electrons) is directly proposional to the applied electrical potential (V) and indirectly
propotional to the resistance (R). I.e.
V
I= or V = I .R
R
Where; I - Current (Ampere)
V - Potential difference (volts)
R – Resistance (Ohm)

The electrical resistance R is depend on the temperature and prpotional to the

geometrical parameters of the solid body. If it is a wire the the length and and the
crossectional area in which the current is flowing. Therefore, Resistance of a wire at a
l l
particular temperature (R) can be written as; R  or R=
A A
Where; l - Length of the wire
A - Cross sectional area
ρ - Electrical Resistivity
A m2
Since =R units of ρ will be  = .m
l m
1
Then the Electrical Conductivity (σ) can be written as;  = with unit ( .m) −1


Typical range of values of electrical conductivity of some substances are given in

Table 15.1

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 Table 15 .1 Ranges/Values of Electrical Conductivity of Some Substances

Substances Electrical Conductivity [( .m) −1 ] at 20ºC

Gaseous 10-16 …. 10-19
Liquids/Solids 10- 8 …. 10-15
Water 10- 4 …. 10- 7
Semi Conductors 10+2 …. 10- 7
Conductors 10+6 …. 10+8

Silver 6.3 x 107

Copper 5.8 x 107
Gold 4.2 x 107
Aluminium 3.4 x 107
Graphite ~ 105
Germanium 2.2
Silicon 4.3 x 10-4
Polyethylene ~10-14
Diamond ~10-14

Note: The conductivity of materials is not only depends on the temperature but also
on structural inperfections such as dilocations, grain boundaries, and impurities as
well as on plastic deformation.
As we can see in the Table 15.1 some solid materials such as;
✓ metals have conductivity in the range of 10- 7(conductors) and
✓ other estreme is some materials have very low conductivity in the range of 10-
14
(insulators)
✓ Some have an intermediate conductivity of the level between of 10-4 and
100(semiconductors)

15.1.1 Conduction of Electricity in Terms of Energy-Band

model

To understand the conduction of electricity in a material we have to consider the

electron configuration of an atom. Normally, only the electrons in the outermost orbit
are participating in conduction of electricity. The electrons in the energy levels of
inner orbits are not really participating in conduction and they are closely attached to
the core of the atom.
When two single atoms are brought close to each other, then the electrons in the
outermost orbit are interacting each other and sometimes two atoms share those
electrons. Therefore, energies of these electrons will not be in the same level and
those energy levels of electrons changed to value higher or lower level than that of
original energy level of the electron. This means the electrons in same orbit exhibits
different energy levels. The grouping of this different energy levels is called energy
bands.

There are mainly 3 energy band on our interest. Those are;

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• Valance Band
• Conduction Band
• Band Gap (defined as the gap between above two bands) Fig. 15.1

Band Gap

Fig.15.1 Important Energy Bands in Solids According to the Band Theory

(a) Valance Band:

This energy band includes range of energy levels of the valence electrons and
placed well below the conduction band. That means electrons in the valence
band have lower energy than the electrons in conduction band. In addition to
that electrons in valance are loosely bound to the core of the atom.

(b) Conduction Band:

Combination of energy levels of free electrons forms this band. Normally, this
conduction band is empty and when external energy is applied the electrons in
the valance band and jump into the conduction band and become free electrons
which makes a better conductivity of the solid. Electrons in the conduction
band have higher energy than the electrons in valence band and they are not
bound to the core of the atom.

(c) Band Gap:

This band exists between the valance and conduction band also called as
forbidden gap and also named as ‘Forbidden Band’. Normally, electrons
cannot stay in this gap since no energy level stated in this gap. In solid
materials this gap is major factor that influence the electrical conductivity and
whether a material is a conductor, insulators, or a semiconductor mainly
depends on this gap.

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 Now we will discuss how these bands are formed in conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.

(a) Band Formation in Conductors:

In materials which easily allow electrical current to flow (good conductors) such as
silver, copper, aluminium and iron have NO band gap. That means the valance and
the conduction band are overlapped each other (Fig. 15.2).

No Band Gap
(Overlapped Bands)

Fig.15.2 Energy Bands in Conductors

Therefore, with a small energy the electrons in the valance band can easily move to
the conduction band to provide good conductivity. Those electrons can be considered
as free electrons and practically they are not attached to the core of the atom.

(b) Band Formation in Insulators:

In case of insulators which do not allow electrical current to flow the valance band is
fully occupied with electrons due to sharing of outer most orbit electrons sharing with
neighboring atoms but no electrons are present in the conduction band. The
conduction band is empty (Fig. 15.3).

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 Band Gap

Fig.15.3 Energy Bands in Insulators

Band gap is very large (about 15 eV*) and the electrons in the valance band cannot
move to the conduction band. Practically, even with very high external energy the
electrons cannot be move to the conduction band since those electrons are locked up
between the atoms cores. Rubber, wood, plastics, diamonds etc. show this insulating
action and they can be used to prevent the flow of electrical current one place to
another (e.g. plastic are used to insulate electrical wires).
(* 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J)

(c) Band Formation in Semiconductors:

Some materials show their properties as neither conductors nor insulators. That means
they act as ‘semiconductors’. Some examples are silicon, germanium, graphite etc.
The band gap in these materials is very small (about 1 eV). At lower temperatures
these semiconductors act as insulators since the electrons which are in valance band
cannot occupy empty conduction band due to lack of energy to move to the
conduction band.

However, at room temperature the energy is enough for some electrons to move to the
conduction band (Fig. 15.4). This makes those materials conductive. With increase of
the temperature more and more electrons from the valance band can move to the
conduction band. That means with the increase of temperature the conductivity of
semiconductors increases or the resistance will decrease (semiconductors have
Negative Temperature of Coefficient).

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 Fig.15.4 Energy Bands in Semiconductors

15.2 Semi-Conductivity of Materials

There are mainly two types of semiconductors and they are;

• Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Extrinsic Semiconductors

(a) Intrinsic Semiconductors

✓ Pure ( undoped - not mixed with any other material) semiconductors in which
electrical conductivity is determined by their inherent conductive properties
are called as intrinsic semiconductors.
✓ As examples silicon, germanium tin and lead are intrinsic semiconductors
which have the positions in group IV A in the periodic table.
✓ They have enough electrons in the valance band but at relatively high
temperature electrons can migrate to the conduction band since sufficient
thermal agitation is present.
✓ This promotion of electrons leaves behind positively charged holes in the
valence band which maintain the charge neutrality of the whole atom.
✓ In electrical conduction process electrons and holes both are participating and
the electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal and holes to the negative
terminal.
✓
(b) Extrinsic Semiconductors
✓ In extrinsic semiconductors a very small amount of impurity atoms is doped
substitutionally in a parent material.
✓ Doping is done to about 100 -1000 ppm.
✓ If in extrinsic semiconductors pentavalent impurity atoms such as Prosperous,
Arsenic or Antimony are doped substitutionally in a parent material (Silicon or

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 Germanium), then impurity atoms have more valance electrons than the atoms
they replace in the parent semiconductor lattice.
✓ Then donor impurities ‘donate’ their extra valence electrons to a
semiconductor's conduction band, providing excess electrons to the parent
semiconductor.
✓ Excess electrons increase the electron carrier concentration of the
semiconductor, making it ‘n-type Extrinsic Semiconductor’.
✓ If trivalent (group IIA) impurity atoms (Boron, Gallium, Indium etc.)
substitutionally doped in Silicon or Germanium (Group IV A) then holes are
created in the silicon or germanium lattice that act as positive charge carrier.
✓ These types of semiconductors are known as ‘p-type Extrinsic
Semiconductors’

Use of Extrinsic Semiconductors;

1. Semiconductor diodes consist of p-type and n-type semiconductors which are

placed in contact with one another.
2. Transistors also make use extrinsic semiconductors by keeping them in a
‘Bipolar Junction’ in which either two layers of n-type semiconductors
sandwiching a p-type semiconductor (NPN Transistors) or two layers of p-
type semiconductors sandwiching an n-type semiconductor (PNP Transistors).
3. Field-Effect Transistors (FET), Semiconductor Lasers, Solar Cells, Photo
detectors (which converts light signals that hit the junction into voltage or
current) or Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are some examples for use of
extrinsic semiconductors.

15.3 Dielectric, Ferro-electric and Piezoelectric Behaviour of

Materials

(a) Dielectric Properties:

If a certain type of material is placed in between electrically charged bodies and this
material is an insulator it can store electrical energy. These types of materials are
called as ‘Dielectric materials’. Therefore, any insulator may call a dielectric
material. Dielectric materials are used in capacitors, devices used to store the electric
energy. To understand this phenomenon, we will consider following arrangement.
When a voltage (V) is applied between two parallel metal plates in a vacuum, one
plate becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged. Then the energy
stored, Q, can be given by:

𝑄 = 𝐶. 𝑉
Where, C –Capacitance of the space between two plate
(units Coulombs per Volt or Farads -F)

The capacitance is dependent on the geometry of plates:

113
 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0
𝑙
Were, 𝜀0 − Permittivity of vacuum (8.85. 10-12 Fm-1)
A - Area of the plates
L - Distance between plates

If a dielectric material is placed between the plates, then

𝐴
𝐶= 𝜀
𝑙
Where, 𝜀 − Permittivity of the material and
𝜀 = 𝜀0 . 𝜀𝑟
Where 𝜀𝑟 – Relative permittivity or ‘Dielectric Constant’ of the material
Then
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑙

✓ This means if we use a dielectric material between the two metallic plates of a
capacitor then the electrical energy which can be stored is increased.
✓ A dielectric material is a poor conductor of electricity, but an efficient
supporter to generate an electrostatic field in the capacitor.
✓ The flow of current between plate of the capacitor is kept to a minimum by
dielectric material but the electrostatic charges in the dielectric will store
energy.
✓ Once a charged capacitor is electrically connected externally the stored energy
will flow as a current on the opposite direction.
✓ This phenomenon is utilized in many electrical circuits in vast amount of
electrical and electronic devices.
✓ Substances with a low dielectric constant are; perfect vacuum, dry air, and
most pure, dry gases such as helium and nitrogen.
✓ Materials with moderate dielectric constants include ceramics, distilled water,
paper, mica, polyethylene, and glass. Ceramic capacitors are vastly used in
modern miniature electronic circuits.

✓ Metal oxides, in general, have high dielectric constants.

(b) Ferroelectric Properties:

✓ Electric polarization can be defined as a slight relative shift of positive and

negative electrical charges in opposite directions within an ‘insulator or
dielectric’.
✓ Normally, polarization is induced by an external electric field.
✓ In this case, the external electric field distorts the negative electron cloud
around positive atomic nuclei so that the electron cloud is attracted to one side
of the body where that side is slightly electrically negative and other side
electrically positive.
✓ In some substances, such as water molecules are permanently polarized by
chemical forces.

114
 ✓ In contrast to that Ferroelectric Materials exhibit, over a range of temperature,
a ‘spontaneous electric polarization’ without any external electrical field.
✓ Typically, materials demonstrate Ferro electricity only below a certain phase
transition temperature, called the ‘Curie Temperature’.
✓ This polarization can be totally reversed or manipulated by an external
electrical field.
✓ There a many substance which show ferroelectric properties such as Barium
titanate (BaTiO3, Leadtitanate, (PbTiO3), Lead zirconatetitanate (PZT), Lead
lanthanum zirconatetitanate (PLZT).
✓ Applications for ferroelectric materials are capacitors, Piezoelectric for
ultrasound imaging and actuators, electro-optic materials for data storage
applications, thermistors, Oscillators and filters.

(c) Piezoelectric Properties:

✓ Normally, ferroelectric materials are inherently piezoelectric.

✓ This means that the ferroelectric materials response to an applied mechanical
load by producing an electric charge proportional to the load.
✓ Similarly, the material will produce a mechanical deformation in response to
an applied voltage.
✓ This phenomenon is called as ‘piezoelectric effect’
✓ The explanation for this effect is as follows;
- If a ferroelectric material is loaded with compressive stress then, the length
of the material will be reduced.
- This reduces the distance between the unit dipoles, which reduces overall
dipole moment per unit volume.
- If the dipole volume is changed, then the charge density at the ends of the
material will change.
- Due to the change of charge density the voltage difference between ends of
the material will change (both poles are electrically insulated since this is a
dielectric material).
- The action is vice-versa if a voltage is applied to the material.
- See also the Fig.15.5

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 Fig.15.5 Schematic Illustration of Piezoelectric Behavior of Materials
(a) Piezoelectric material without loading (b) If material is loaded compressively a
voltage difference is observed (c) If a voltage is applied to the material, then it
will deform

Piezoelectric Materials are normally ceramic based and some examples are; Barium
Titanate (BaTiO3), Lead Zirconate (PbZrO3), Lead Titanate (PbTiO3) etc.
Applications of piezoelectric materials: Load cells, Ultrasonic testing probes,
Microphone and speaker of mobile phones, Tweeter speakers.

(a) (b)

Fig.15.6 (a) Ultrasonic Testing Probe (b) Microphone of a Mobile Phone

15.4 Introduction to Superconductivity

Normally, if high purity metals or alloys are cooled down to a very low temperature
the electrical resistivity decrease gradually, approaching a very small value. At a
temperature near to absolute temperature 0 K the resistivity drops to a minimum value
and remaining resistivity is due to the characteristic of the particular metal (e.g.
presence of impurities). This phenomenon is called as ‘Superconductivity’ and
materials show this character is named as ‘Superconductor’.

In some materials the resistivity will drop to nearly zero value abruptly at a certain
temperature and remains at that value upon further cooling (Fig. 15.7). This particular
temperature is known as ‘Critical Transition Temperature (Tc). Many pure metals,

116
alloys, some ceramics, and intermetallic compounds exhibits superconductivity. Some
examples are; Ti, V, Zn, W, Al, Hg, NbTi, Nb3Sn, MgB2, La-Sr-Cu oxide,
YBa2Cu3O7-x, carbon nanotubes, etc.

Fig.15.7 Superconductivity Behavior of Normal Metals and

Superconductors

Superconductors repulse external magnetic field according to the ‘Meissner Effect’

and this can be used to elevate permanent magnets kept on a superconductor
(Fig.15.8)

Permanent Magnet

Superconductor

Fig.15.8 Lifting a Magnet by a Superconductor

High Temperature Superconductors: Metals such as tungsten, titanium, aluminium,

lead have to be cooled at least up to 6 K (critical temperature) to get the
superconductivity effect. That means it is very close to absolute temperature and it
will be very expensive to cool them. Some complex alloys such as Nb3Gehas a critical
temperature of about 23 K and complex ceramics (HgBa2Ca2Cu2O8) show
superconductivity at 153 K. This is a relatively high temperature and can be reach
using liquid nitrogen (77.3 K). Further research is going on to synthesis new materials
which can show superconductivity at much higher temperature.
New complex oxide ceramics are being developed with relatively high critical
temperatures, which allow inexpensive liquid nitrogen to be used as a coolant.

117
Applications of Superconductors: Powerful superconducting electromagnets are used
in;
• Maglev trains (Trains travelling with magnetic levitation),
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) equipment
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) machines
• Fusion reactors (e.g. Tokomaks)
• Beam-steering and focusing magnets for particle accelerators.

Summary

In this session we have discussed about the electrical conduction of metals and the
thoretical background, cconduction of electricity in terms of energy-band model, to
explain electrical properties of engineering materials. Then characteristics of two
types of semiconductors, Intrinsic Semiconductors and Extrinsic Semiconductors
were discussed to understand the semiconductor properties. Further, special electrical
and electronic properties such as dielectric, Ferro-electric and piezoelectric behaviour
of materials were studied and finally the super conductivity of materials were also
discussed.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this session you should be able to;

1. Understand the basics of electrical properties of materials.
2. Explain the thoeretical background of semiconductors
3. Explain and understand the characteristics of different types of
semiconductors.
4. Understand the basic properties of dielectric, ferro-electric and piezoelectric
materials and their applications.

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Session 16

Magnetic Properties of Engineering

Materials

Contents
Introduction

16.1 Basic concepts of magnetic properties of materials

16.2 Dia-, para- and ferromagnetism
16.3 Influence of temperature on magnetic properties
16.4 Soft and hard magnetic materials

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
After discussing the electrical properties of materials now we are planning to learn
another important property of them. That is magnetic properties and due to atomic
structure and bonding mechanisms of materials a close relationship between electrical
and magnetic properties of materials can be observed. Magnetic properties are playing
a vital role in industry and daily life.

The materials which are used to utilize their magnetic properties are called as
magnetic materials. Those materials are used in electric motors, generators,
transformers, telephones, televisions, supercomputers, etc. and in addition to that
modern-day devices use data storage technology that is based on magnetic particles.
They are also used in medical technology, for example DNA sequencing.

In this session we will discuss magnetic properties like dia-, para-, and ferro-
magnetism along with anti-ferro- and ferri- magnetism. It also includes discussion
about temperature effects on magnetic behavior.

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16.1 Basic Concepts in Magnetic Properties of Materials

Normally, magnetic forces are created by moving charged particles (e.g. electrons)
and created forces can be denoted by ‘Force Lines’. These lines represent strength
(magnitude) and direction of the magnetic field and therefore, they are also called as
‘Magnetic Field Lines’ (Fig. 16.1).

Force Lines (Magnetic Field

Lines)
Moving Electrons or flow of Current

Fig.16.1 Distribution of Magnetic Field Lines around Charge Particle Carrying

Conductor

In permanent magnets magnetic dipoles are found analogous to electric dipoles. These
magnetic dipoles can be considered as a small magnet composed of north and south
poles instead of positive and negative charges in an electrical field. Those magnets
also create magnetic force lines which show the magnitude and direction of magnetic
forces at a location (fig. 16.2).

Fig.16.2 Distribution of Magnetic Field Lines around a Permanent Magnet

As in the earlier case the magnetic field line indicates the magnitude and direction the
force of acting on a theoretical metallic body with only a single pol. That means this
virtually existing single pol body will travel from North Pole to South Pole along a
force line. In case of a body with north and South Pole both, then the magnetic field
create a torque which tends to orient (align) this body with the field. A typical
example is the rotation of needle of a compass in earth’s magnetic field.

If a magnetic field is generated by passing current (I) through a coil of length (l)and
number of turns (n), then the Magnetic Field Strength (H) is given by:

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 𝑛𝐼
𝐻= Therefore, H has the units of Am-1 or Henry
𝑙

Now we think how can we assess the ‘strength’ of the magnetic field which also
depend on the Magnetic Flux Density (Induction) and can be expressed as follows;

𝐵= 𝜇𝐻
Where;
B - Magnetic Flux Density [Weber.m-2] or [Tesla]
µ - Permeability of the media [Weber.A-1m-1]
H - Magnetic Field Strength [A.m-1] or [Henry]
Weber is also written as [Wb] Henry is written as [H]

The permeability µ is specific for a medium and has units of Wb.A-1.m-1. If the coil is
in vacuum, then permeability is written as µ0 and any solid material is inserted into
the coil, then the permeability will change to µr.

The µr is called as ‘Relative Permeability’ of the solid material and it is a measure

of the degree to which the solid material can be magnetized.

Therefore, relative permeability can be defined as ‘the permeability of a solid

material relative to the permeability of vacuum’. i.e;
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0
Another filed quantity called ‘Magnetization (M)’ is defined as;

𝑀 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻
Where χm - Magnetic susceptibility
Also 𝜒𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 - 1

16.2 Dia-, Para- and Ferromagnetism

Now we think about the behavior of materials if they are under the influence of an
external magnetic field. The materials are magnetized in many ways or in other ways
there are many types of ‘magnetisms’. Basically, they are categorized in into 3
groups;

✓ Diamagnetism
✓ Paramagnetism
✓ Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is again divided into 2 subgroups;

• Anti-ferromagnetism
• Ferri-magnetism

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(a) Diamagnetism:

• This is a very weak type of magnetism.

• Exists only when an external magnetic field is applied.
• The magnetic effect is NOT permanent.
• Therefore, this has practically low interest.
• No magnetic dipoles are existing in these materials
• When an external magnetic field is applied, then the orbital electrons
will be slightly unbalanced and create a weak magnetic dipole within
atoms.
• These dipoles are aligned opposite to the external field (Fig. 16.3).
• I.e. Magnetization direction is opposite to the external field.
• Relative permeability is less than 1.
• Materials such as Cu, Ag, Si, Ag and alumina are diamagnetic at room
temperature.

Fig.16.3 Behaviour of Diamagnetic Material under the Influence of

an external Magnetic Field

(b) Paramagnetism:

• This is also a relatively weak type of magnetism.

• Exists only when an external magnetic field is applied.
• The magnetic effect is NOT permanent.
• Therefore, this has also practically low interest.
• When materials have unpaired electrons, then there is a net magnetic
moment due to electron spin is associated with each atom.
• In the absence of an external field, the orientations of these atomic
magnetic moments are random and have NO net (macro)
magnetization.
• When an external magnetic field is applied, then dipole align in the
same direction of the external field (Fig.16.4).
• That means these materials have permeability is slightly more than 1.
• Materials such as aluminium, calcium, titanium, alloys of copper are
paramagnetic.

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 Fig.16.4 Behaviour of Paramagnetic Material under the Influence of
an external Magnetic Field

(c) Ferromagnetism:

• This has high level of magnetism.

• Exists even the absence of an external magnetic field.
• The magnetic effect is permanent.
• Therefore, this has fairly high practical interest.
• Materials which have atoms with partially filled orbitals electrons
create permanent unpaired dipoles formed from unfilled energy levels
(i.e., unpaired spins).
• These dipoles can easily line-up with the imposed external magnetic
field due to the exchange interaction or mutual reinforcement of the
dipoles.
• iron, cobalt, and nickel
• When an external magnetic field is applied, then dipole align in the
same direction of the external field (Fig.16.5) and it is permanent.
• Materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic.

Fig.16.5 Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Material under the Influence of an external

Magnetic Field and the Magnetism Exists even the External Magnetic Field is absent

Anti-ferromagnetism:

In some materials such as Mn, Cr, MnO, NiO, CoO, MnCl2 the magnetic moments
produced in neighboring dipoles line up in opposition to one another in the magnetic
field, even though the strength of each dipole is very high. This will result in zero
magnetization, and this effect is called as anti-ferro-magnetism. They attain maximum

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susceptibility at a critical temperature called Neel temperature. At temperatures above
this, anti-ferro-magnets become Para-magnetic.

Ferrimagnetism:

In ferrimagnetic materials there are atoms with opposing magnetic moments. This is
similar to the condition that we have in anti-ferromagnetism however, in
ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments are unequal and the spontaneous
magnetization is present. This exists if the material consists complex chemical
formulas with different ions, such as Fe3O4, NiFe2O4, (Mn. Mg) Fe2O4, PbFe12O19, Ba
Fe12O19, YIG – yttrium iron garnet Y3Fe5O12. These materials are having ceramic
character and called as ‘Ferrites’ they are good insulators, have minimum electrical
losses, and therefore, ferrites have lot of applications in devices such as high
frequency transformers.

16.3 Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Properties

Now we try to understand what will happen if the materials, which we have discussed
in previous chapter, will be subject to high temperature. It is experimentally proven
that as electrical properties the magnetic properties also change with the increase of
temperature. With increase of temperature the magnitude of the thermal vibrations of
atoms will increases. This may lead to more randomization of atomic magnetic
moments as they are free to rotate. It can be well understood that atomic thermal
vibrations counteract forces between the adjacent atomic dipole moments. This will
give a dipole misalignment up to some extent both in presence and absence of
external field. As a result of it, saturation magnetization further initially decreases
gradually, and then suddenly drops to zero at a temperature called ‘Curie temperature
(Tc)’. The magnitude of the Curie temperature is dependent on the material. For
example, the curie temperature of some materials is given below:

Cobalt – 1120 °C, Nickel – 335 °C, Iron – 768 °C, and Fe3O4 – 585 °C.

Note: Magnetic Saturation is the state reached when an increase in field strength of
applied external magnetic field cannot further increase the magnetization of the
material.

Above the Curie temperature, ferromagnetic materials behave as para-magnetic

materials.

16.4 Soft and hard magnetic materials

As you may now know if we place a solid material in a magnetic field (e.g. current
carrying coil) the solid material will magnetize. Depending on the type of material
with the removal of the external magnetic field the induced magnetization will
diminish or remained. If we consider an electromagnet which is magnetized by a
magnetic field of a coil, we can use it practically to attract metallic materials (for

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examples iron oxide in can be removed from clay samples, or huge electromagnet can
be used to collect metal scrap of a scrap yard). However, to use this arrangement, if
the current of the coil is switched off then the magnetization of the core material of
the electromagnet should be fully diminished/removed. But in some materials the
magnetization is NOT fully removed and a certain amount of magnetic effect is
retained. This is obviously a problem since this retention of magnetic effect will
disturb the proper function of the electromagnet.

Now we can think why this is happening and how can be solve the problem is
magnetic retention can be solved. Do not forget that sometimes the retention of the
magnetic effect is useful and as an example this retention is used when we are making
permanent magnets.

To understand this phenomenon first we have study the relationship between the
induced magnetic flux density (B)and the magnetic field strength(H).The relationship
curve is called as ‘Hysteresis Loop’ and to explain this relationship first we have to
first understand the what is a ‘Magnetic Domain’.
A magnetic domains region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped
together and aligned to one single direction. In the figure below, the magnetic
domains are indicated by the arrows in the metal material (Fig. 16.6). You can assume
magnetic domains as miniature magnets within a material. Those domains are
randomly oriented if the material is not magnetized. Once it is magnetized, then all
the domains will align to the direction of the external magnetic field. The material
became a magnet and it would quickly become unmagnetized (or demagnetized)
when its magnetic domains returned to a random order. This can be observed mainly
in ferromagnetic materials.

Fig.16.6 Behavior of Ferromagnetic Material under the

Influence of an External Magnetic Field

Example 1

If you wanted to turn a paper clip into a magnet, how do you think you could do it?

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Answer:

You can turn a paper clip into a magnet by rubbing a strong permanent magnet several times
over the surface of the paper clip. Then the paper clip will become magnetized. That means
some of the magnetic domains aligned to one direction and the metal became partially
magnetized. With the increased amount of rubbing the paper clip will be more and more
magnetized and it will become a stronger magnet.

Now we can discuss how the hysteresis loop can be generated. The loop is generated
by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing
force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized
or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as magnetic field
strength is increased (Fig. 16.7).

Fig.16.7 Change of Magnetic Flux Density (B) with the Change Field Strength(H)
in a Ferromagnetic Material.

As shown in the figure above,

✓ With the increase of the applied magnetic field strength the flux density will
increase up to the point ‘a’.
✓ At the point ‘a’ most of the magnetic domains are aligned to the direction of
the magnetic field and the material become magnetically ‘saturated’.

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 ✓ When magnetic field strength is reduced to zero, the curve will move from
point ‘a’ to point ‘b’.
✓ At this point, some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the
magnetizing force is zero.
✓ This is referred to as the point of ‘Retentivity’ and indicates the ‘Remanence’
or level of residual magnetism in the material.
(Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their
alignment.)
✓ When magnetic field strength is reversed, the curve moves to point ‘c’, where
the flux density has been reduced to zero.
✓ This is called the point of ‘Coercivity’
(The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the
net flux within the material is zero)
✓ If the magnetic field strength is increased in the negative direction, the
material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction
(point ‘d’).
✓ As magnetic field strength is brought back to zero curve move to the point ‘e’.
✓ With increasing magnetic field strength to a positive value, the magnetic field
strength become zero (point ‘f’).

Now we can see that this magnetic behavior of a ferromagnetic material shows the
retention of the magnetism (residual magnetism). Therefore, we can definition to
following materials;

Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are easily magnetized and
demagnetized. They typically have intrinsic Coercivity less than 1000 Am-1. Typical
applications are; motors, generators, electromagnets, power supply transformers,
relays, electric vibrators, sensor applications etc.

Hard magnetic materials are referred to as permanent magnets which retain their
magnetism after being magnetized permanently. Normally, they have an intrinsic
Coercivity of greater than ~10k Am-1. Typical applications are; loudspeakers,
microphones, disc drives and actuators, stepper motors, printers, starter motors, anti-
lock braking systems (ABS), motors, fans and controls for windows, alternators,
sensors, magnetic bearings etc.

Summary

Basic concepts of magnetic properties of materials have been discussed in this

session. Under these we have discussed about the dia-, para- , ferro- and
ferrimagnetism of materials and their applications. Futher we have discussed about
the influence of temperature on magnetic properties of materials. Finally, we
discussed about the soft and hard magnetism and in that context we were able to learn
about the hysteresis loop and many other features of it.

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Learning Outcomes

After studying this session you should be able to;

1. Understand the basics of magnetic properties of materials.
2. Explain the thoeretical background of dia-, para- , ferro- and ferrimagnetism
of materials
3. Explain the and understand the hysteresis loop and its significant features.

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Session 17

Introduction to Nano Materials

Contents
Introduction

17.1 Fundamentals of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials

17.2 Historical Development and Trends
17.3 Basics of Synthesis, Characterization and Processing of Nanomaterials
17.4 Applications of Nanomaterials in the Society

Summary
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
Now we have come across field of classical materials science and engineering and we
have gathered sufficient amount of knowledge for the first year of your degree
program. Before we conclude with this knowledge acquisition process we have to
have to gather basic knowledge in modern development in the field of materials
science and engineering. One of the most interesting area is that developments in
‘Nanotechnology’. From the title of this technology we will concentrate mainly on
‘Nano materials’. You can definitely get more knowledge in nanotechnology with the
aid of books, WEB pages and Web forums etc. and the main aim of this session is to
bring you to the door step of the field of nanomaterial.

17.1 Introduction to Nanotechnology and Nano materials

As the definition, nanotechnology is dealing with the activities in ‘Nano-scale’. That

may include activities such as synthesis and fabrication of materials in Nano scale,
manufacture of Nano scale machines (NEMS), applications of those Nano-
components and machines in day to day life.
Before we go further we have to first define the meaning of the word ‘Nano’. This
word was originated from Greek language ‘Nanos’ which means extraordinary small.
In the metric measurement ‘Nano’ is used to denote one billionth of a meter or 10-9m
in the length scale.

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Now we can precisely define the word ‘Nanotechnology’ as follows; Technology that
deal with dimensions or tolerances of less than 100 nanometers which can
manipulate individual atoms and molecules of materials.
Actually, before the nanotechnology came into practical applications, ‘Nano science’
was first established through the experiments done by many scientists.

Nano science can be defined as “Study of phenomena and manipulation of materials

at atomic and molecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a
larger scale”.

Nanotechnology is then defined as “Characterization, production and application of

structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale”.
Now we have to think about, what is Nano engineering? That should be then;
“Application of science in the design, planning, construction and maintenance
of nano level machines and other components”.

Nano materials are “Materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one
dimension is less than approximately 100 nanometers”.
If we now think about the Nano scale we can compare the size of a Nano fiber with a
human hair. This can be visualized in Fig.17.1.

Fig.17.1 Comparison of Human Hair with Nano Fibers

Now you have an idea about the scale in which nanotechnology is dealing with. Now
we will think about what is the effect of the dimensions of a material on its properties.

As a simple example, if we measure the time to fully dissolve a fairly large sugar
crystal in water and compare it with the time to dissolve same amount of finely
powdered sugar (fine grained glucose) then we will find that dissolving fine grained
sugar is much easier and faster. What is the reason for this? Main reason is the
effective surface area of the sugar particles. In the latter case the effective surface area
(area which interferes with water molecules) is very much higher.

This can be shown in another example also;

• 27 grams of silver coin, has a diameter of about 40 mm, and has a total surface
area of approximately 28 cm2.

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 • If the same amount of silver contained in a silver coin is rendered into 1 nm
particles, the surface area of those particles is 4 million times greater than the
surface area of the silver coin.

This is called as ‘Size Effect’ and it is one of the main aspects in Nanotechnology. It
is now known factors that due this size effect the physical properties of materials are
also significantly affected and a good example is that the melting point of gold is
reduced with decreasing particle size (Fig.17.2).

Fig.17.2 Relationship between Melting Point and Particle Radius of Gold

Change of properties of materials at the Nano scale is due to two main reasons.
• Firstly, nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area when compared
to the same mass of material produced in a larger form. This can make
materials more chemically reactive (in some cases materials that are inert in
their larger form are reactive when produced in their Nano scale form) and
affect their strength or electrical properties.

• Secondly, quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter

at the Nano scale affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of
materials.

Another effect of nanomaterial can be observed in the nature. As we know the nature
is well ahead of us. The scientists have found that in nature we can find many Nano
technological applications. A typical example is that the non-wetting effect of leaves
of plants (Fig.17.3). This non-wetting effect is due to the presence of a ‘Nano wax’ on
the leaves. The molecules of this wax are in Nano scale and they have the ability to
repel relatively large water molecules.

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 (a)

Epicuticular Wax
(b)

Fig.17.3 (a) Non Wetting Effect in Plant Leaves (b) Magnified Picture of leaves

It is very interesting to observe the natural effect of lotus leaves which has not only a
non-wetting action of the leaves but also the ‘self-cleaning effect’. This effect is also
named as ‘Lotus Effect’ (Fig.17.4).

Fig.17.4 Non Wetting Effect in Lotus Leaves

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Lotus leaves also have the Nano wax on the surface of its leaves and in addition to
this wax has the self-cleaning effect due to extra ordinary ability to drive of dust on
the surface with the aid of water molecules (Fig.17.5).

Without Nano Wax With Nano Wax

Fig.17.5 Self-Cleaning Effect of Lotus Leaves

This effect is practically used in manufacture of ‘Self-Cleaning and Antibacterial

Ceramic Tiles’. Surface of the conventionally manufactured ceramic tiles will be
coated with Nano structured Titanium-Silver layer which gives the self-cleaning
effect.

17.2 Historical Development and Trends

If we consider the historical development of nanotechnology it is possible to see that
the first step which has initiated this new era of nanomaterial in 1952.

1952 Radushkevich and Lukvanovich published clear images of 50 nanometer

diameter tubes made of carbon in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry.
This discovery was largely unnoticed, the article was published in the
Russian language, and Western scientists' access to Soviet press was limited
during the Cold War.
1959 Richard Feynman's in a classic talk gave an important idea;
"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom “
1976 Invention of hollow carbon fibers with nanometer scale diameters
1981 A group of Soviet scientists published the results of chemical and structural
characterization of carbon nanoparticles.
1985 Rice University researchers discovered the Buckminsterfullerene (C60), more
commonly known as the Bucky ball
1985 Bell Laboratory discovered quantum dots
1986 Invention of Atomic Force Microscope, which has the capability to view,
measure, and manipulate materials down to fractions of a nanometer in size,
including measurement of various forces intrinsic to nanomaterial.
1989 IBM researchers showed that it is possible to manipulate single atoms.
1990 Early nanotechnology companies began to operate,
1991 Nippon Electric Company discovered carbon nanotube (CNT)
1999 to early 2000’s: Introduction of Nano-technological products to the
consumer market.

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2000 Establishment of National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in USA
2004 Britain’s Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering initiative
address potential
Health, environmental, social, ethical, and regulatory issues associated with
nanotechnology.
2004 Establishment of first college-level education program in nanotechnology in
the United States.
2006 Rice University built a Nano scale car
2007 MIT built a lithium-ion battery with a common type of virus that is non-
harmful to humans.

From 2007 onwards many developments were observed and those will be discussed in
this session.

Now, if we consider the future trends in nanotechnology we find the modern research
is advancing with an exponential trend towards more scientific and engineering
applications in product development process. Following are some areas where the
future trends in nanotechnology.

✓ Production of new generation pressure, chemical, magneto resistive and anti-

collision automobile sensors.
✓ Better photovoltaic cells (solar cells)
✓ Lighter and strong materials for defense
✓ Aerospace and automotive applications for better fuel consumption and
comfort
✓ More effective and economical anti-corrosion coating
✓ Tougher and harder cutting tools
✓ Medical implants and chips
✓ Nanostructured materials for Nano-electronic components
✓ Ultra-fast computer processors,
✓ Nano-robots for medical applications

17.3 Basics of Characterization and Processing of Nano

materials
Normally, Nano materials are categorized into 3 groups;
(a) Single dimension (Nano dots – 1-2 nm)
(b) Two dimensions (very thin surface coatings, nanowires)
(c) Three dimensions (nanoparticles and nanotubes).

Different configurations of carbon are given in Fig.17.6.

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 Fullerene C60 Fullerene C70
(Bucky Ball) (Rugby Ball)

Nanotube Armchair

Nanotube (Zig Zag) Nanotube (Chiral)

Fig.17.6 Different Configurations of Carbon in Nano Scale

Most interesting form of carbon in Nano scale is ‘Carbon Nano Tubes’. These
cylindrical carbon molecules have unusual properties which can be utilized in the
fields of electronics, optics and generally in materials science and technology
(Fig.17.7)

Fig.17.7 Carbon Nano Tubes (CNT)

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Following are some properties of carbon Nano tubes;

Mechanical Properties
Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are one of the strongest and stiffest materials known. This
strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon
atoms.
- The CNT have high Tensile Strength of 63 GPa. High carbon steel has a
tensile
Strength of approximately 1.2 GPa.
- CNT have very high Elastic Module, on the order of 1 TPa.
- CNT have a low density for a solid of 1.3-1.4 g/cm³
- Length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1

Electrical Properties
Because of the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of
a nanotube strongly affects its electrical properties.
- CNT show different electrical properties depending upon the type.
- They can be metallic or semiconductor.
- All armchair nanotubes are metallic, and other semiconductors.
- Metallic nanotubes can have an electrical current density more than 1,000
times greater
than metals such as Silver and Copper.

There are mainly two approaches for the manufacture of Nano materials;

✓ Top Down Technique

Producing very small structures from larger pieces of material,
for example by etching to create circuits on the surface of a
silicon microchip.

✓ Bottom Up Technique
Adding or Manipulating atom by atom or molecule by molecule
to construct desired component in Nano level.

For the characterization and processing following equipment are used.

• Scanning Electron Microscope

• Transmission Electron Microscope
• Scanning Tunneling Microscope
• Atomic Force Microscope

17.4 Applications of Nano materials in the Society

Nanotechnology has penetrated into development of products in many areas of the

society. Especially, in mechanical, electronic, computer, medicine also in aerospace
industry.

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(a) Nanotechnology in mechanical engineering

✓ Potential applications in mechanical engineering has already been

identified, however real industrial applications are due to come.
Following aspects can be utilized in design process for product
development;

✓ The size affected properties are color, thermal conductivity,

mechanical, electrical, magnetic etc.

✓ Nano scale metals show increase in hardness and modulus of elasticity

than bulk metals.

✓ The future of nanostructured materials deal with controlling

characteristics, processing into and from bulk material and in new
manufacturing technologies.

(b) Nanotechnology in medicine

One of the most important areas where nanotechnology has been implemented is
field of medicine. There are many application areas such as bio medical implants
& instrumentation, pharmaceutical industry etc. Some of the applications are
given below;

1. Nano robot which can travel in the human blood stream (Fig.17.8). This robot
can give clear pictures while travelling in the blood stream and also deliver
particular medicine at a particular location (e.g. cancer therapy).

Fig.17.8 Nano Robot which Can Travel in Blood Stream

2. Regeneration of bones on a Nano structured surface: This is already used for

skin transplantation but not for bones. The researches have proven that bone
materials can be grown on specially prepared Nano structured surface
(Fig.17.9).

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 Fig.17.9 Bones Grown on Nano Structured Surface

3. Regenerative materials which can be implanted in the human body such as

regenerative bones, regenerative muscles or any other gland in the human
body (Fig.17.10).

Fig.17.10 Regenerative Body Parts of a Human.

(c) Nanotechnology in other fields

• Glass can be coated with Nano-structured wax particles to create self-cleaning

windows.
• Nano glass can also be designed to better trap heat.
• Pants and shirts are coated with nanoparticles for easy cleaning.
• Nano-zinc sun cream where the zinc particles are so small you can’t see them.
It’s more effective, too (Australian cricketer Symonds has already used it).
• Mercedes-Benz has built cars with nanotech scratchproof finish.
• Japanese researchers are using nanotech “bucky tubes” that will allow high-
resolution, flat-panel television.
• Desalinated drinking water purified through Nano filters.
• Nano wiring may be fine enough to connect severed nerves in an injured
spine, restoring partial movement.

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Summary
In this session initially, we discussed about the fundamentals of nanotechnology and
Nano-materials. Also we discussed the historical developments and future trends in
application of nanotechnology in industry and household. Further, we learn the basics
of synthesis, characterization and processing of Nano materials.

Learning Outcomes
After studying this session you should be able to;
1. Understand the deference between normal materials and Nano materials.
2. Explain how Nano materials are synthesised, characterized and processed.
3. Predict the applications of Nano materials in the future.

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