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Unit 1 Computers

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9 views

Unit 1 Computers

Uploaded by

divya sathvika machavolu
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Fundamentals of a Processor

1. Introduction
A processor, or central processing unit (CPU), is the primary component of a
computer that performs most of the processing inside a computer. It executes
instructions from programs, managing data and controlling peripheral devices.

2. Processor Architecture

2.1. Von Neumann Architecture

Definition: A computing architecture where program instructions and data share the
same memory space.

Components:

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit (CU)

Memory

Input/Output Devices

2.2. Harvard Architecture


Definition: A computing architecture with separate memory storage for instructions and
data.

Advantages: Improved performance due to simultaneous access to instructions and


data.

3. Processor Components

3.1. Control Unit

Function: Directs the operation of the processor and coordinates the activities of all
other components.

3.2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Function: Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

Components:

Adders

Subtractors

Multipliers

Dividers
3.3. Registers

Definition: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU.

Types:
R

General-purpose registers

Special-purpose registers (e.g., instruction register, program counter)

3.4. Cache Memory

Purpose: Stores frequently accessed data to speed up processing.

Levels: L1, L2, and L3 caches.

4. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

4.1. Definition
The part of the processor that is visible to the programmer and includes the set of
instructions that the CPU can execute.

4.2. Types of ISAs

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Many addressing modes and complex
instructions.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Fewer instructions with a focus on


performance through simplicity.

5. Instruction Execution Cycle

5.1. Fetch

The CPU fetches the instruction from memory.

5.2. Decode

The fetched instruction is decoded to determine the operation and operands.R

5.3. Execute

The decoded instruction is executed by the ALU or other components.


5.4. Write Back

The result of the execution is written back to a register or memory.

6. Data Paths and Control Signals

6.1. Data Path

The route that data takes within the CPU, including connections between ALU,
registers, and memory.

6.2. Control Signals

Signals generated by the control unit to manage data flow and operations.

7. Pipelining

7.1. Definition

A technique where multiple instruction phases are overlapped to improve performance.


7.2. Stages

Typical stages include instruction fetch, instruction decode, execute, memory access,
and write-back.

7.3. Hazards

Data Hazards: Occur when instructions depend on the results of previous ones.

Control Hazards: Arise from branch instructions altering the flow of execution.

8. Superscalar Architecture

Allows multiple instructions to be issued in parallel during a single clock cycle, improving
throughput.

9. Multicore Processors

9.1. Definition

Processors with multiple cores on a single chip, allowing parallel processing.

9.2. Advantages
Enhanced performance for multi-threaded applications and improved energy efficiency.

10. Processor Performance Metrics

10.1. Clock Speed

Measured in Hertz (Hz); determines how many cycles per second the processor can
execute.

10.2. Instructions Per Cycle (IPC)

Measures how many instructions can be executed in one clock cycle.

10.3. Benchmarking

Techniques used to measure the performance of a processor under various workloads.

11. Power and Thermal Management

11.1. Power Consumption

Key consideration in processor design, affecting battery life and operational costs.
11.2. Thermal Management

Techniques used to dissipate heat, including heat sinks and cooling fans.

12. Conclusion

The fundamentals of processor design encompass various architectural principles,


components, and performance metrics. Understanding these basics is crucial for
advancements in computing technology, influencing both hardware design and software
development.

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