● Particle Arrangement: Particles are

far apart and move freely.

General Chemistry 1 ● Movement: Particles move quickly in
(Midterm Reviewer) all directions.
● Examples: Oxygen, nitrogen, and
Made by: Chantelle Jan Abrera
carbon dioxide.
Acknowledgement: Ma’am Zara Jean T.
d. Plasma
Viray ● Definition: Ionized gas with
free-moving charged particles.
Lesson 1: Matter ● Particle Arrangement: Particles are
1. Basic Properties of Matter electrically charged and spread far
● Mass: The amount of matter in an apart.
object, measured in grams, ● Movement: High-energy collisions
kilograms, etc. cause electrons to separate from
● Volume: The amount of space an atoms.
object occupies, measured in liters, ● Examples: Lightning, stars, and
cubic meters, etc. neon signs.
● Density: The mass per unit volume e. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)
of an object, calculated as ● Definition: Matter at temperatures
mass/volume. near absolute zero, where particles
2. States of Matter behave as a single quantum entity.
a. Solid ● Particle Arrangement: Atoms clump
● Definition: Matter with a fixed shape together, acting as if they are one
and volume. particle.
● Particle Arrangement: Tightly packed ● Movement: Extremely low energy,
in a regular pattern. particles barely move.
● Movement: Particles vibrate but do ● Examples: Achieved in labs with
not move from their fixed positions. certain gases at extremely low
● Examples: Ice, metals, and wood. temperatures.
b. Liquid f. Fermionic Condensate
● Definition: Matter with a fixed volume ● Definition: A superfluid phase
but no fixed shape; it takes the formed by fermions at temperatures
shape of its container. close to absolute zero.
● Particle Arrangement: Particles are ● Particle Arrangement: Similar to
close together but not in a fixed BEC, but made of fermions instead
position. of bosons.
● Movement: Particles can slide past ● Movement: Particles pair up to move
each other, allowing liquids to flow. in a fluid manner, with extremely low
● Examples: Water, oil, and alcohol. friction.
c. Gas ● Examples: Observed in certain
● Definition: Matter with no fixed ultracold gases, like potassium-40.
shape or volume; it expands to fill its
container. 3. Changes in Matter
Matter can undergo physical and chemical ● Freezing: Liquid → Solid
changes: ● Vaporization: Liquid → Gas
● Physical Changes: Alter the ● Condensation: Gas → Liquid
appearance but not the chemical ● Sublimation: Solid → Gas
composition (e.g., melting, freezing, ● Deposition: Gas → Solid
boiling).
● Chemical Changes: Alter the
chemical composition, resulting in
new substances (e.g., burning,
rusting). Ways of separating mixtures:
4. Properties of Matter
● Physical Properties: Can be
observed or measured without 1. Filtration
changing the substance's chemical ● Purpose: Separates solid particles
identity (e.g., color, boiling point, from a liquid or gas.
density). ● How It Works: A mixture is poured
● Chemical Properties: Describe how through a filter paper or mesh, which
a substance interacts with other allows the liquid or gas to pass
substances (e.g., reactivity, through while trapping solid
flammability). particles.
5. Classification of Matter ● Example: Separating sand from
● Pure Substances: Consist of only water.
one type of element or compound. 2. Distillation
○ Elements: Made of a single ● Purpose: Separates components of
type of atom (e.g., gold, a liquid mixture based on their
oxygen). boiling points.
○ Compounds: Made of two or ● How It Works: The mixture is heated
more elements chemically to evaporate the component with the
combined (e.g., water, lower boiling point, which is then
carbon dioxide). condensed back into liquid form.
● Mixtures: Combinations of two or ● Example: Purifying water or
more substances where each retains separating alcohol from a solution.
its properties. 3. Evaporation
○ Homogeneous Mixtures: ● Purpose: Removes a liquid from a
Uniform composition solution, leaving the solid residue
throughout (e.g., air, behind.
saltwater). ● How It Works: The liquid is heated
○ Heterogeneous Mixtures: until it evaporates, leaving the solid
Non-uniform composition component.
with visible different parts ● Example: Obtaining salt from
(e.g., salad, sand and iron seawater.
filings). 4. Centrifugation
6. Phase Changes ● Purpose: Separates components of
● Melting: Solid → Liquid a mixture based on density.
 ● How It Works: The mixture is spun 9. Sublimation
rapidly in a centrifuge, causing ● Purpose: Separates substances that
denser components to move to the change directly from solid to gas.
bottom. ● How It Works: The mixture is
● Example: Separating blood into heated, causing the sublimable
plasma and cells. substance to evaporate, which is
5. Chromatography then collected and condensed.
● Purpose: Separates components of ● Example: Separating iodine crystals
a mixture based on their movement from a mixture with non-sublimable
through a medium. substances.
● How It Works: The mixture is passed
through a stationary phase (like
paper or a column) and a mobile Measurements:
phase (solvent), which moves the
components at different rates.
● Example: Separating pigments in
Measurement is the process of determining
ink.
the size, quantity, or degree of something
6. Sieving
using specific units or tools. Accurate
● Purpose: Separates particles based
measurement is fundamental in science,
on size.
engineering, and everyday life to ensure
● How It Works: A mixture is passed
consistency, precision, and reliability. Here’s
through a sieve or mesh with holes
an overview:
of a specific size, allowing smaller
particles to pass through while larger
1. Components of Measurement
particles are retained.
● Example: Separating gravel from a. Quantity: The property or
sand. characteristic being measured (e.g.,
7. Magnetic Separation length, mass, time).
● Purpose: Removes magnetic b. Unit: The standard used to express
materials from a mixture. the quantity (e.g., meters for length,
● How It Works: A magnet is used to kilograms for mass).
attract magnetic particles, separating c. Instrument: The tool used to
them from non-magnetic perform the measurement (e.g.,
components. ruler, scale).
● Example: Separating iron filings from
sand. 2. Types of Measurements
8. Decantation
● Purpose: Separates a liquid from a 1. Length: The distance between two
solid or another liquid. points.
● How It Works: The mixture is ○ Units: Meters (m),
allowed to settle, and the liquid is centimeters (cm), inches (in),
carefully poured off, leaving the solid feet (ft).
or denser liquid behind. ○ Instruments: Ruler, tape
● Example: Separating oil from water. measure, caliper.
2. Mass: The amount of matter in an https://d32ogoqmya1dw8.cloudfront.net/files
object. /mathyouneed/conversion_tables.v2.pdf
○ Units: Kilograms (kg), grams
(g), milligrams (mg).
○ Instruments: Balance, scale. Accuracy and Precision:
3. Time: The duration of an event.
○ Units: Seconds (s), minutes
(min), hours (h). 1. Accuracy
○ Instruments: Stopwatch, ● Definition: Accuracy refers to how
clock, timer. close a measured value is to the true
4. Temperature: The measure of or accepted value.
thermal energy. ● Key Point: High accuracy means the
○ Units: Degrees Celsius (°C), measurement is correct.
Kelvin (K), Fahrenheit (°F). 2. Precision
○ Instruments: Thermometer, ● Definition: Precision refers to how
temperature probe. close the measurements are to each
5. Volume: The amount of space other, regardless of how close they
occupied by an object or substance. are to the true value.
○ Units: Liters (L), milliliters ● Key Point: High precision means
(mL), cubic meters (m³). measurements are reliable and
○ Instruments: Graduated reproducible, even if they aren’t
cylinder, pipette, volumetric accurate.
flask. Accuracy vs. Precision: The Key
Differences
● Accuracy deals with closeness to the
correct value.
● Precision deals with consistency in
repeated measurements.
You can have:
● High accuracy, low precision:
Measurements are close to the true
value but not consistent with each
other.
● High precision, low accuracy:
Measurements are consistent but far
from the true value.
● High accuracy, high precision:
Measurements are both consistent
and close to the true value (ideal).
● Low accuracy, low precision:
Measurements are neither
consistent nor close to the true
value.
Visual Example:
Think of a target:
 ● High accuracy: Shots are near the 3. Determine the exponent: Count the
bullseye (true value). number of places the decimal point
● High precision: Shots are clustered has moved. This number becomes
together, whether near or far from the exponent of 10. If the original
the bullseye. number is greater than 1, the
● Both: Shots are clustered tightly exponent is positive; if it’s less than
around the bullseye. 1, the exponent is negative.
In experiments, scientists aim for both high 4. Examples
accuracy and high precision to ensure ● Large Number:
reliable and correct results. ○ Convert 7,800,000 to
scientific notation:
Scientific notation: ■ Move the decimal
point 6 places to the
left: 7.8
1. Format ■ The exponent is 6 so
Scientific notation is written in the form: 7.8×10^6
a×10^b where: ● Small Number:
● a is a number greater than or equal ○ Convert 0.00056 to scientific
to 1 but less than 10 (the notation:
coefficient). ■ Move the decimal
● b is an integer (the exponent). point 4 places to the
2. How It Works right: 5.6
● Positive Exponent: If the exponent is ■ The exponent is -4 so
positive, it indicates that the decimal 5.6×10^-4
point in the number needs to be
moved to the right. This is used for 5. Performing Operations
large numbers. ● Multiplication: Multiply the
○ Example: 4,500,000 in coefficients and add the exponents.
scientific notation is 4.5x10^6 ○ Example:(3x10^4)x(2x10^3)
● Negative Exponent: If the exponent Multiply the coefficients:
is negative, it indicates that the 3x2=6
decimal point in the number needs Add the exponents:
to be moved to the left. This is used 10^4x10^3= 10^4+3=10^7
for small numbers. Combine the results:
○ Example:0.00034 in scientific (3x10^4)x(2x10^3)= 6x10^7.
notation is 3.4×10^-4. ● Division: Divide the coefficients and
3. Converting to Scientific Notation subtract the exponents.
1. Identify the significant figures: Find ○ Example: (8×10^5)÷(4×10^2)
the digits that make up the Divide the coefficients: 8 ÷
significant part of the number. 4= 2
2. Place the decimal point: Move the Subtract the exponents:
decimal point in the number so that 10^5÷10^2= 10^5-2=10^3
only one non-zero digit is to the left Combine results:
of the decimal point. 10^5÷10^2= 2x10^3
 ● Addition/Subtraction: Convert to the d. Trailing Zeros in a Decimal Number:
same exponent before adding or Zeros after a decimal point and after
subtracting the coefficients. non-zero digits are significant.
○ Example: (3×10^2)+(2×10^3) ● Example: 2.300 has four significant
Same Exponent: figures.
Both numbers need to have e. Trailing Zeros in a Whole Number
the same exponent for Without a Decimal Point: Trailing
addition or subtraction. zeros in whole numbers without a
Convert 3x10^2 to match the decimal point are not necessarily
exponent of 10^3 significant.
Move the decimal point one ● Example: 1500 could have two,
place to the right: three, or four significant figures
3x10^2=0.3x10^3 depending on whether the trailing
Add the coefficients: zeros are considered significant.
0.3x10^3 + 2x10^3= 0.3+2= 3. Operations with Significant Figures
2.3 ● Addition/Subtraction:
Combine with the ○ The result should have the
exponent: same number of decimal
(3x10^2)+(2x10^3)= places as the number with
2.3x10^3 the fewest decimal places.
○ Example: 12.11+3.5=15.61
Significant figures: The result should be rounded
to one decimal place: 15.61
● Multiplication/Division:
1. Definition ○ The result should have the
Significant Figures: The digits in a number same number of significant
that are reliable and provide information figures as the number with
about the precision of the measurement. the fewest significant figures.
Rules for Determining Significant Figures ○ Example: 4.56×1.4=6.384
a. Non-Zero Digits: All non-zero digits The result should be rounded
are significant. to two significant figures: 6.4
○ Example: 123 has three
significant figures.
b. Zeros Between Non-Zero Digits: Atomic Theory:
Zeros between non-zero digits are
significant.
○ Example: 105 has three 1. 5th Century BC Atomism
significant figures. ● Philosophers: Leucippus and
c. Leading Zeros: Zeros before Democritus
non-zero digits are not significant. ● Concept: Introduced the idea that all
○ Example: 0.007 has one matter is composed of indivisible
significant figure. particles called "atoms" (from the
Greek word "atomos," meaning
"indivisible"). They proposed that
 atoms are the smallest particles of element are in the ratio of small
matter and that they combine to form whole numbers.
different substances. ○ Example: Carbon and
oxygen can form carbon
2. 1803 Solid Sphere Model monoxide (CO) and carbon
● Scientist: John Dalton dioxide (CO₂). The ratio of
● Model Description: Dalton proposed the masses of oxygen that
that atoms are solid, indivisible combine with a fixed mass of
spheres. This model was part of his carbon in CO and CO₂ is 1:2.
atomic theory and was used to
explain the behavior of elements and 5. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
compounds based on their atomic ● 1897 Cathode Ray Tube:
composition. ○ Scientist: J.J. Thomson
○ Discovery: Electrons.
3. Dalton's Atomic Theory Thomson’s experiment with
● Principles: cathode rays led to the
1. All Matter is Composed of discovery of electrons, which
Atoms: Atoms are indivisible are negatively charged
particles of matter. particles within the atom.
2. Atoms of the Same Element
are Identical: Atoms of the ● Plum Pudding Model:
same element have the ○ Scientist: J.J. Thomson
same mass and properties. ○ Model Description: Described
3. Atoms of Different Elements the atom as a positively
are Different: Atoms of charged sphere with
different elements have embedded electrons (like
different masses and plums in a pudding). This
properties. model proposed that atoms
4. Atoms Combine in Simple are a uniform, positively
Ratios: Atoms combine in charged sphere with
whole-number ratios to form electrons scattered
compounds. throughout.
5. Atoms are Rearranged in
Chemical Reactions: Atoms ● Millikan's Experiment (Oil Drop
are not created or destroyed Experiment):
but rearranged in chemical ○ Scientist: Robert A. Millikan
reactions. ○ Discovery: Determined the
charge of an electron.
4. Law of Multiple Proportions Millikan’s experiment
● Concept: If two elements form more measured the charge of
than one compound, the different individual oil droplets, leading
masses of one element that combine to the calculation of the
with a fixed mass of the other charge and mass of the
electron.
 ● 1911 Nuclear Model: ○ Definition: The total number
○ Scientist: Ernest Rutherford of protons and neutrons in
○ Model Description: Based on the nucleus of an atom.
the gold foil experiment, ○ Symbol: A
Rutherford proposed that an ○ Calculation: Mass
atom consists of a dense, Number=Number of
positively charged nucleus Protons+Number of Neutrons
surrounded by orbiting
electrons. This model Ions:
replaced the plum pudding
model and introduced the
concept of a central nucleus. 1. Monoatomic Ions
Monoatomic Ions are ions formed from a
● Discovery of Protons: single atom. They can be either positively
○ Scientist: Ernest Rutherford charged (cations) or negatively charged
○ Discovery: Protons are (anions).
positively charged particles
located in the nucleus of the Cations: Positively charged ions formed
atom. Rutherford’s when an atom loses one or more electrons.
experiments led to the The charge is indicated by a positive sign
identification of the proton. and the number of lost electrons.

6. Atom and Its Structure Examples:

● Structure: Sodium Ion (Na⁺): Formed from sodium (Na)
○ Nucleus: Contains protons when it loses one electron.
(positively charged) and Calcium Ion (Ca²⁺): Formed from calcium
neutrons (neutral). (Ca) when it loses two electrons.
○ Electron Cloud: Electrons Anions: Negatively charged ions formed
(negatively charged) orbit the when an atom gains one or more electrons.
nucleus in various energy The charge is indicated by a negative sign
levels or shells. and the number of gained electrons.

Examples:
7. Atomic Number and Mass Number Chloride Ion (Cl⁻): Formed from chlorine (Cl)
● Atomic Number: when it gains one electron.
○ Definition: The number of Oxide Ion (O²⁻): Formed from oxygen (O)
protons in the nucleus of an when it gains two electrons.
atom. It determines the 2. Polyatomic Ions
element’s identity and its Polyatomic Ions are ions composed of two
position on the periodic table. or more atoms covalently bonded together,
○ Symbol: Z which collectively carry a net charge. They
● Mass Number: can be either positively or negatively
charged.
Anions: Commonly occur as negatively 3. Multiply the Mass of Each Isotope by
charged polyatomic ions. Its Decimal Abundance:
○ This gives the contribution of
Examples: each isotope to the average
Sulfate Ion (SO₄²⁻): Composed of one sulfur atomic mass.
atom and four oxygen atoms, with a net 4. Sum the Contributions:
charge of -2. ○ Add up all the contributions
Nitrate Ion (NO₃⁻): Composed of one to get the weighted average
nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms, with atomic mass.
a net charge of -1. Example Calculation
Carbonate Ion (CO₃²⁻): Composed of one Let’s find the average atomic mass of an
carbon atom and three oxygen atoms, with element with the following isotopes:
a net charge of -2. ● Isotope 1: Mass = 10.012 amu,
Cations: Positively charged polyatomic ions. Abundance = 19.9%
● Isotope 2: Mass = 11.009 amu,
Examples: Abundance = 80.1%
Ammonium Ion (NH₄⁺): Composed of one 1. Convert Percent Abundance to
nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms, Decimal:
with a net charge of +1. ○ Isotope 1: 19.9% → 0.199
Hydronium Ion (H₃O⁺): Composed of one ○ Isotope 2: 80.1% → 0.801
oxygen atom and three hydrogen atoms, 2. Multiply Mass by Decimal
with a net charge of +1. Abundance:
○ Isotope 1: 10.012
amu×0.199=1.992 amu
Average atomic mass: ○ Isotope 2: 11.009
amu×0.801=8.819 amu
3. Sum the Contributions:
Steps to Find the Average Atomic Mass Average Atomic Mass=1.992
1. Obtain Isotopic Masses and Percent amu+8.819 amu=10.811
Abundances:
○ Isotopic Masses: The mass Example problems:
of each isotope of the
element (usually given in
atomic mass units, amu).
1. Lithium has two known isotopes -
○ Percent Abundances: The
Lithium-6 and Lithium-7. Lithium-6 has an
relative abundance of each
isotopic mass of 6.015 amu with a percent
isotope, expressed as a
abundance of 7.59%; Lithium-7 has a mass
percentage.
of 7.016 amu at 92.14% abundance.
2. Convert Percent Abundances to
Calculate the average atomic mass of
Decimal Form:
lithium.
○ Divide the percent
abundance by 100 to convert
it to a decimal.
 IS IS % AI amu
MASS MASS
A.AW=40.078
L-6 6.015 7.59% 0.457
amu amu
40x-44-44x=40.078
L-7 7.016 92.14% 6.465
amu amu 40x-44x=40.078-44

-4x/-4=-3.922/-4
A.AW=6.9222 amu
x=0.9805
2. Average atomic masses listed by IUPAC
are based on a study of experimental
1-x=0.0195
results. Bromine has two isotopes, 79Br and
81Br, whose masses (78.9183 and 80.9163 40Ca=98.05% & 44Ca=1.95%
amu) and abundances (50.69% and
49.31%) were determined in earlier
experiments. Calculate the average atomic
mass of Br based on these experiments. 4. In a sample of 400 lithium atoms, it is
How does this compare to the value given found that 30 atoms are lithium-6 (6.015
on the periodic table? g/mol) and 370 atoms are lithium-7 (7.016
g/mol). Calculate the average atomic mass
IS IS % AI of lithium.
MASS MASS
IS IS % AI
79Br 78.9183 50.69% 40.0037 MASS MASS
amu amu
6Li 6.015 7.5% 0.4511
81Br 80.963 49.31% 39.898 amu amu
amu amu
7Li 7.016 92.5% 6.4898
A.AW=79.9078 amu amu amu

3. One atom has 20 protons and a mass of A.AW=6.9409

44. Another atom has 20 protons and a
mass number of 40. What is the identity of 5. Nitrogen is made up of two isotopes,
these atoms? How do you account for the N-14 and N-15. Given the Nitrogen's atomic
difference in mass numbers? weight of 14.007, What is the percentage
abundance of each isotope?
IS IS % AI
MASS MASS IS IS % AI
MASS MASS
44Ca 44 amu 1.95% 30.22
amu N-14 14.0031 99.61% 13.9485
amu amu
40Ca 40 amu 98.05% 0.078
 N-15 15.001 0.39% 0.0585
amu amu

A.AW=14.007 amu

14.0031x-15.0001-15.001x=14.007

14.00031-15.001x=14.0007-15.0001

-0.9979x=-0,994

-0.9979x/-0.9979=-0,994/-0.9979

x=0.9961

1-x=0.039

N-14=99.61% & N-15= 0.39%