METHODS OF

ENQUIRY IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Goals of Psychological Enquiry

◦ Description
◦ Prediction
◦ Explanation
◦ Control of Behaviour
◦ Application of knowledge

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Description

◦ In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as

accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other
behaviours.
◦ Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions.
◦ The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper
understanding.
◦ For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among
students. Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all
your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule,
studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc.

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Prediction

◦ The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour.

◦ If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to
know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or
phenomena.
◦ You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur
within a certain margin of error.
◦ Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons
observed.
◦ For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship
between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you
come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that
the child is likely to get good marks in the examination.

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Explanation

◦ The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of
behaviour.
◦ Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur.
Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur.
◦ For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why some children
devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with
identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that led to the
particular behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship
between two variables (objects) or events could be established.

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Control

◦ If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that
behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
◦ Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or
enhancing it.
◦ For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or
you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours. The change
brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons, is
a good example of control.

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Application

◦ The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of
people.
◦ Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Because of
these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists.
◦ For example, applications of yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and increase
efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs,
which leads to further research.

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Steps in conducting Scientific Research

The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon

in an objective, systematic, and testable manner.

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◦ The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular
event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
◦ The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of
investigation. It includes the following steps: conceptualisation of a problem, collection of data,
drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions and theory.

a) Conceptualizing a Problem :
◦ The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study.
Then they narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the
study.
◦ This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. For
example, a researcher was interested in observing the study habits of students.
◦ For this purpose, he may identify different facets of study habits first, and then decide whether he
is interested in study habits shown in the class or at home. After identification of the problem, the
researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called
hypothesis.
◦ For example, you might develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of time spent by children
in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them’. In the
research, try to prove whether the statement is true or false

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b) Collecting Data :
➢ The second step in scientific research is to collect data.
➢Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires
taking decisions about the following four aspects: (a) participants in the study, (b) methods of data
collection, (c) tools to be used in research, and (d) procedure for data collection.
➢Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants
(or informants) in the study. The participants could be children, adolescents, college students,
teachers, managers, clinical patients, industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/ where
the phenomenon under investigation is prevalent.
➢The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method,
experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc.
➢The researcher needs to decide about appropriate tools (for example, interview schedule,
observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for data collection. The researcher also decides about how
the tools need to be administered to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This is followed by actual
collection of data.

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c) Drawing Conclusions :
▪ The next step is to analyze data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand
what the data mean.
▪ This can be achieved through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -
diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different statistical methods.
▪ The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.

d) Revising Research Conclusions :

• They have to see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis.
• If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed.
• If not, they will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data
and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers.
• Thus, research is a continuous process.

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Alternative Paradigms of Research
❑Human Behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed,
measured and controlled.
❑In recent years, a different method known as interpretive has emerged. It emphasizes
understanding over explanation and prediction
❑It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and
experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the
physical world.
❑This viewpoint emphasizes the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and
actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context.
❑ For example, persons experiencing suffering due to external factors (for example, people affected
by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.). In such
types of situations, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable.
❑People need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality.
❑The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without
attempting to disturb its natural flow.
❑Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of
others.
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Nature of Psychological data

➢Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods. The
information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt
behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes.
➢Data form an important input in psychological enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality to
some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc.
➢Data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time
when the behaviour occurs.
➢The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) used and the characteristics of
respondents (such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc.) also
influence the nature and quality of data.
➢Another important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences have to
be made from data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context.

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i) Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal information like name, age,
gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children,
locality of residence, caste, religion, parental education, occupation, and family income, etc.
ii) Physical Information : This category includes information about ecological conditions
(hilly/desert/forest), mode of economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at
home, in the neighborhood, in the school, mode of transportation, etc.
iii) Physiological Data : In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are collected
about height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), electrical activity
of the brain measured by Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time,
duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running and jumping
rates (in case of animal studies), etc., are collected.
iv) Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as
intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders,
illusions, delusions, hallucinations, perceptual judgment, thought processes, consciousness,
subjective experiences, etc.

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IMPORTANT METHODS IN
PSYCHOLOGY

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➢Observation Method
➢Experimental Method
➢Correlational Method
➢Survey Method
➢Psychological Testing
➢Case Study

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Observational Method
◦ Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing
a behaviour.
◦ A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects. These are :

a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select
a particular behaviour for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children
studying in Class XI spend their time in school. Two things are possible at this stage. As a researcher,
you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might
prepare a list of activities and go to the school with a view to finding out their occurrences.
Alternatively, you might think that you do not know what happens in the school and, by your
observation you would like to discover it.

b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means,
such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes
describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording,
etc.

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c) Analysis of Data : After the observations have been made, psychologists analyze whatever they
have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.

It is important to know that making good observations is a skill. A good observer knows what s/he is
looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in
what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyze the observed
behaviour.

Types of Observations
1. Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation
2. Non-Participant vs Participant Observation

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Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation
When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings , it is called naturalistic observation. This
type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc.
However, many a times you might need to control certain factors that determine behaviour as they
are not the focus of your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in
the laboratory. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation.

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Non-Participant vs Participant Observation
Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a
distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed.
In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed. For
example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular
class. There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the
classroom activities, which you can see later and analyze. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a
corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of
observation is called non-participant observation.
The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone (an outsider) is sitting and observing
may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher.

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In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being
observed.
In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that
they start accepting her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree of involvement of the
observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.
The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their
behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
However, the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the
observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.
Because of our biases we may interpret things in a different way than what the participants may
actually mean. Therefore, the observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not
interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself.

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Experimental Method
Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events
or variables in a controlled setting.
It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor and its effect is studied
on another factor, while keeping other related factors constant. In the experiment, cause is the event
being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.

Variable
Any stimulus or event which varies or takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is a
variable. An object by itself is not a variable. But its attributes are.
Example- Pen is not a variable but the varieties of pens like different shapes, size, colours are variables.
Hight of individuals
Different levels of Intelligence

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Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the
researcher in the experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants
to observe or note in the study.
The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable.
Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. It is expected that
change in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable.
Thus, the independent variable is the cause, and dependent variable the effect in any experimental
situation.

Independent and dependent variables are interdependent. Neither of them can be defined without
the other.
Also, independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that influences the
dependent variable.
Any behavioural event contains many variables. Independent and dependent variables are chosen
because of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
However, there are many other relevant or extraneous variables that influence the dependent variable,
but the researcher may not be interested in examining their effects.
These extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-
point the cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.
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Experimental and Control Groups
An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable
manipulation.
The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group
except that the manipulated variable is absent in it.

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For example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control
group. The participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. In one room no one was present
(control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated (experimental groups). Of the
two experimental groups, one group was instructed not to do anything when smoke filled in the room.
The other group was not given any instructions. After the experimental manipulation had occurred the
performance of the control group measured in terms of reporting of smoke was compared with that of
the experimental group. It was found that the control group participants reported in maximum numbers
about the emergency, followed by the first experimental group members where the participants were
not given any instructions, and the second experimental group (consisting of confederates) reported
the emergency situation, the least.

◦ Except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both experimental
and control groups. One attempts to control all those relevant variables which can influence the
dependent variable. For example, the speed with which smoke started entering the rooms, the total
amount of smoke in the rooms, physical and other conditions of the rooms were similar in case of all
the three groups.
Random Distribution
A method that ensures that each person has an equal chance of being included in any of the groups

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◦ All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be
controlled.
◦ These are of three major types: organismic variables (such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc.),
situational or environmental variables operating at the time of conducting the experiment (such as
noise, temperature, humidity), and sequential variables.
◦ The sequence related variables assume significance when the participants in experiments are
required to be tested in several conditions.
◦ Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects, which may
influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.
◦ The goal of an experiment will be to minimize extraneous variables, so it’s better to eliminate it. But
when the elimination is not possible, there should be efforts to keep them constant so the effects of it
remains the same.
◦ For controlling organismic and background variables, matching is also used. Here the relevant
variables in the two groups are held constant by taking matching pairs across conditions of the
experiment.
◦ Counter-balancing techniques is used to minimize the sequence effect.

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Field and Quasi Experiment
If a researcher wants to have high generalizability or to conduct studies which are not
possible in laboratory settings, s/he may go to the field or the natural setting where the
particular phenomenon actually exists which is known as a field experiment.
On the other hand, the independent variable is selected rather than varied or
manipulated by the experimenter which is known as Quasi experimentation.
For example, if you want to study the effect of an earthquake on children who lost their
parents, you cannot create this condition artificially in the laboratory. So in the
experimental group we can have children who lost their parents in the earthquake and
in the control group children who experienced the earthquake but did not lose their
parents.

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Correlational Research
It is a method where researchers often wish to determine the relationship between two variables for
prediction purposes.
The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a number,
known as correlation coefficient. Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other
variable (Y) will also increase. Similarly when variable X decreases, a decrease in Y too takes place.
For example, it is found that more time the students spend on studying, the higher was their
achievement score. Also the less they studied, the lower was their achievement score. This type of
association will be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the association between studying
and achievement, the closer the number would be to +1.0.
On the other hand, a negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the
value of the other (Y) decreases.
For example, it may show that as the hours of study time increase, the number of hours spent in other
activities will decrease.
Sometimes no correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called zero correlation. It is
difficult to find zero correlation but the correlations found may be close to zero indicating that no
significant relationship exists between two variables or the two variables are unrelated.
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Survey Research
It is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys as the method to collect data that
helps in inferring various kinds of causal relationships.

Different techniques-
1. Personal interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Telephonic surveys
4. Controlled observations

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Personal Interviews
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and attitudes,
and reasons for particular behaviour, etc. from the respondents. It is generally conducted face-to-face
but sometimes it can also take place over the phone.
There can be two broad types of interviews: structured or standardized, and unstructured or non-
standardized.
During the interview, it is required that we prepare a list of questions before-hand. The list is called an
interview schedule.
A structured interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a particular
sequence. The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in the wordings of the questions or
the order in which they are to be asked. The responses to these questions are also, in some cases,
specified in advance. These are called close-ended questions.
In an unstructured interview the interviewer has the flexibility to take decisions about the questions to
be asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence in which questions are to be asked. Since
responses are not specified in such type of interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the
way s/he chooses to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.

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◦ An interview may have the following combinations of participants in an interview situation:
(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation where one interviewer interviews another person.
(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of persons. One variant of it
is called a Focus Group Discussion (FGD).
(c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview one person. You
may experience this type of situation when you appear for a job interview.
(d) Group to Group : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview another group of
interviewees.
The interview method helps in obtaining in-depth information.
It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is
possible or adequate.
It can be used even with children, and non-literate persons. An interviewer can know whether the
respondent understands the questions, and can repeat or paraphrase questions.
Drawback
However, interviews require time. Getting information from one person may take an hour or more
which may not be cost-effective.

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Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report method of collecting
information. It consists of a predetermined set of questions. The respondent has to read the questions
and mark the answers on paper rather than respond verbally to the interviewer.

There are two types of questions used in the questionnaire: open-ended and closed ended.
With open-ended questions, the respondents are free to write whatever answer they consider
appropriate.
In the closed ended type, the questions and their probable answers are given and the respondents
are required to select the correct answer.
The questionnaire is used for collecting background and demographic information, information about
past behaviour, attitudes and opinions, knowledge about a particular topic, and expectations and
aspirations of the persons.

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Telephone Survey
Surveys are also conducted through telephone. The telephone survey helps in reducing time.
Since the respondents do not know the interviewer, the technique is lost with uncooperativeness,
reluctance, and superficial answers by the respondents. There is also a possibility that those responding
may differ from those not responding, e.g., on age, gender, income levels, education levels, etc.,
besides their psychological characteristics. This will lead to very biased kinds of results.
Controlled Observation
This is usually held in a laboratory setting. Here the researcher decides where the observation will take
place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized
procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.

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Psychological Testing
A psychological test is a standardized and objective instrument which is used to assess an individual’s
standing in relation to others on some mental or behavioural characteristics.
The test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable responses, which are related
to a particular human characteristic or attribute.
Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same
group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the
group.

The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps. It involves detailed analysis
of items, and estimating reliability, validity, and norms of the whole test.
Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on
two different occasions.
To test the reliability, we use test-retest reliability, which indicates the stability of the test scores over
time. It is computed by finding out co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of scores on the
same set of persons. Another kind of test reliability is called split-half reliability. It gives an indication
about the degree of internal consistency of the test. This is based on the assumption that items of a test
if they are from the same domain should correlate with each other. For finding out internal consistency,
the test is divided into two equal halves employing odd-even method and correlation is computed
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◦ Validity is the property by which the tests actually measure what they are supposed to
measure.
◦ Norm is the normal or average performance of the group. The test is administered on a
large number of students. Their average performance standards are set based on their
age, sex, place of residence, etc. This helps us in comparing the performance of an
individual student with others of the same group. It also helps in interpreting individuals’
score obtained on a test.

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Types of Tests
Psychological tests are classified on the basis of their language, mode of administration, and difficulty
level.
Depending upon the language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests.
Literacy is required for taking verbal tests as the items have to be written in some language. In non-
verbal tests, items are made of symbols or pictures. Performance tests require movement of objects
from their respective places in a particular order.
Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into individual or group
tests.
In individual tests, the researcher administers the test face to face and remains seated before the test
taker and notes down the responses.
In the group test, the instructions about answering the items are written on the test, which the test taker
reads and answers the questions accordingly. The test administrator explains the instructions to the
entire group.
Limitations:
Individual tests are time consuming, but are important ways of getting responses from children, and
from those who do not know the language. Group tests are easy to administer and are also less time
consuming. However, the responses are fraught with certain limitations. The respondent may not be
motivated enough to answer the questions and may give fake responses.
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Psychological tests are also classified into speed and power tests.
In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all the items. Such a
test evaluates the individual on the basis of time taken to answer the items accurately. In a speed test,
all the items are of the same degree of difficulty.
A power test assesses the underlying ability (or power) of the individuals by allowing them sufficient
time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit. In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an
increasing order of difficulty.

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Case Study
Here, the emphasis is given on in-depth study of a particular case. Researchers focus on cases which
can provide critical information or new learning on less understood phenomena.
A case study employs multiple methods for collecting information, such as interview, observation, and
psychological tests from a variety of respondents who in some way or the other might be associated
with the case and can provide useful information.
Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s
life.
Freud’s insight that led to the development of psychoanalytic theory emerged from his observations
and showed that meticulous records must be maintained on individual cases.
Piaget developed his theory of cognitive development on the basis of observations of his three
children.
The problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging. It is recommended that the
information should be collected using multiple strategies from different sources of information by a
number of investigators.
Throughout the process of data collection the researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence
for linking various data sources having bearing on the research questions.

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Quantitative Method
This method emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or
numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires and surveys or by
manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative
research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or
to explain a particular phenomenon.

Qualitative Method
Qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meaning
that cannot be experimentally examined or measured. Also data are not always available in
the form of scores. When the researcher uses the method of participant observation or
unstructured interview, the data are generally in a descriptive form—in participants’ own
words, field notes taken by the researchers, photographs, interview responses noted by the
researcher or taped/video-recorded, informal talks, etc. Rather, the researcher uses the
technique of content analysis to find out thematic categories and build those categories
taking examples from the data. It is more descriptive in nature.

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Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
1. Lack of True Zero Point
In physical sciences measurements do start from zero. For example, if you want to measure the length
of the table, you can measure it starting from zero and can say it is 3' long. Psychological
measurements do not have a true zero point. For example, no person in this world has zero intelligence.
All of us have some degree of intelligence. What psychologists do is that they arbitrarily decide a point
as zero point and proceed further. As a result, whatever scores we get in psychological studies, are not
absolute in nature; rather, they have relative value.

2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools

Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular context. For
example, a test developed for urban students may contain items that demand familiarity with the
stimuli available in the urban setting— multistoried buildings, airplanes, metro railway, etc. Such a test is
not suitable for use with children living in tribal areas who would be more at ease with items that
describe their flora and fauna. Similarly, a test developed in the Western countries may or may not be
applicable in the Indian context. Such tests need to be properly modified and adapted keeping in
view the characteristics of the context in which they are to be used.

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3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data
Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective since they involve interpretation on the part of the
researcher as well as the person providing data. The interpretations may vary from one individual to
the other. Therefore in case of qualitative studies, the field work should be done by more than one
investigator, who at the end of the day should discuss their observations and arrive at an agreement
before finally giving it a meaning. Sometimes it makes a better sense, if the respondents too are
involved in such meaning-making process.

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Ethical Issues
Psychological research is concerned with human behaviour, the researcher is expected to follow
certain ethics/moral principles while conducting the studies. These principles are: respect for persons’
privacy and choice to participate in the study, beneficence or protecting the participants in the study
from any harm, and justice or sharing the benefits of research with all participants.
Some of the aspects of these ethical principles are-
◦ Voluntary Participation
This principle states that the persons on whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice
to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study. The participants should have the
freedom to decide about their participation without any coercion or excessive inducement, and the
freedom to withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has begun.
◦ Informed Consent
It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the
study. The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must receive this information
before data from them are collected, so that they make an informed decision about participation in the
study. In some of the psychological experiments, electric shock is given to the participants during the
experiment. Still in some cases harmful or unpleasant stimuli are presented. They may at times be
required to give some private information, which is generally not shared with others. It is, therefore,
important that the participants are explained the nature of the study before its actual
commencement.

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◦ Debriefing
Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their
understanding of research. This is particularly important if deception has been used in the study.
Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when
they entered. It should offer reassurance to the participants. The researcher should make efforts to
remove any anxiety or other adverse effects that participants may have felt as a result of being
deceived in the course of the study.
◦ Sharing the Results of the Study
In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our
places of work, analyze the data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to
the participants and share the results of the study with them. When you go for data collection, the
participants develop certain expectations from you. One of the expectations is that you will tell them
about their behaviour that you have investigated in the study. As a researcher, it is our moral duty to go
back to the participants. This exercise has two advantages. One, you fulfil the expectations of the
participants. Second, the participants may tell you their opinion about the results, which sometimes
may help you develop new insights.

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◦ Confidentiality of Data Source
The participants in a study have the right to privacy. The researcher must safeguard their privacy by
keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence. The information should only be used for
research purposes and, in no circumstances, it should be passed on to other interested parties. The
most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of participants is not to record their identities. This is,
however, not possible in certain kinds of research. In such cases, code numbers are given on the data
sheet, and the names with the codes are kept separately. The identification list should be destroyed as
soon as the research is over.

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