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a^Eq l¿.u sass'If,^pes"g-arnrJnrrs ur sluJpnls e.'os .egen8ue¡ ra8rer aqr
Jo
salnJ Ff,rt"rurue¡8 p_ue lre¡nqeoor\ aqr uJEel sluJpnls rBr{l rl ot eas ol ,,
¡"óe
s,rer{reat aq1 'aSen8ue¡ aqr lq parrJef, sa8esseru aql uo uErF rerper
Jlastr
a8tn8ue¡ aqr uo sr snf,oJ aql 'sJaufta¡ a8en8ur¡ u8raro3 ro p.rorrr'jo dlord
e or rqSner sr aSen8ue¡ eql 'sruauuoJr^ua
lEuonJnJrsul pasBg-aJnrf,nJrs uI
se s¡aa d ql r^, u o rlf, Eral u r ur,',",; :ilL'JlH:iffil *i*T*: ; Jl:il
E qfns uJ 'a3rn3ue1 ar{rJo sJeuJEel pJE./r\o] "
,r"qr rr,F", sraleads a nEu pJE \o1
ParraJrp sr uonf,nJlsur aqr eJar{./$. pue aSenSue¡ raSrer ar{t Jo sraleads e^n¿u
aJ¿ uaJplrr{f, Jer{ro eqrJo lsolu eJeg^,!\ uorlEntrs ,p¡qc E sr JauJEel
Ioor{JS e ul
aqr gr '.ro uorlf¿Jelur
lEr)os ur Jo >lJo,e\ re a8en8ur¡ eqr or pasodxa sr JeuJEel
3r{r q)rq^{ ur esoql sE poolsrepun eq pFoqs slxaluof, uollsrnb¡e
[EJnrEN
s8u¡rtas puorpnrlsul pue IBrnreN
¿apY'ord uer
a¡nsodxa leJnleu lou pu¿ uonf,nJlsur f¡uo rer¡r suorlngrJluof,
lBnuesse eJar{]
1" tO ¿al!\ PFoqS ¿uooJsself aqr uI luauluoJrAua aurcs aqt elBaJJ e./r\ u¿J
¿8u¡urea¡ a8rn€ue1 (l¿Jnleu, slqr rnoqe ¡e,ads sr r,qAr .*ooirr"¡, eql eplsrno
o8en8ue¡ agr Sulsn acuar¡adxa prq e^¿q sJaureal lsoru r'r{} r,eJ
InJssa¡ns
eql uo péseq eq leru jar¡aq sql .a^nf,agJ aJour sr (leerts aqt uo, Bururea¡ rrqr
azrarlaq lue¡A¡ 'ruooJSsBIJ arp ur Sulu;eal woü rueJaJrp sl Sunlas
lEuonf,nJlsur
-uou B ur a8en8uel puo3es r Sururea¡ '7 ntdeya ul ól,rrlce Jr{l ur a \ ry
^\ES
'uorlsnJlsur lnoqll1ü
a8en8uel B urea¡ aldoad arar{.{\ s8uuas Jeqro pue Bururea¡ a8effiuef ro3
^\au
s8unras ruooJsself uee \leq saJueJeJrp eqr uo DeHaJ or luau¡our e a{Er sn rel
'snp op a./\^,
eJoJag 'stuooJssBl3 J8en8uel puof,as ur uo sao8 rer¡rrt paquf,sep puB
Pa^Jasgo e^sr{ sJer{f,JEasal qfrr.l./ú. ul slex\ luoJeJlp aro¡dxa az* rerdegc snp uI
/r4.el eJd
WOOUSSVff,
ECVNDNVf CINOf,iIS
IIHI NI DNIHf,VEI ONV
DNINUVEf DNIAUESSO
r24 Obseruing learning and teaching in the second kngudge classroom

opportunities to continue learning the target language outside the class-

room; for others, the classroom is the only contact with that language. In
some cases' the learners' goal may be to pass an examination rather than to
use the language for daily communicative interaction beyond the classroom.

Communicative, content-based, and task-based instructional environments

also involve learners whose goal is learning the language itself, but the sryle of
instruction places the emphasis on interaction, conversation, and language
use, rather than on learningaboutthelanguage. The topics that are discussed
in communicative and task-based instructional environments are often of
general interest to the learner, for example, how to obtain a driver's license.
In content-based language teaching (cBLr), the focus of a lesson is usually
on the subject matter, such as history or mathematics, which students are
learning through the medium of the second language. In these classes, rhe
focus may occasionally be on the language itself, but the emphasis is on using
the language rather than talking about it. The language that teachers use foi
teaching is not selected solely for the purpose of teaching a specific feature
of the language, but also to make sure learners have the language they need
to interact in a variety ofcontexts. Students' success in these courses is often
measured in terms of their abiliry to 'get things done' in the second language,
rather than on their accuracy in using certain grammatical features.

fn natural acquisition settings

'W.hen
people learn languages at work, in social inreracrions, or on the play-
ground, their experiences are often quite different from those of learners
in classrooms. CompleteThble 5.1 on the nexr page. As you look at the
pattern of + and - signs you have placed in the charr, you will probably find
it matches the descriptions below.
. Language is not presented step by step. The learner is exposed to a wide
variety of vocabulary and structures.
. Learners' errors are rarely corrected. If their interlocutors can under-
stand what they are saying, they do nor remark on the correctness of the
learners' speech. They would probably feel it was rude to do so.
. The learner is surrounded by the language for many hours each day.
Sometimes the language is addressed to the learner; sometimes it is
simply overheard.
. The learner usually encounters a number of different people who use
the target language proficiently.
. Learners observe or participate in many different rypes of language
events: brief greetings, commercial transactions, exchanges of informa-
tion, arguments, instruction at school and in workplace interactions.
 Swutoa¡ aSon&uo¡ toJ s?xaluo, l.g amq[
ssa.r¿ llrsta,tu¡ pJorxg O e¡geldotoroq¿
lndur peurpoLu
ol ssef,f,v
)eads
ol aJnsseJd
sad& as.rno¡srp
pue aSenSue¡
¡o lra¡.re¡
sJeuJeel 01
s;e¡eads e,rrleu
lo one.¡ r.l3rH
Surutea¡
rol aull a¡druy
SJOJJA
uo )f,eqPaa,
tuanbar¡
eurltE re 8u¡qr
auo Surureal
luaPnls luapnls
-luoPnls -Jeq)eel
uo!lrnJlsu!
uollfnrlsu! Pes€q uo¡1¡s¡nbee
a^!l€)!unl"ul.rloc -eJnlfnJls leJN}?N s)!lsuelf€JPtl3
¿
uorlf, eJatu r luap nls-Jaqf, Eal ut suaddeq lEq/v\ LuoJt luaJa#l p
reql sl ¿Jeqto qf,ea ot )lel sJauJ€al ueqr* sueddeq leq6'uortl€Jotur luepnts
-luePnls PUE luaPnls-JeqlPel olu! PePtNpqns uaaq sPq ut!nlol (uotlJnJlsut
a^rlef,runuuo3, aqr leql eloN 'aJns lou aJ€ nol ¡r ,¿, alr.r¡¡?xeluof, teqt ur
pug tou op l¡¡ensn nol Surqtauos s! l! ¡r (-) snurur e lreN 'txaluof, reqt ro
¡errdft st f,nstralf,eJeq) eql l elqer aql u¡ (4) snld € IJEN 'tuesqe ;o luasa.ld a;e
Tal aqr uo sf,DsrJalf,eJeqr eql Jaqleq^ aPDep'ualuof, r,.l)ea Jol'uunlof, qlee
lq patuasa.rdoJ slxeluof, Jno¡ aql to sf,tlstJalf,eJeql aLlr rnoq€ >¡u¡q1.3uru.rea¡
a8en8ue¡ puo)as Jo, slxetuof, leuotl)nJ¡sut pue leJnleu a.ledulo¡ e^ .auo
slr.ll ul 'sJeuJ€a¡ a8en8ue¡ puoles pue rsJUro sa¡go.rd eqt pe.redr,uof, e^ ,upqf,
teqr ul'¿.retdeq3 ur l'Z alqef ur auo eLF ol relr.urs sl l'S elqelul lJ€q) eql
slxoluo)tulu.lea¡eJedtuo) AItAtIf,v
g7l utootssplr aSun&uq yuocas ar¡t ut Sutr.ltaat yua Surutaal Sumtasqg
126 Obseruing learning and teaching in the second knguage classroom

Older children and adults may also encounrer the written language in
the use ofvideo and web-based materials.
Learners must often use their limited second language ability to respond
to questions or to ger information. In these situations, the emphasis is
on getting meaning across clearl¡ and more proficient speakers tend to
be tolerant of errors that do not interfere with meaning.
Modified input is available in many one-ro-one conversarions. In situ-
ations where many native speakers are involved in the conyersation,
however, learners may have difficulty gerring access ro language they
can understand.

In structure- b ased insnuctional s ettings

The events and activities rhar are rypical of strucrure-based instruction differ
from those encountered in natural acquisition settings. In grammar transla-
tion approaches, there is considerable use of reading and writing, as learners
üanslate texts from one language to another, and grammar rules are taught
explicitly. In audiolingual approaches there is little use of translation, and
learners are expected to learn mainly through repetition and habit formarion,
although they may be asked to figure out the grammar rules for the sentences
they have memorized.
. Linguistic items are presented and practised in isolation, one item at
a time, in a sequence from what teachers or textbook writers believe is
'simple' to thar which is 'complex .
. Errors are frequently corrected. Accuracy tends to be given priority over
meaningful interaction.
. Learning is often limited to a few hours a week.
. In situations of foreign language learning the teacher is often the only
native or proficient speaker the student comes in contact with.
. Students experience a limited range of language discourse rypes. The
most typical of these is the Initiation/Response/Evaluation (IRE)
exchange where the teacher asks a question, a student answers, and the
teacher evaluates the response. The written language students encoun-
ter is selected primarily to provide practice with specific grammatical
features rather than for its content.
. Students often feel pressure to speak or write the second language and
to do so correctly from the very beginning.
. Teachers may use the learners' native language to give instructions or
for classroom management. \flhen they use the target language, they
tend to modify their language in order ro ensure comprehension and
compliance.
 JoJ slsanbeJ te^a1y\or{ '8ulu¿aru uo sr snf,oJ aql esnEJag 'arll¡e¡d a,r¡t
-EJrunuruoc ul pa8z8ua ere lar¡f uaq./v\ sJoJJe s(Jal{fo I{rEe lf,eJJoJ
l¡rra,ro ol lou pual sruepnrs 'tuJoJ JJAo pezrsEqdrua sl Sutuearu pue
:Ieqf,¿el aqrSo ued eql uo uonf,errof, roJreJo tunorue parrurrl tt.lltj* .
"
snoauoJJe seruuaruos pue pagl¡drurs qlr^/r\ Jar{lo r{f"a apyrord ,r.rrp.rg
'Eulpe.r6 lp.rnlrnrls g8norgr uer{l rJrlter 'se¡nlsa8 pue 'sdord 'sanc
IenrxeruorJo esn aqt lq a¡qrsuaqa¡druoc aperu puu paglldruls sl rndul .
'uortrsrnbr¿
IEJnI¿u
or Jellruls sr lBqr len r ul a8en8ue¡ aqr elnbcr ill^\ sJJuJEel 'Surueatu uo 8ul
-snfoJ ur 'ttr{t sr uorrdrunsse aql 'Sururaur rllJEIr ol rapro ur fluo uo pesnf,oJ
JJe suJoj I¿3nE{rJruEJg '>Porur -.rred -lo -dno:8 ur se^lasuaqr sluaPnrs eqr
Suorue pue sluapnrs pue Jer{feat uea^\req rpoq 'SulueauJo uollef,Iunururof
aqr uo sl slsegdrua Jr{r (uonJnJrsul pJseq-rueluof, pue alltef,Iunruruol uI
sSalaas 1?aouJnu.sat a ntTsJtunrautoJ uJ
'slxeluof uolllsrnbcr
IEJnlEu 3o ¡ecrdÁ aJour esoql qll^\ uon3nJlsur pas"g-eJntlnJls Jo sJItsIJal
-f,¿rer{f, er{r Jo aruos are¡dar or rg8nos a EI{ sarurue;Sord Sulgcear a8rn8uu¡
e^rltorunruruo: 3o srau8rsaq'sanbtuqlar pue spoqraru Sutgcear a8en8ue¡
Jreql ur sraqf,Eal aprn8 reqr sa¡drcurrd eqrJo sural ul raJP oslt stuoorsselJ
'selqerJt^ raqro lueru put 'Sutureel JoJ alqEII" B arun Jo lunoure 3I{1 'sluaP
-nts eqr Jo uolrtllrotu pu" a8e aqr 'luaruuoJltua ¡errslqd aql Jo stuJal uI
ragrp Surur€al roJ suolllpuoo aql 'a>llle ]lB lou aJE surooJsse¡r a8en8uel
¿ iJrr v t(7A(4 -F=-
f,=
a>t4rJry, q ?Otr 7S¡tw
,t¡efea|
eq+ aúv sntd¿n fi1i.rou
lr¡l{rtr 'gtrn Cro.1¡xea
,q!
ffi2rñmrrrahl
LT,l ruoo$solr a7an&ual yuoras aqt ut Surqtaal pua Surutaal Suxnasqo
l28 Obseruing learning and teaching in the second langaage classroom

clarification may ser'''e as implicit feedback. Negotiating for meaning

may help students see the need to say something in a differenr way.
o Learners usually have only limited time for learning. In a typical teacher-
fronted classroom with 25-30 students, individual students get very
little opportuniry to produce language in a 60-minute class, and when
they do, it is usually in the form of a short response to a teacher's ques-
tion. \lhen students work in pairs or groups, they have opportunities
to produce and respond to a greater amount and variery of language.
Sometimes, however, subject-matter courses taught through the second
language can add time for language learning. A good example of this
is in immersion programmes where most or all the subject marter is
taught to a group of students who are all second language learners.
. As in structure-based instruction, it is usually only the teacher who is
a proficient speaker. Learners have considerable exposure to the inter-
language of other learners, particularly in student-student interaction.
This naturally contains errors that would not be heard in an environ-
ment where the interlocutors are native speakers, but it provides many
more opportunities for students to use the target language than is the
case in most teacher-fronted activities.
. A variery of discourse rypes may be introduced through stories, peer-
and group-work, the use of 'authentic' materials such as newspapers and
television broadcasts. Text materials may include both those modified
for second language learners and those intended for native speakers. In
the latter case, teachers use instructional strategies to help learners get
the meaning, even if they do not know all the words and structures. In
student-student interaction, learners may practise a range of sociolin-
guistic and functional features of language through role-play.
. There is little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy, and there is
often a greater emphasis on comprehension than on production, espe-
cially in the early stages of learning.
. Modified input is a defining feature of this approach to instruction. The
teacher makes every effort to speak to students in a level of language
they can understand. If students speak the same first language, they may
have little difficulry in understanding each other. If they come from dif-
ferent language backgrounds, they may modify their language as they
seek to communicate successfully.

General descriptions of classroom instruction such as those above cannot

capture the individual characteristics of particular classrooms. For this
reason, researchers have developed a number of ways to study classroom
learning and teaching.'W'e will discuss two approaches to classroom research
in this chapter.'Sl'e will look first at observation schemes, in which research-
ers anticipate the occurrence of particular events and behaviours and make
note of them within pre-planned frameworks or checklists. Then we will
 q3eoJdd¿ Jrar{r ur JeJIp rEI{r suooJsself, uJo{ arrlof, sldufsuBJl aql'uollfBJelul
tuapnts-Jar{f,Ear ruasaJd o,l\t rsJU aI{I 'uonf,as Suvtro¡o3 al{l Pue sgt ut uaru8
eff uortfrJatur ruooJSSEIf, a8en8uq puof,esJo std¡rcsuert JnoJ Luo{ srdraoxE
suotlJp¿a|u? |u"pn| s-.¿a q J?aJ : suost¿? dutoz uto o¿swl J
'sluaPnls
PUE
sluaPnls uee \leq Pu" sruePnls Pu? sJer{f,Eal u3e \leg uollfsJelul Jo eJnl"u
aqt azrJaloereqf, or eruaqos ITOf, el{r uI pasn esoqt or rcl¡uls sal¡o8ale¡
paurruJerep-a.rd 3o lJs E esn ot pe1se a¡¿ nol glll{¡a ul &l¡tlcr u" sI
^\olag
'seuo pef,uarredxaSo luarudo
-la^ap ¡euorssajord eql uI pu" sJel{f,"el ,&euJo Suru¡e.rt oqr ur Pasn ueag osp
e^Er{ seuaqf,s uor}E^Jesqo 'Sulurea¡ aSen8ue¡ puofes uI safuaJeJlP or PalEIeJ
a¡e sarll:¿¡d Sulqcear uI sarueJaJlp ,l\oq re >lool ot PePuarul sI IEI{I rlf,JeesaJ
ruoorss¿lr ul l¡.rtrurrd pesn uaag e eq tI aIII sraqro PUE stual{f,s JTOI aql
'sJoJf,e (sJauJeal ot puodsar sra
-qf,"ar ,/v\or{ Pue Jar{req^\ PuE '1s3 sJel{f,Ea] suonsanbSo sPuDI aqr 'lertr lue ul
pet3rJlsal sr uoltJnpoJd a8en8ue¡ JIaI{r JeI{teI{ \ 'acnpo;d sluePnls a8en8ue¡
(a¡ur¡ rvroq ro) qenu r'toq 'aldurexa ro3 'sluapnls PuE sraqf,Ear fq pacnp
-o¡d a8rn8uel elpJo spadse:grcads sequf,seP g ued'uolssnrsrP;o; scrdor
eql asoor{f, ol sruepn}s JoJ selllunlJoddo e¡¿ eJaql Jerpeq.,'r Pu" '8utu¿atu
Jo tuJoJ a8en8ue¡ uo sr snloJ aqt Jer{raqa'panuac-rauJrel Jo -JeI{J¿al eJ¿
sanrAItJE ¡errSo8epad elp Jaqral{^\ 'a¡dtuexe JoJ 'PJoraJ utf Ja^Jasgo eqt
'y tre¿ Sulsn uar¡6 'sadÁ lrlrrrrf,E Jo uollezlu¿8¡o pue 'snco3 'lualuoc 3o
surral ur sarrl¡r¡d Surgrear saglJrs:P Vu¿d 'surd oruu olur PaPhIP sl I-IO:)
'G661r{r1r{grC EIrEW pue epedS eur¡ lq PaqlrsseP aruel{f,S uonelresqo
OfOC) Surgceal a8rnSuel Jo uoltetuelro elll?slunruruoJ aql sI suloor
-ssr¡o aBenBuEI puo3as .roj l¡pcglcads pado¡a,rap Jruer{f,s e jo a¡druexa euo
'sSurprocar qlnsJo sld¡lcsuen ro s8utptorar
oapr^ Jo orpne aslpua ot urooJssell agl ePISlno JatEI Pasn Jo 'luooJssell eql
ul are laqr allq^ ,erult IeaJ, uI sJa^Jasqo lq pasn arr farp JeIFaq \ 01 uoll
-elar ur reJlp osp seluer{f,s ar[L .uorlfErelur uroorsse¡c io saldruEs pel3elas
uo Jo uossel e rnog8noJql Pasn are laqr J3qrel{ \ put 'suotldufseP eAIlEl
-gruenb Jo e^IlElII¿nb uo snroj faqr raqreqz\t 'uleluoc fagr sarro8alm Jo
raqunu agr Surpn¡cu¡ 'sl:adsat pre^as ul raJIP lagl 'sruoo;sse1c a8en8uel
puof,as ur asn JoJ padola,l,ap ueaq e^Er{ soruer{Js uolle^resqo ruareglP fuelt¡
seueqJs uorls Jasgo
'suonrtcadxa ¡o
sarro8ateo paunuratepa;d lu¿ ot uoltelJasgo aqt IIUII ol lou Sutl¡l rng 'sdrgs
-uonEIoJ put suraued ro3 Sunlool 'ruooJssels eI{} ur suaddeq req^\ aqlJf,seP
or ra^resqo aqt salnbar trgr rprordde ue 'fgderSouqra ruoorssrls 13 >lool
6T,t u,tol$sap a7an&uq puotas aql m &utcltaal puu Sututual &um'tasqg