O Level Computer Science - Hardware: Data Storage © N.

A DMC 2023

Data Storage
• Memory is usually referred to as the internal devices used to store data that the computer
can access directly.
• This is also known as primary memory.
• This memory can be the user’s workspace, temporary data or data that is key to running the
computer.

• Storage devices allow users to store applications, data and files.

• The user’s data is stored permanently and they can change it or read it as they wish.
• Storage devices can also be removable to allow data, for example, to be transferred
between computers.

Memory and storage devices can be split up into two distinct groups:

• primary memory
• secondary storage

Mr. Augustin

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O Level Computer Science - Hardware: Data Storage © N.A DMC 2023

Summary of the differences between primary memory and storage devices (primary, secondary
and off-line devices)

Primary memory
• Primary memory is the part of the computer memory which can be accessed directly from
the CPU
•

Mr. Augustin
This includes random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM) memory chips
• Primary memory allows the CPU to access applications and services temporarily stored in
memory locations.

▪ Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Can be written to, read from and changed by the user.

• Used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the operating system currently in
use.
• It is volatile, which means memory contents are lost when powering off the computer.

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O Level Computer Science - Hardware: Data Storage © N.A DMC 2023

There are currently two types of RAM technology:

• dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• static RAM (SRAM)

Differences between DRAM and SRAM

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• It non-volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the computer)
• It is a permanent memory(the contents cannot be changed or written to by the user, the
computer or any application/program)

Mr. Augustin
• The contents can only be read
• It is often used to store data that the basic input/output system (BIOS)/ bootstrap program

Summary of the main differences between RAM and ROM

Example of an application

A remote-controlled toy car has circuitry which contains both RAM and ROM chips. The remote
control is a hand-held device. Explain the function of the RAM and ROM chip in this application.
The function of each type of memory in the remote-controlled toy

ROM

• storing the factory settings such as remote control frequencies

• storing the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on
• storing of the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand-held device control turning left,
acceleration, stopping, and so on.

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O Level Computer Science - Hardware: Data Storage © N.A DMC 2023

RAM

• the user may wish to program in their own routines; these new instructions would be stored in the
RAM chip
• the RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from the remote control unit.

Secondary and off-line storage

• Secondary (and off-line) storage includes storage devices that are not directly addressable
by the CPU.
• They are non-volatile devices that allow data to be stored as long as required by the user.
• This type of storage can store more data than primary memory, but data access time is
considerably longer than with RAM or ROM.

Various types of secondary (and off-line) storage

✓ Magnetic, optical and solid-state storage

▪ Magnetic storage

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Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
• Data is stored in a digital format
• Use circular platters coated in magnetic material
• Several read-write heads are used
• These allow for all the surfaces to be accessed
• Data is stored in sectors and tracks in blocks
• The read-write heads move in and out several times to seek the appropriate data blocks
• This is referred to as latency (time taken for a specific block of data on a track to rotate around to the
read-write head)

▪ Solid state drives (SSD)

• Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND or NOR chips.
• The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip.
• This effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.

The main benefits of SSD over HDD are:

• They are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

• They are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
• They don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
• They have a lower power consumption
• They run much cooler than HDDs » because of no moving parts, they are very thin
• Data access is considerably faster than HDD.

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The main drawback of SSD is still the longevity of the technology.

▪ Memory sticks/flash memories

Memory sticks/flash memories (also known as pen drives) use solid state technology.

• They usually connect to the computer through the USB port.

• Their main advantage is that they are very small, lightweight devices, which make them very suitable
as a method for transferring files between computers.
• They can also be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files

• Optical media

i. CD/DVD disks
• Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data.
• Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.
• When a disk spins, the optical head moves to the point where the laser beam ‘contacts’ the disk
surface…
• … and follows the spiral track from the centre outwards.
• CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing direct access to data.

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• The outer part of the disk runs faster than the inner part of the disk.
• The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ on the spiral track.
• A red laser is used to read and write the data.
• More data can be stored on the DVD surface.

ii. Blu-ray discs

• A blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write operations.
• ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ can be much smaller.
• Can store up to five times more data than normal DVD.
• Automatically come with a secure encryption system that helps to prevent piracy and copyright
infringement.

Blu-ray allows greater interactivity than DVDs. For example, with Blu-ray, it is possible to:

i. record high definition television programs

ii. skip quickly to any part of the disc
iii. create playlists of recorded movies and television programmes
iv. edit or re-order programmes recorded on the disc
v. automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording
vi. access websites and download subtitles and other interesting features

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All these optical storage media are used as back-up systems (for photos, music and multimedia files).

This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files between computers.

Manufacturers sometimes supply their software (e.g. printer drivers) using CDs and DVDs. When the software
is supplied in this way,the disk is usually in a read-only format.

Virtual memory
• A paging mechanism that allows a program to use more memory addresses than are available in main
memory.

Programs/processes are divided into fixed sized units – of the same size – called pages.

Paging: Where a large process is divided into pages which have to be of the same size.

• If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs running, it is likely to cause a
system crash.
• This can be solved by utilising the hard disk drive (or SSD) if we need more memory.
• Virtual memory gives the illusion of unlimited memory being available.
• A paging mechanism that allows a program to use more memory addresses than are available in main
memory.

Mr. Augustin
The main benefits of virtual memory are:

•
•
Programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed
There is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g. during error handling)
• It reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory

The main drawback is disk thrashing.

As main memory fills, more and more data needs to be swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to a very
high rate of hard disk read/write head movements; this is known as disk thrashing.

Consequently, the processing speed of the computer will be reduced.

A point can be reached when the execution of a process comes to a halt since the system is so busy moving
data in and out of memory rather than doing any actual execution – this is known as the thrash point.

Thrashing can be reduced by:

• installing more RAM,

• reducing the number of programs running at a time
• reducing the size of the swap file
• making use of a solid state drive (SSD) rather than using HDD

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Cloud storage
• Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers.
• The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing
clients to access data at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
• The physical environment is owned and managed by a hosting company and may include
hundreds of servers in many locations.

There are three common systems:

i. Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage
provider are different companies.
ii. Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company
firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single
entity.
iii. Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above environments; some data resides in
the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public
cloud storage provider.

Mr. Augustin
Data security when using cloud storage involves the following issues:

• what physical security exists?

• how good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or power cuts?
• what safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service company?

There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could be lost from the cloud storage facilities. Actions
from hackers (gaining access to accounts or pharming attacks, for example) could lead to loss or corruption of
data.

References: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science (Watson & Williams)

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