ITECH WORLD AKTU

Subject Name: Database Management System

(DBMS)
Subject Code: BCS501

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Unit 1: Syllabus

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• Introduction: Overview, Database System vs File System, Database System Con-
cept and Architecture.

• Data Model Schema and Instances, Data Independence, and Database Language
and Interfaces.
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• Data Definitions Language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), Overall
Database Structure.

• Data Modeling Using the Entity Relationship Model: ER Model Concepts, Notation
for ER Diagram.

• Mapping Constraints, Keys, Concepts of Super Key, Candidate Key, Primary Key.

• Generalization, Aggregation, Reduction of an ER Diagram to Tables, Extended ER

Model.
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• Relationship of Higher Degree.

Introduction
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Overview of Database Systems

What is Data?
Data refers to raw facts and figures without context. It can be in the form of numbers,
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text, images, or other formats that are collected for reference or analysis. Data itself does
not carry any meaning until it is processed or interpreted.
Example: The number ’2024’ is data, but it does not convey any meaning until we
associate it with a year or a quantity.

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 What is a Database?
A Database is an organized collection of data that can be easily accessed, managed, and
updated. Databases store data in a structured format, using tables, records, and fields,
which allows for efficient querying and manipulation of the data.
Example: A customer database in a retail store contains information like customer
names, addresses, purchase history, and contact details.

What is a DBMS (Database Management System)?

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A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that interacts with end-users,
applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A DBMS provides an
interface for the users to create, update, and manage databases efficiently.
Example: Examples of DBMS include Oracle, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Mon-
goDB, and PostgreSQL.

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What is the Need for a DBMS?
A DBMS is needed for the following reasons:

• Data Redundancy Control: Minimizes data duplication and ensures data con-
sistency across multiple locations.
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• Data Integrity: Maintains the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle.

• Data Security: Protects sensitive data by controlling access through authentica-

tion and authorization mechanisms.

• Concurrent Access: Manages multiple users accessing data simultaneously with-

out conflicts.

• Backup and Recovery: Provides tools to recover data in case of system failures
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or data corruption.

• Data Independence: Allows changes in data structure without affecting the ap-
plication programs.
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Example of DBMS:

• Oracle: A popular commercial DBMS used for enterprise-level applications.

• MongoDB: A NoSQL database that uses a document-oriented data model, suitable

for handling unstructured data.
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• MySQL: An open-source relational DBMS commonly used in web applications.

• Microsoft SQL Server: A relational DBMS developed by Microsoft, widely used

in corporate environments.

• PostgreSQL: An open-source object-relational DBMS known for its robustness

and compliance with SQL standards.

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 Advantages of DBMS
A Database Management System (DBMS) offers several advantages:

• Data Integrity and Consistency: Ensures that data remains accurate, consis-
tent, and reliable across the database.

• Data Security: Provides robust security measures to protect data from unautho-
rized access and breaches.

• Data Independence: Separates data structure from application programs, al-

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lowing for flexibility in modifying the database without affecting the application
layer.

• Efficient Data Access: Uses indexing, query optimization, and caching tech-
niques to enhance data retrieval and manipulation speed.

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• Concurrent Access and Crash Recovery: Allows multiple users to access the
data simultaneously and ensures data recovery in case of system failures.

• Reduced Data Redundancy: Minimizes duplicate data storage by centralizing

data in one place, reducing redundancy.
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• Improved Data Sharing: Facilitates data sharing among multiple users or ap-
plications while maintaining data consistency and integrity.

Disadvantages of DBMS
While a DBMS provides numerous benefits, it also has some disadvantages:

• High Cost of Implementation: Setting up a DBMS involves significant costs

related to hardware, software, and trained personnel.
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• Complexity: Requires skilled professionals to manage, maintain, and troubleshoot

the system effectively.

• Performance Overhead: Due to its general-purpose nature, a DBMS may intro-

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duce overhead in terms of processing time and storage requirements.

• Vulnerability to Failure: Centralized databases are vulnerable to hardware and

software failures, which can affect the entire system.

• Maintenance and Upgradation Costs: Continuous maintenance, updates, and

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backups can be costly and require dedicated resources.

What is a Database User?

A Database User is any person or application that interacts with a database to perform
various operations such as querying, updating, or managing the data. Different types of
users interact with the database system based on their roles and access rights.

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 Types of Database Users
• Database Administrators (DBAs): Responsible for managing and maintaining
the overall database environment, including user management, backup, recovery,
and security.
Example: A DBA in a large corporation might configure database servers, monitor
performance, and handle disaster recovery planning.
• Application Programmers: Developers who write application programs that
interact with the database. They use programming languages like Java, Python, or

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SQL to access and manipulate data.
Example: An application programmer might create an e-commerce application
that retrieves product data from a database and displays it on a website.
• End Users: The individuals who interact with the database through applications
to perform tasks like data entry, retrieval, or reporting.

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Example: A bank customer using an online portal to check their account balance
is an end user of the database.
• System Analysts: Professionals who design and develop the overall system archi-
tecture, including database design, to meet business requirements.
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Example: A system analyst might work with both end-users and DBAs to create
a database schema that supports new business processes.
• Database Designers: Individuals responsible for designing the structure of the
database, including defining schemas, relationships, and constraints.
Example: A database designer might define the relationships between tables in a
hospital management system.
• Naive Users: Users who interact with the database through pre-defined applica-
tions without writing any queries or using advanced features.
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Example: A cashier at a retail store using a point-of-sale system to process trans-

actions is a naive user of the database.
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Who is a Data Administrator?

A Data Administrator (DA) is a professional responsible for managing, defining, and
maintaining data standards and policies across an organization. The DA focuses on the
data itself, rather than the physical aspects of database management. Their primary role
is to ensure that the organization’s data assets are managed effectively and align with
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business goals.

Functions of a Data Administrator

The main functions of a Data Administrator include:
• Data Modeling: Designing and creating data models that represent the data
structures required by the business, such as entities, relationships, and data flows.
Example: Defining the entities (e.g., customers, orders) and their relationships in
a retail database.

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 • Data Policy Development: Establishing policies, standards, and procedures
for data management, ensuring data quality, consistency, and security across the
organization.
Example: Developing guidelines for data entry to reduce errors and maintain
consistency.
• Data Standardization: Ensuring uniformity in data formats, definitions, and
representations to facilitate data integration and interoperability among different
systems.

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Example: Standardizing date formats across multiple databases (e.g., using YYYY-
MM-DD).
• Data Security and Privacy: Establishing rules and protocols to protect sensitive
data from unauthorized access, breaches, and misuse, in compliance with legal and
regulatory requirements.

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Example: Implementing data masking techniques for personal identifiable infor-
mation (PII).
• Data Quality Management: Monitoring and managing data accuracy, complete-
ness, consistency, and reliability to ensure high-quality data across the organization.
Example: Setting up data validation rules to detect and correct errors during data
entry.
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• Data Lifecycle Management: Overseeing the complete lifecycle of data, from
creation and storage to archiving and deletion, ensuring that data is properly man-
aged throughout its lifespan.
Example: Developing retention policies that specify how long certain types of data
should be stored.
• Collaboration with IT and Business Teams: Working closely with database
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administrators (DBAs), system analysts, and business users to align data manage-
ment strategies with organizational objectives.
Example: Coordinating with the IT team to ensure data backup and disaster
recovery processes are in place.
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• Documentation: Maintaining comprehensive documentation of data models, stan-

dards, policies, and procedures to support data governance and compliance initia-
tives.
Example: Creating a data dictionary that details data definitions, formats, and
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relationships.

Data Abstraction
Data Abstraction refers to the process of hiding the complexities of the database from
the user and providing a simplified view of the data. It helps in managing the large
amounts of data stored in the database by abstracting its details, enabling users to
interact with the data without needing to understand its internal structure or storage
details.
Data abstraction is achieved through three different levels:

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 • Physical Level: This is the lowest level of data abstraction, which describes how
the data is physically stored in the database. It deals with the storage of data
on storage media, such as hard drives, and the implementation details like file
organization, indexing, and data compression techniques.
Example: At this level, the data administrator might work with storage blocks,
and sectors, or manage how data is indexed in the database for quick retrieval.

• Logical Level: This level provides a higher level of abstraction and focuses on
what data is stored in the database and what the relationships are among those

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data. It describes the structure of the entire database for a group of users. This
level is independent of how the data is stored physically and provides a logical view
of the data.
Example: At this level, the data might be represented using tables, columns, rows,
and relationships like one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many, without concern
for physical storage details.

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• View Level: This is the highest level of data abstraction and describes only a part
of the entire database. The view level simplifies the interaction for the end-users
by providing only the relevant data needed for their specific tasks or applications.
It is also used to enhance security by restricting access to certain data.
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Example: A bank employee might only see the customer details relevant to their
role, like name and account balance, without access to sensitive data like Social
Security numbers.

Illustration of Data Abstraction Levels

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 Aspect Physical Level Logical Level View Level
Definition Describes how data Describes what data is Shows only a subset
is physically stored in stored and the rela- of the database that is
storage devices. tionships among those relevant to the user or
data. application.
Focus Storage structure and Overall data struc- User-specific views,
access methods. ture, schema, and re- simplifying data inter-
lationships. action.

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Visibility Low-level details visi- Mid-level abstraction High-level abstraction
ble to DBAs only. visible to developers visible to end-users.
and designers.
Data Indepen- Provides low data in- Provides logical Offers external
dence dependence; changes data independence; data independence;

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affect physical stor- changes do not affect changes do not affect
age. storage. internal schema.
Security Minimal impact on se- Moderate impact; fo- High impact; restricts
curity; deals with stor- cuses on logical data user access to sensitive
age details. security. data.
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Example File storage formats, ER diagrams, tables, Customer view, em-
indexing, data com- relationships. ployee view, product
pression. catalog view.
Users Database Administra- Database Designers End-users and Appli-
tors (DBAs). and Developers. cation Programmers.

Difference Between DBMS and File System

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Example: Suppose a bank uses a file system to manage its customer information. The
system may face challenges like redundancy, inconsistency, and difficulty in managing
concurrent access by multiple users. In contrast, a DBMS will handle these issues effi-
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ciently by providing features like indexing, data normalization, and transactions.

Database System Concept and Architecture

DBMS Architecture and Its Types
A Database Management System (DBMS) architecture refers to the design and structure
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that defines how different components of a DBMS interact with each other. There are
primarily three types of DBMS architectures: 1-tier, 2-tier, and 3-tier architecture.

• 1-Tier Architecture:
In 1-tier architecture, the database is directly accessible to the user without any
intermediary application. The user directly interacts with the DBMS, which is
usually installed on their local machine. This architecture is mainly used for de-
velopment purposes, where the developer directly communicates with the database
for testing and design.

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 Aspect DBMS File System
Definition A software system that fa- A method for storing, orga-
cilitates the creation, man- nizing, and retrieving files
agement, and manipulation on a storage device.
of databases.
Data Redun- Minimizes redundancy by High redundancy due to in-
dancy using normalization tech- dependent file storage, lead-
niques. ing to data duplication.

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Data Consis- Ensures data consistency Lacks mechanisms for main-
tency through integrity con- taining data consistency
straints and transactions. across multiple files.
Data Security Provides robust security Limited security features;
features, including access relies on operating system

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control, encryption, and security measures.
user authentication.
Backup and Offers automated and sys- Backup and recovery pro-
Recovery tematic backup and recov- cesses are manual and less
ery processes. reliable.
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Data Access Supports complex querying Limited to basic file opera-
and data manipulation us- tions (create, read, update,
ing SQL or similar lan- delete).
guages.
Concurrency Manages multiple users ac- Lacks concurrency control;
Control cessing the data simultane- file locking is often required
ously through concurrency to prevent conflicts.
control mechanisms.
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Data Integrity Maintains data integrity No built-in support for en-

through constraints, trig- forcing data integrity rules.
gers, and rules.
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Performance Optimized for large-scale May have performance is-

data management and com- sues with large volumes of
plex operations. data or complex operations.

Table 1: Differences Between DBMS and File System

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Example: SQL*Plus, Oracle Forms, etc., where the developer interacts directly
with the database system.

• 2-Tier Architecture:
In 2-tier architecture, the DBMS system is split into two parts: the client side and
the server side. The client directly communicates with the database server. This
type of architecture is used in small to medium-sized applications where the client
(user interface) directly connects to the server (database) through an application

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 Figure 1: 1-Tier Architecture of DBMS

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interface like ODBC or JDBC.

Example: Applications using client-server models like Microsoft Access and Fox-
Pro.

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• 3-Tier Architecture:
The 3-tier architecture is the most commonly used architecture for DBMS systems.
It divides the application into three layers: the presentation layer (client), the ap-
plication layer (business logic), and the database layer (server). The client interacts
with the application server, which further communicates with the database server.
This architecture offers better security, scalability, and flexibility.
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Example: Web applications where the client (browser) sends requests to the web
server (application server), which then interacts with the database server.
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Data Models in Databases

A data model defines how data is structured, stored, and manipulated in a database.
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It provides a framework for representing relationships between different data ele-

ments.

Types of Data Models

– Hierarchical Data Model

∗ Explanation: Organizes data in a tree-like structure where each record
has a single parent and multiple children. Suitable for applications with
hierarchical data relationships.

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 ∗

– Network Data Model

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∗ Explanation: Extends the hierarchical model by allowing multiple rela-
tionships between records (many-to-many). Uses a graph structure where
nodes represent records and edges represent relationships.

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– Relational Data Model
∗ Explanation: Organizes data in tables (relations) consisting of rows and
columns. Each table has a unique key, and relationships between tables
are defined using foreign keys.
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∗
– Entity-Relationship (ER) Model
∗ Explanation: Represents data using entities (objects) and relationships
between them. Widely used for conceptual modeling of databases.
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∗ newline

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–
• Object-Oriented Data Model

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– Explanation: Combines object-oriented programming principles with database
management. Data is represented as objects, similar to classes in object-
oriented languages. W
–

Data Schema
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– Definition: The logical structure of the database that defines the organiza-
tion of data, such as tables, fields, and relationships.

Instances
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– Definition: The actual content stored in the database at a given time. For
example, in a relational model, instances are the rows stored in a table.

Data Independence and Database Language

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- Data Independence: The capacity to change the schema at one level of a

database system without having to change the schema at the next higher level. -
• Logical Data Independence: Modification in conceptual schema without alter-
ing external schema. -
• Physical Data Independence: Modification in internal schema without altering
conceptual schema.
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 Database Languages and Interfaces

Database languages are used to define, manipulate, control, and query the data
within a database. They include several types:

– DDL (Data Definition Language)

∗ Used to define the structure of the database, such as creating, altering,

or deleting tables and other objects.

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∗ Commands include CREATE, ALTER, DROP, and TRUNCATE.
∗ Examples: Defining the schema of a table or modifying an existing table
structure.

– DML (Data Manipulation Language)

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∗ Used for accessing and manipulating data stored in the database.
∗ Commands include INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and MERGE.
∗ Examples: Inserting a new record, updating an existing record, or delet-
ing records from a table.

– DCL (Data Control Language)

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∗ Used to control access to data within a database.
∗ Commands include GRANT and REVOKE.
∗ Examples: Granting or revoking permissions to a user or role.

– DQL (Data Query Language)

∗ Used to query or retrieve data from the database.

∗ The primary command is SELECT.
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∗ Examples: Fetching data from one or more tables, filtering data using
conditions, or joining tables.
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– VDL (View Definition Language)

∗ Used to define and manage views in the database.

∗ Commands include CREATE VIEW and DROP VIEW.
∗ Examples: Creating a virtual table that is a result set of a SELECT query.
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Example: SQL (Structured Query Language) is a widely used language that in-
cludes commands for DDL, DML, DCL, DQL, and VDL.

• DBMS Interface: A DBMS (Database Management System) interface provides

a means for users to interact with the database. Different types of interfaces are
designed to cater to various user requirements, from casual users to advanced ad-
ministrators.

– Menu-Based Interface

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 ∗ Provides a list of options or commands in a menu format.
∗ Users can navigate through different menus to execute specific database
operations.
∗ Commonly used in applications where users prefer easy and guided nav-
igation.

– Forms-Based Interface

∗ Allows users to enter data and interact with the database using forms.

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∗ Suitable for data entry tasks where structured input is required.
∗ Often used in applications where non-technical users interact with the
database.

– Graphical User Interface (GUI)

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∗ Provides a visual interface with icons, buttons, and other graphical ele-
ments.
∗ Allows users to interact with the database through point-and-click ac-
tions.
∗ Commonly used in modern applications to enhance usability and user
experience.
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– Natural Language Interface

∗ Enables users to interact with the database using natural language queries.
∗ Suitable for users who are not familiar with query languages like SQL.
∗ Relies on natural language processing (NLP) to interpret user input.

– Speech Input and Output Interface

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∗ Allows interaction with the database through voice commands.

∗ Can provide audio feedback or responses from the database.
∗ Useful in applications where hands-free operation is necessary.
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– Interfaces for Database Administrators (DBAs)

∗ Provides advanced tools and options for managing the database system.
∗ Includes functionalities like performance monitoring, backup, and secu-
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rity management.
∗ Tailored for experienced users who need to maintain and optimize the
database.

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 Overall Database Structure

A DBMS (Database Management System) supports various operations for creating,

maintaining, and manipulating databases. It consists of multiple components that
work together to provide efficient data management.

– Storage Manager:

∗ Responsible for managing the storage of data on disk.

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∗ Handles tasks like data allocation, organization, retrieval, and buffering.
∗ Components include the buffer manager, file manager, and disk space
manager.

– Query Processor:

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∗ Translates high-level SQL queries into low-level instructions that the
database engine can execute.
∗ Performs query parsing, optimization, and execution.
∗ Includes components like the query parser, query optimizer, and query
executor.

– Transaction Manager:
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∗ Ensures that all database transactions are processed reliably and adhere
to ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
∗ Manages transaction logs, concurrency control, and recovery processes.
∗ Includes components like the lock manager and log manager.

– Buffer Manager:
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∗ Manages the buffer pool in main memory to reduce disk I/O operations.
∗ Decides which data pages to cache in memory and which to flush back
to disk.
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∗ Ensures efficient data retrieval by optimizing access patterns.

– Index Manager:

∗ Handles the creation, maintenance, and use of indexes to speed up data

retrieval.
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∗ Manages index structures like B-trees, hash tables, and bitmap indexes.
∗ Improves query performance by reducing the search space for data.

– Authorization and Integrity Manager:

∗ Enforces security policies and user access control.

∗ Ensures data integrity constraints (e.g., primary key, foreign key, check
constraints) are met.
∗ Manages user roles, permissions, and auditing.

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 – Metadata Manager:

∗ Manages metadata, which includes information about the database schema,

objects, and storage.
∗ Maintains data dictionaries and system catalogs.
∗ Provides information about data structures and their relationships.

– Recovery Manager:

∗ Ensures database consistency and durability in case of failures.

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∗ Implements techniques for backup, restore, and log-based recovery.
∗ Works closely with the transaction manager to provide rollback and com-
mit functionalities.

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 – Data Modeling Using the Entity-Relationship (ER) Model:

∗ ER Model Concepts: The ER model is a high-level data model that

defines the data elements and their relationships in a database system.
It uses entities, attributes, and relationships to represent the real-world
data. An
∗ entity represents an object or thing in the real world, an
∗ attribute represents properties of an entity, and a
∗ relationship represents associations between entities.

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∗ Notation for ER Diagram: An ER diagram uses various symbols to
depict entities (usually as rectangles), attributes (as ovals), and relation-
ships (as diamonds). Lines connect these elements to show how they
interact or are associated with each other.

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Purpose of an ER Diagram:

∗ Visual Representation: ER diagrams provide a visual representation

of the database structure, making it easier for stakeholders, including
database designers, developers, and non-technical users, to understand
the relationships between different entities within the database.
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∗ Database Design: Helps in the conceptual design phase of the database,
allowing designers to map out the entities, attributes, and relationships
before implementing the database. This reduces the risk of design errors
and ensures a more organized and efficient database schema.
∗ Clarifying Requirements: Facilitates communication between database
designers, developers, and business analysts by providing a clear and de-
tailed diagram of the data requirements. This ensures that the final
database design meets the business needs and expectations.
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 – Mapping Constraints and Keys:
∗ Mapping Constraints: Define how entities are associated with one
another in a database. They specify the cardinality of relationships,
which determines the number of occurrences of one entity that can be
associated with occurrences of another entity. The types include:
· One-to-One (1:1): Each entity in the first entity set is associated
with at most one entity in the second entity set, and vice versa.

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· One-to-Many (1:N): An entity in the first entity set can be associ-
ated with multiple entities in the second entity set, but each entity
in the second entity set is associated with at most one entity in the
first entity set.

· Many-to-One (M:1): Multiple entities in the first entity set can be

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associated with a single entity in the second entity set, but each
entity in the second entity set can be associated with at most one
entity in the first entity set.

· Many-to-Many (M:N): Entities in the first entity set can be associ-

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ated with multiple entities in the second entity set, and entities in
the second entity set can be associated with multiple entities in the
first entity set.
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item Keys: Attributes or sets of attributes used to uniquely identify

entities within an entity set. There are different types of keys:
· Super Key: A set of one or more attributes that can uniquely
identify an entity. It may contain additional attributes beyond what
is necessary for uniqueness.
Example: In a student database, a combination of StudentID and

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 Email can be a super key if each combination uniquely identifies a
student.
· Candidate Key: A minimal super key, meaning it contains no
redundant attributes. Each candidate key can uniquely identify an
entity without any unnecessary attributes.
Example: In the same student database, StudentID alone can be a
candidate key if it is sufficient to uniquely identify each student.
· Primary Key: A candidate key chosen by the database designer to
uniquely identify each entity within an entity set. It must be unique

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and not null.
Example: StudentID might be chosen as the primary key in the
student database because it uniquely identifies each student and is
not null.
· Composite Key: A key that consists of two or more attributes
that together uniquely identify an entity.

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Example: In an enrollment database, a combination of StudentID
and CourseID might be used as a composite key to uniquely identify
each enrollment record.
· Alternate Key: A candidate key that was not chosen as the pri-
mary key but can still uniquely identify an entity.
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Example: In the student database, Email might be an alternate
key if StudentID is chosen as the primary key.
· Foreign Key: An attribute or set of attributes in one table that
refers to the primary key in another table. It establishes a link
between the two tables.
Example: In an enrollment database, CourseID in the Enrollment
table might be a foreign key that references the CourseID primary
key in the Course table.
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Table 2: Differences Between Super Key, Candidate Key, and Primary Key
Key Type Super Key
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Definition A set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify an entity.
Uniqueness Must uniquely identify each entity, but can include extra attributes.
Redundancy May contain redundant attributes.
Key Type Candidate Key
Definition A minimal super key, meaning it has no redundant attributes.
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Uniqueness Uniquely identifies each entity without any unnecessary attributes.

Redundancy No redundancy; minimal set of attributes needed for uniqueness.

Key Type Primary Key

Definition A candidate key selected by the database designer to uniquely identify entities.
Uniqueness Must be unique and not null.
Redundancy Does not contain redundancy; chosen from among candidate keys.

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∗ Generalization, Aggregation, and Reduction of an ER Diagram
to Tables:
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· Generalization: A process of extracting common characteristics
from multiple entities and creating a generalized entity that repre-
sents these shared characteristics. This is often used in hierarchical
data modeling.
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· Aggregation: A concept used to express a relationship between a

relationship set and an entity set. It is used when we need to express
a relationship between an entity and the relationship itself.

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Specialization
Definition

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Specialization is a process where a general entity is divided into more
specific sub-entities or subclasses. Each subclass inherits attributes
and relationships from the general entity but may also have addi-
tional attributes or relationships. article geometry a4paper, mar-
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Differences Between Generalization, Specialization, and Ag-

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gregation

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 Aspect Generalization Specialization Aggregation
Definition The process of extract-The process of defining aA process of creating a
ing common characteristicsnew subclass from an exist-higher-level abstraction by
from multiple entities anding class to capture morecombining several entities
combining them into a gen-specific characteristics. into a single entity.
eralized entity.
Purpose To simplify and unify sim-To refine and categorize aTo simplify complex ER di-
ilar entities by identifyinggeneral entity into moreagrams by grouping related

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common attributes. specific sub-entities. entities into a single ab-
straction.
Direction From specific entities toFrom a generalized entityCombining multiple entities
a generalized entity (top-to more specific sub-entitiesinto a higher-level entity
down). (bottom-up). (horizontal aggregation).

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Use Case Useful when multiple en-Useful when an entity needsUseful when representing
tities share common at-to be divided into morecomplex relationships be-
tributes or relationships. detailed types to representtween entities in a simplified
specific characteristics. manner.
ER DiagramGeneralization is often rep-Specialization is repre-Aggregation is represented
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Representa- resented with a trianglesented with a hierarchy,by a diamond or an oval
tion pointing to a single general-where a general entity isencompassing multiple enti-
ized entity. at the top and specificties to show a higher-level
sub-entities below. relationship.

Table 3: Differences Between Generalization, Specialization, and Aggregation

· Reduction of an ER Diagram to Tables: The process of con-

verting an ER model into relational tables involves several steps.
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Each entity, relationship, and attribute in the ER diagram is trans-

formed into tables, columns, and keys in the relational model. This
process ensures that the database design can be implemented effec-
tively in a relational database management system (RDBMS). The
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steps involved are:

1. Convert Entities to Tables:
2. Each entity in the ER diagram is converted into a table.
3. The attributes of the entity become columns in the table.
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4. A primary key is selected to uniquely identify each record in the

table. This key is typically an attribute or a combination of
attributes that uniquely distinguishes each entity instance.
5. Convert Relationships to Tables:
6. For each relationship in the ER diagram, a corresponding table
is created if the relationship has attributes of its own or if it is
a many-to-many relationship.
7. The primary key of the relationship table includes the primary
keys of the participating entities as foreign keys.

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 8. If the relationship has attributes, these attributes become addi-
tional columns in the relationship table.
9. Handle Primary and Foreign Keys:
10. Primary keys in entity tables are used to establish relationships
with other tables.
11. Foreign keys are added to tables to represent the relationships
between entities. They are columns that reference the primary
keys of other tables.
12. Ensure that referential integrity is maintained, meaning that for-

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eign keys must correspond to valid primary keys in the referenced
tables.
13. Convert Multi-Valued Attributes:
14. Multi-valued attributes (attributes that can have multiple values
for a single entity) are handled by creating a new table.

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15. The new table includes a foreign key that references the primary
key of the entity and a column for the multi-valued attribute.
16. This table essentially captures the one-to-many relationship be-
tween the original entity and the multi-valued attribute.
17. Convert Weak Entities:
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18. Weak entities (entities that do not have a sufficient primary key
on their own) are handled by creating a table that includes the
primary key of the strong entity it depends on.
19. The table includes the partial key of the weak entity along with
the foreign key from the strong entity.
20. The combination of the strong entity’s primary key and the weak
entity’s partial key forms the primary key of the weak entity’s
table.
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21. Normalize the Tables:

22. After creating the tables, normalize them to eliminate redun-
dancy and ensure data integrity.
23. Apply normalization rules (1NF, 2NF, 3NF) to ensure that the
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tables are free from anomalies and that the relationships between
tables are accurately represented.
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· Extended ER Model (EER): Extends the original ER model
by adding more modeling constructs, such as specialization, gener-
alization, categorization, and inheritance, to better represent more
complex database designs.
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Unified Modeling Language (UML) Dia-

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grams
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Activity Diagram

· Purpose: Represents the workflow of a system or business process.

It shows the sequence of activities and the flow of control from one
activity to another.
· Components:
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· Activities: Represent tasks or operations performed in the work-

flow.
· Transitions: Arrows showing the flow from one activity to another.
· Decision Nodes: Points where the flow can branch based on con-
ditions.
· Start/End Nodes: Indicate the beginning and end of the workflow.
· Use Cases: Modeling business processes, system workflows, and
use case scenarios.

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 Use Case Diagram

· Purpose: Shows the interactions between users (actors) and the

system. It defines the functional requirements of the system from
the user’s perspective.
· Components:
· Actors: Represent users or other systems interacting with the sys-
tem.
· Use Cases: Functionalities or services provided by the system.

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· Relationships: Lines connecting actors to use cases, including as-
sociations, generalizations, and include/extend relationships.
· Use Cases: Understanding system requirements and user interac-
tions.

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Interaction Overview Diagram

· Purpose: Provides a high-level view of the interactions within a

system, combining aspects of activity and sequence diagrams.
· Components:
· Activities: Represent the actions or processes.
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· Interactions: Sub-diagrams showing detailed interactions.
· Control Flows: Show the flow of control between activities and
interactions.
· Use Cases: Analyzing overall system interactions and workflows.

Timing Diagram

· Purpose: Illustrates the behavior of objects over time, showing how

they interact at specific time points.
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· Components:
· Lifelines: Represent objects or participants in the interaction.
· Time Intervals: Show the passage of time along the diagram.
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· Events: Indicate actions or changes occurring over time.

· Use Cases: Modeling time-dependent behaviors and interactions.

Sequence Diagram
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· Purpose: Shows how objects interact in a particular sequence of

events, focusing on the order of messages exchanged.
· Components:
· Objects: Entities that participate in the interaction.
· Messages: Arrows showing the communication between objects.
· Lifelines: Vertical dashed lines representing the lifetime of objects.
· Use Cases: Detailing interactions between objects and understand-
ing the flow of messages.

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 Class Diagram

· Purpose: Describes the static structure of a system, showing classes,

attributes, methods, and the relationships between classes.
· Components:
· Classes: Represent entities with attributes and methods.
· Attributes: Data members of a class.
· Methods: Functions or operations of a class.
· Relationships: Include associations, generalizations, and depen-

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dencies between classes.
· Use Cases: Designing and understanding the structure of the sys-
tem.

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