MTH 407/607: COMPLEX ANALYSIS I

NIKITA AGARWAL

Abstract. These are lecture notes for the course taught in Semester 1, 2024-25.

1. Week 1
In this week, we will cover the first bullet: Complex numbers – powers and roots,
geometric representation, stereographic projection

1.1. The set of complex numbers. Define the set of complex numbers, denoted as C,
as the collection of all ordered tuples (a, b), where a, b ∈ R. The operations of addition
and multiplication are given by
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc).
Verify that C is a field with additive identity (0, 0) and multiplicative identity (1, 0).
The map a 7→ (a, 0) is an injective map from R into C. Thus we can consider R as a
subset of C.
Further, putting i = (0, 1), we have (a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = a + bi. Observe that
i 2 = −1 so the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has a root in C but not in R. From now on, a
complex number will be denoted as a + bi instead of an ordered tuple. Generally we use
the variable z for a complex number. Observe that
(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + bdi 2 + (ad + bc)i = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
For a complex number z = x + yi, we define
• x to be the real part of z, denoted by Re(z) and y to be the imaginary part of z,
denoted by Re(z).
• |z| to be the absolute value of z, given by p the Euclidean distance between the
2
points (0, 0) and (x, y) in R . That is, |z| = x2 + y 2 .
• z to be the conjugate of z, given by x − yi.
Observe that
|z|2 = zz.
Q. Let R(z) be a rational function of z. Prove that R(z) = R(z) if all the coefficients of
R(z) are real.

1.2. Geometry of complex numbers. Each complex number z = x + yi can be iden-

tified with the tuple (Re(z), Im(z)) = (x, y) ∈ R2 . The geometry of R2 is thus used to
visualize complex numbers. We have the following (prove each one of them):
• The sum z + w of two complex numbers z, w is the fourth vertex of the parallel-
ogram with other three vertices 0, z and w.

Date: September 11, 2024.

1
2 NIKITA AGARWAL

• Parallelogram Law:
|z + w|2 + |z − w|2 = 2(|z|2 + |w|2 ).
That is, the sum of squares of the lengths of the sides of a parallelogram is equal
to the sum of the squares of the lengths of its diagonals.
• Triangle inequality:
|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|.
Consequently,
||z| − |w|| ≤ |z − w|.
1.3. Polar representation and roots of complex numbers. Each complex number
z = x + yi can be expressed in terms of polar coordinates (r, θ), where x = r cos θ and
y = r sin θ. Observe that r equals the absolute value |z| of z and θ is the angle between
the positive real axis and the line segment joining 0 and z. Note that θ plus any multiple
of 2π will also work. The angle θ is called the argument of z, denoted as arg(z) (it is not
a function). We introduce the notation
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
Then z = reiθ . Also note that
eiθ1 eiθ2 = (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )
= cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )
= ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .
and
e−iθ = cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)
= cos θ − i sin θ
= eiθ .
Suppose zj = rj eiθj , for j = 1, 2. Then
z1 z2 = r1 r2 eiθ1 eiθ2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .
Using induction, we have
z1 . . . zn = r1 . . . rn ei(θ1 +···+θn ) .
Setting zj = z = reiθ for all j, we get
z n = rn einθ ,
for all n ≥ 0.
Also, if z 6= 0, then r 6= 0 and
1 iθ
−1 e
z −1 = iθ
= r i(θ
= r−1 e−iθ .
re |e |
Thus, for all n ∈ Z, we have
z n = rn einθ .
This formula is known as the de Moivre’s formula.
We can now ask the following question: Given a complex number z 6= 0 and an integer
n ≥ 2, does there exist a complex number w such that wn = z? How many such w exist?
Let z = reiθ and w = Reiψ , then
Rn = r, nψ = θ + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 3

by the de Moivre’s formula. Hence w equals

r1/n ei(θ+2kπ)/n , 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1.
We restricted the values of k to 0 to n − 1 since for other values of k, w equals to one of
the complex numbers from the above list. Each of these numbers satisfying wn = z are
known as the nth roots of z. We have just arrived at the following result.
Theorem 1.1. For each non-zero number z ∈ C, there are n distinct nth roots of z.
Observe that these roots are equally spaced on the circle centred at the origin with
radius r1/n .
Stereographic projection. In complex analysis, often we will deal with functions which
become infinite as the variable approaches a given point. We introduce the concept of
C∞ = C ∪ {∞} to deal with this situation. We also define a concept of distance on C∞
to discuss continuity of functions. We will now identify C∞ with the unit sphere S 2 in
R3 .
Let N = (0, 0, 1) be the north pole of S 2 . Identify C with the xy-plane, that is
x + iy ↔ (x, y, 0). Then C cuts S 2 along the equator. Join each w ∈ C with the north
pole N through a straight line. This line intersects S 2 at a unique point W 6= N . We
identify the point w ∈ C with the point W ∈ S 2 .
If |w| > 1, W lies in the northern hemisphere (positive z-coordinate). If |w| < 1, W
lies in the southern hemisphere (negative z-coordinate). If |w| = 1, W = w. We have
thus identified C with S 2 \ {N }.
The question now is what happens when |w| → ∞. Clearly W → N . We identify N
with ∞ ∈ C∞ . Thus C is represented as the sphere S 2 . We call C∞ as the extended
complex plane. It is also known as the Riemann sphere, after G.F.B. Riemann
(1826-1866). Here is the identification of C∞ with S 2 :
• Given w = x + iy ∈ C, W = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ∈ S 2 , where
2x w+w 2y −i(w − w) |w|2 − 1
x1 = = , x2 = = , x3 = . (1)
|w|2 + 1 |w|2 + 1 |w|2 + 1 |w|2 + 1 |w|2 + 1
This is obtained by considering the line tN + (1 − t)z joining N and w, identifying
t for which tN + (1 − t)w ∈ S 2 .
• Given W = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ∈ S 2 \ {N }, we get
x1 + iy1
w= .
1 − z1
This is obtained by considering the line tN +(1−t)W joining N and W , identifying
t for which tN + (1 − t)W for which the third coordinate is 0. This gives t =
−z1 /(1 − z1 ).
The map from C to S 2 \ {N } sending w to W and its inverse are continuous and thus
preserve all the topological properties such as convergence and compactness.
Let us now define distance between two points in C∞ . For w, w0 ∈ C, define the
distance between them as the distance between the corresponding W = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
W 0 = (x01 , y10 , z10 ) in R3 (usual distance). Let us look at the exact form. For w, w0 ∈ C,
p
dC∞ (w, w0 ) = (x1 − x01 )2 + (y1 − y10 )2 + (z1 − z10 )2
p
= 2 − 2(x1 x01 + y1 y10 + z1 z10 ) since W, W 0 ∈ S 2
2|w − w0 |
= p (using (1)).
(|w|2 + 1)(|w0 |2 + 1)
4 NIKITA AGARWAL

Moreover, for w ∈ C,
2
dC∞ (w, ∞) = p .
1 + |w|2
This distance metric is known as spherical metric.
Here is an interesting fact about stereographic projection.
Theorem 1.2. A circle on S 2 not passing through N corresponds to a circle on C.
Moreover, any circle on S 2 passing through N corresponds to a straight line in C.
Proof. Any circle on S 2 is a collection of points on S 2 when intersected by a plane. That
is, a circle on S 2 is the collection
{(x1 , y1 , z1 ) ∈ S 2 : Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0},
where A2 + B 2 + C 2 6= 0. This circle is identified with the following set of points in C
(using (1)):
{x + iy : 2Ax + 2By + C(x2 + y 2 − 1) + D(x2 + y 2 + 1) = 0},
which is a circle in C provided C + D 6= 0. Note that C + D 6= 0 implies that the circle
on S 2 we started off with does not pass through N . If it does, then C + D = 0 in which
case, the set identified set on C is a straight line. 
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 5

2. Week 2
The concepts of limits and continuity in C are imagining C as a metric space with
metric dC given by
dC (z1 , z2 ) = |z1 − z2 |,
which is same as the Euclidean distance between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in R2 where zj =
xj + iuyj , for j = 1, 2.
Definition 2.1. Let G be an open subset of C. Let f : G → C be a function. Let z0 ∈ G.
We say that f is differentiable at z0 if the limit
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim
z − z0
z→z0

exists. The limit, if it exists, is known as the derivative of f at z0 and is denoted by

f 0 (z0 ).

 − δ definition: For given  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

f (z) − f (z0 )
− f 0 (z0 ) < ,
z − z0
whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.
Theorem 2.2. We have the following properties for differentiability.
• If f is differentiable at z0 , then f is continuous at z0 .
• (Sum and product rue) If f, g are differentiable at z0 , then f + g and f g also are,
and
(f + g)0 (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) + g 0 (z0 ), (f g)0 (z0 ) = f (z0 )g 0 (z0 ) + f 0 (z0 )g(z0 ).
(Quotient rule) In addition, if g(z0 ) 6= 0, then
 0
f f 0 (z0 )g(z0 ) − f (z0 )g 0 (z0 )
(z0 ) = .
g g(z0 )2
• (Chain rule) If f is differentiable at z0 and g is differentiable at f (z0 ), then g ◦ f
is differentiable at z0 and
(g ◦ f )0 (z0 ) = g 0 (f (z0 ))f 0 (z0 ).
Proof. We just prove the chain rule. We consider two cases: i) f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 and f 0 (z0 ) = 0.
Let us look at the case when f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0. Then there exists  > 0 such that f (z) 6= f (z0 )
for all 0 < |z − z0 | < . Thus for all z satisfying 0 < |z − z0 | < , we can write
g ◦ f (z) − g ◦ f (z0 ) g ◦ f (z) − g ◦ f (z0 ) f (z) − f (z0 )
= .
z − z0 f (z) − f (z0 ) z − z0
Since f is differentiable at z0 , it is continuous at z0 . Therefore f (z) → f (z0 ). Hence,
since g is differentiable at f (z0 ), as z → z0 , we have
g ◦ f (z) − g ◦ f (z0 )
→ g 0 (f (z0 )).
f (z) − f (z0 )
Also using the fact that f is differentiable at z0 , we prove the chain rule.
Consider the other case when f 0 (z0 ) = 0. Since g is differentiable at f (z0 ), there exists
a constant C > 0 and  > 0 such that
|g(w) − g(f (z0 ))|
≤ C,
|z − f (z0 )|
6 NIKITA AGARWAL

for all w satisfying 0 < |w − f (z0 )| < . Also since f is continuous at z0 , there exists
δ > 0 such that
|f (z) − f (z0 )| < , whenever |z − z0 | < δ.
Combining the above, for all |z − z0 | < δ, we have
|g(f (z)) − g(f (z0 ))| ≤ C|f (z) − f (z0 )|.
Therefore
g ◦ f (z) − g ◦ f (z0 ) f (z) − f (z0 )
≤C .
z − z0 z − z0
We have proved the chain rule in this case as well. 
Example 2.3. It is immediate from the definition of derivative that the constant function
is differentiable everywhere with derivative 0 and the identity function is differentiable
everywhere with derivative 1.
By the application of product rule, for each n ∈ N, the function z 7→ z n is differentiable
everywhere with derivative nz n−1 .
Further, by the application of sum rule, any polynomial function z 7→ a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 +
· · · + an z n is differentiable everywhere with derivative a1 + 2a2 z · · · + nan z n−1 .
p(z)
Moreover, any rational function z 7→ , where p, q are polynomial functions is
q(z)
defined provided q(z) 6= 0. Hence by the application of product rule, any rational function
is differentiable at all the points where it is defined.
Differentiability in complex and real sense. Suppose f = u+iv is a complex-valued
function defined an open set G ⊆ C, where u, v are its real and imaginary parts. For a
given point z0 = x0 + iy0 and a complex number c = a + ib, suppose f is differentiable at
z0 with f 0 (z0 ) = c.
Approaching z0 along the real axis, we get
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
c = lim
h→0, h∈R h
u(x0 + h, y0 ) − u(x0 , y0 ) v(x0 + h, y0 ) − v(x0 , y0 )
= lim + i lim
h→0, h∈R |h| h→0, h∈R |h|
= ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).
Approaching z0 along the imaginary axis, we get
f (z0 + ih) − f (z0 )
c = lim
h→0, h∈R ih
u(x0 , y0 + h) − u(x0 , y0 ) v(x0 , y0 + h) − v(x0 , y0 )
= −i lim + lim
h→0, h∈R h h→0, h∈R h
= −iuy (x0 , y0 ) + vy (x0 , y0 ).
Thus we have the following result.
Theorem 2.4. A complex-valued function f = u + iv is differentiable at z0 if and only
if its real and imaginary parts u and v are differentiable at z0 with
ux (z0 ) = a, uy (z0 ) = −b, vx (z0 ) = b, vy (z0 ) = a.
Hence
f 0 (z0 ) = ux (z0 ) + ivx (z0 ) = vy (z0 ) − iuy (z0 ).
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 7

Definition 2.5. (Cauchy-Riemann equations) The following two partial differential equa-
tions for the pair of real-valued functions are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations
ux = vy , uy = −vx .
Theorem 2.6. (Sufficient condition for differentiability) A complex-valued function f =
u + iv is differentiable at z0 if u and v exist and are continuous at z0 and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at z0 .
The results follows from the following result from calculus of real functions: A real-
valued function is differentiable at a point x ∈ R2 if its partial derivatives exist and are
continuous at x ∈ R2 .
Definition 2.7. A complex valued function in an open subset G of C is said to be
holomorphic (or analytic) if it is differentiable at every point in G.
Theorem 2.8. A complex-valued function f = u + iv is differentiable at z0 if u and v
are differentiable at z0 and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at z0 .
Example 2.9. Let the function f be holomorphic in the open set G. Prove that the
function g(z) = f (z) is holomorphic on the set G = {z | z ∈ G}.
Solution: Let z0 ∈ G. Then

g(z) − g(z0 ) f (z) − f (z0 )

=
z − z0 z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
=
z − z0
 
f (z) − f (z0 )
= .
z − z0

As z → z0 in G, we have z → z0 in G. Thus the RHS goes to f 0 (z0 ) since f is differentiable

at z0 . Hence
g 0 (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ).
Theorem 2.10. (From multivariable calculus) Let G be an open and connected subset
of R2 . Let f = f (x, y) : G → R be a differentiable function with its partial derivatives
satisfying fx = fy = 0 at all points of G. Then f is a constant function.
Theorem 2.11. Let G be an open and connected subset of C. Let f : G → C be a
differentiable function with f 0 (z) = 0 for all z ∈ G. Then f is a constant function.
Proof. From the calculations above,
f 0 (z) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ) − iuy (x0 , y0 ).
Hence ux = uy = vx = vy = 0 at (x0 , y0 ). Therefore u, v are constant functions. Thus f
is a constant function. 
Theorem 2.12. Let G be an open and connected subset of C. Let f : G → C be a
differentiable function with f (z) ∈ R for all z ∈ G. Then f is a constant function.
Proof. Here v = 0. Therefore by the CR equations, ux = uy = 0. Therefore u is a
constant function. Hence f is a constant function. 
8 NIKITA AGARWAL

Power series.
Definition 2.13. A power series is an expression of the form
X∞
an (z − a)n ,
n=0
where an , a, z ∈ C.
Goal: To find values of z ∈ C for which the power series converges.
Theorem 2.14. Let ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − a) be a power series. Define R ∈ [0, ∞] (extended real
number) as
R−1 = lim sup |an |1/n .
Then
(1) For all z ∈ C with |z − a| < R, the series converges absolutely and uniformly to a
function f in B(a, r) for any 0 < r < R.
(2) If R ∈ (0, ∞], then f is continuous and differentiable in B(a, R) with
∞
X
0
f (z) = nan (z − a)n−1 .
n=1

(3) For all z ∈ C with |z − a| > R, the series diverges.

For proof, see Theorem 1.3 of Conway, 2nd Edition. Note that this result says nothing
about convergence on the circle |x − a| = R if 0 < R < ∞.
Definition 2.15. The P∞extended realn number R ∈ [0, ∞] is called the radius of convergence
of the power series n=0 an (z − a) .
Theorem 2.16. If a power series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − a) has a positive radius of convergence
0 < R ≤ ∞, then its sum defines a function f in the ball B(a, R). The function f is
infinitely differentiable in this ball. For each k ≥ 1,
X∞
(k)
f (z) = n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1)an (z − a)n−k .
n=k
(n)
f (a)
Moreover, an = .
n!
See Proposition 2.5 of Conway, 2nd Edition for a proof.
Theorem 2.17. Let ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z −a) be a power series. Assume that one of the following
hold:
i) limn |an+1 /an | = `, for some ` ∈ [0, ∞].
ii) limn |an |1/n = `, for some ` ∈ [0, ∞].
Then the radius of convergence of the given power series is given by R = 1/`.
Use Proposition 1.4 of Conway, 2nd Edition to prove this.
Example 2.18. Discuss convergence of the power series
X∞
nn z n .
n=1

This power series is about the point 0. Here an = nn . Since |an |1/n = n → ∞, the radius
of convergence of the power series is given by R = 1/∞ = 0. Thus the power series
diverges for all z ∈ C other than 0.
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 9

Example 2.19. Discuss convergence of the power series

∞
X zn
.
n=0
n!
This power series is about the point 0. Here an = 1/n!. Since
an+1 1
= → 0,
an n+1
the radius of convergence of the power series is given by R = 1/0 = ∞. Thus the power
series is convergent on all of C.
Example 2.20. Discuss convergence of the power series
∞
X n3
n
(z − 1)n .
n=0
3
n3
This power series is about the point 1. Here an = 3n
. Since
an+1 (n + 1)3 3n 1
= → ,
an 3n+1 n3 3
the radius of convergence of the power series is given by R = 3. Thus the power series is
convergent for all z with |z − 1| < 3 and divergent for all z with |z − 1| > 3.
Need to look at the boundary |z − 1| = 3. That is, z = 1 + 3eiθ , θ ∈ [0, 2π). Thus the
series becomes ∞
X
n3 einθ .
n=0
th
The n term does not go to 0 for any θ. Hence the series diverges at each point on the
boundary.
Example 2.21. Discuss convergence of the power series
∞
X zn
.
n=1
n
Here an = 1/n. Since |an+1 /an | → 1, the radius of convergence is 1.
Need to look at the boundary |z| = 1. That is, z = eiθ , θ ∈ [0, 2π). Thus the series
becomes ∞
X einθ
.
n=0
n
The series diverges when θ = 0. For nonzero θ, we will use the Dirichlet’s test: If (an ) is a
real sequence and (bn ) is a sequence of complex numbers satisfying: i) (an ) is a decreasing
PN
sequence converging
P to 0, ii) There exists a constant M > 0 such that | n=1 bn | ≤ M ,
for all N . Then an bn converges.
Let us consider the above series on the boundary. Let θ ∈ (0, 2π) be a fixed angle. Let
an = 1/n and bn = einθ in the Dirichlet’s test. Then
N
X 1 − ei(N +1)θ 2
| bn | = ≤ = M.
n=0
1 − eiθ 1 − eiθ
Therefore, by the Dirichlet’s test, the series converges.
Since M diverges as θ approaches 0, the convergence of the series to a function on the
boundary with the angle θ = 0 removed is not uniform.
10 NIKITA AGARWAL

3. Week 3
Principal value and branches of arg(z).
• Recall that for z ∈ C \ {0}, if θ is the angle between the positive real axis and the
line joining 0 and z, then arg(z) takes values θ + 2nπ, for all n ∈ Z.
• Let G be an open and connected subset of C not containing the origin 0. By a
branch of arg(z), we mean a continuous function α on G such that for all z ∈ G,
α(z) is a value of arg(z).
• We call the particular value of arg(z) in (−π, π] the principal value of arg(z).
P∞ z n
Exponential and trigonometric functions. Consider the power series n=0 . It
n!
is better to write this series as
∞
X zn
1+ ,
n=1
n!
in which case, there is no issue at z = 0. Otherwise use the convention: 00 = 1.
The radius of convergence of this series is ∞. Hence the series converges at each complex
number z and converges absolutely and uniformly to a function in each compact subset
of C. Let us denote the series by ez = exp(z). This is known as the exponential series or
the exponential function. Here are some important properties of this function.
• We know that the function ez is infinitely differentiable with (using term by term
differentiation)
d z
e = ez .
dz
• For fixed a ∈ C, let g(z) = ez ea−z , for z ∈ C. Then g 0 (z) = 0 (by the product
rule), for all z ∈ C. Hence g is a constant function. Since g(0) = ea , we have
g(z) = ea , for all z ∈ C. Therefore, for all a, b ∈ C, by replacing a by a + b and z
by b, we have
ea+b = ea eb .
• Setting b = −a, we get 1 = ea e−a . Hence ez 6= 0, for all z ∈ C. Moreover
(ez )−1 = e−z .
• Since all the coefficients of the power series are real, we have
ez = ez .
Thus for purely imaginary z,
ez = e−z .
Set z = iθ, we have
|ez |2 = ez ez = 1.
More generally,
|ez |2 = ez ez = ez ez = e2Re(z) .
Thus
|ez | = eRe(z) .
• Let z = x + iy, then
ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 11

As for real functions, we define

∞ 2n ∞
X
n z
X z 2n+1
cos z = (−1) , sin z = (−1)n .
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n + 1)!
Each of these functions are infinitely differentiable since the series have infinite radius of
convergence. By term by term differentiation, we have
(cos z)0 = − sin z, (sin z)0 = cos z.
Here are some more properties.
• We have
eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz
cos z = , sin z = .
2 2i
Thus cos2 z + sin2 z = 1, for all z ∈ C.
• We have
eiz = cos z + i sin z.
Thus, for θ ∈ R,
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (relationship b/w exponential and real trigonometric.)
We have recovered our earlier notation. Hence if z = x + iy, we have
|ez | = ex , arg(ez ) = Im(z).
A complex-valued function f is said to be periodic with period c ∈ C if f (z) = f (z +c),
for all z ∈ C. Observe that if we divide the complex plane into infinitely many horizontal
strips by the lines Im(z) = π(2n − 1), n ∈ Z, the exponential function behaves the same
in each of the strips. That is, ez = ez+2πi , for all z ∈ C.
Logarithm function. In real function theory, we define logarithm as the inverse of
exponential. This is possible since real exponential is an invertible map. In the complex
case, it is not. Let us see what happens if we define log z for z ∈ C so that it satisfies
ew = z, when w = log z. Since ew is never 0, we cannot define log z for z = 0. Now let
z ∈ C \ {0} and w = x + iy. Then
|z| = ex , arg(z) = y.
Hence x = log |z| and y = arg(z) + 2πn, n ∈ Z. Therefore the solution set of ew = z is
w∈
{log |z| + i(arg(z) + 2πn), n ∈ Z}.
Note here that log |z| is the usual real logarithm.
Definition 3.1. Let G be an open and connected subset of C. Let f : G → C be a
continuous function such that z = exp f (z), for all z ∈ G. Then f is known as a branch
of the logarithm.
We have the following result.
Theorem 3.2. Let G be an open and connected subset of C. Let f : G → C be a branch
of the logarithm log z on G. Then all the branches of the logarithm log z on G are given
by {f + 2πni, n ∈ Z}.
Proof. (The proof was not discussed in the class. Ask me if your are unable to follow.)
Firstly, f + 2πni is a branch of logarithm on G for each n ∈ Z.
Conversely, let g be another branch of the logarithm on G, then for all z ∈ G,
exp g(z) = z = exp f (z).
12 NIKITA AGARWAL

Hence for each z ∈ G, g(z) = f (z) + 2nπi. The n may depend on z ∈ G. We now prove
that the n is independent of z ∈ G. For this, consider the function h : G → Z defined as
f (z) − g(z)
h(z) = , z ∈ G.
2πi
Then h is a continuous function, since f, g are. Moreover h(z) ∈ Z for all z ∈ G. Since
G is connected, the image of h is connected in Z. The only connected subsets of Z are
singletons. Hence h is a constant function, let h(z) = m, for all z ∈ G. Thus
g(z) = f (z) + 2mπi, z ∈ G.

Let us see one branch of log z on some connected open subset of C. Let G = C \ {z ∈
R : z ≤ 0} (Slit the plane along the negative real axis of C). Let z = reiθ , where
θ ∈ (−π, π). Then define
f (z) = log r + iθ.
Prove that f is continuous on G. Hence f is a branch of the logarithm on G. This is
known as the principal branch of the logarithm.
Note that by the chain rule, we have the following result.
Theorem 3.3. A branch of the logarithm function is differentiable and its derivative is
1/z.
Proof. Differentiability follows by verifying CR equations in polar form (see HW 2).
Since (ew )0 = ew , for all w ∈ C and ef (z) = z for all z ∈ G, we have ef (z) f 0 (z) = 1, which
implies f 0 (z) = 1/z, for all z ∈ G. 
Complex powers. Let f be a branch of the logarithm on a connected open set G ⊂ C.
Let b ∈ C is a fixed complex number. Define g : G → C as
g(z) = exp(bf (z)).
If b ∈ Z, then
g(z) = (exp(f (z)))b = z b .
With this as the reference, we define a branch of z b as the function
z b = exp(b log z),
on an open connected set G on which there is a branch of log z. Hence
log(z b ) = b log z.
Square root function. For b = 1/2 in z b , we get the square root function. Observe
that, for the principal branch of the logarithm, for z = reiθ ,
1 1
z 1/2 = exp( log z) = exp( (log r + iθ)) = r1/2 eiθ/2 .
2 2
Hyperbolic functions. Using the exponential function, we can define other functions
known as hyperbolic functions as follows:
ez + e−z ez − e−z
cosh z = , sinh z = ,
2 2
sinh z cosh z
tanh z = , coth z = ,
cosh z sinh z
1 1
sech z = , csch z = .
cosh z sinh z
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 13

The above defined functions are differentiable at the points wherever they are defined.
Let us understand the first two functions in more detail. Note that sinh z is 0 when
ez + e− z = 0. That is, e2z = 1, which implies that 2z is an integer multiple
 of 2πi.
 Thus,
1
the zeros of sinh z are nπi, for n ∈ Z. Similarly, the zeros of cosh z are n + πi, for
2
n ∈ Z.
Example 3.4. Let us compute all the values of (1 + i)i . We know that
(1 + i)i = exp(i log(1 + i)).
√ iπ/4
Since 1 + i = 2e , hence
√
log(1 + i) = log 2 + i(π/4 + 2πn), n ∈ Z.
Thus
√ √
exp(i log(1 + i)) = exp(−(π/4 + 2πn) + i log 2) = exp(−(π/4 + 2πn))exp(i log 2).
Therefore
 √ √ 
(1 + i)i = exp(−(π/4 + 2πn)) cos log 2 + i sin log 2 , n ∈ Z.

Möbius transformations.
Definition 3.5. A linear fractional transformation is a nonconstant function T of
the form
az + b
T (z) = ,
cz + d
where a, b, c, d ∈ C are constants. If ad − bc 6= 0, T is known as a Möbius transforma-
tion.
Theorem 3.6. The set of Möbius transformations form a group under composition. We
denote it as M.
Proof. We check the properties of a group.
• (Closure) Let T, S be two Möbius transformations given by
az + b a0 z + b 0
T (z) = , S(z) = 0 .
cz + d c z + d0
Then
a0 z + b 0
a0 0
+b (aa0 + bc0 )z + (ab0 + bd0 ) Az + B
T ◦ S = c0 z + d0 = 0 0 0 0
= ,
az+b (ca + dc )z + (cb + dd ) Cz + D
c 0 +d
c z + d0
with
AD − BC = (aa0 + bc0 )(cb0 + dd0 ) − (ab0 + bd0 )(ca0 + dc0 ) = (ad − bc)(a0 d0 − b0 c0 ) 6= 0.
Hence T ◦ S is a Möbius transformation.
• (Identity) Consider the Möbius transformation I(z) = z. It is easy to see that
T ◦ I = I ◦ T = T , for each Möbius transformation T .
• (Inverse) Give T as above, we need to check if there is a Möbius transformation
S such that T ◦ S = S ◦ T = I. Using the arguments above, we need to find
a0 , b0 , c0 , d0 such that a0 d0 − b0 c0 6= 0 and A = D = 1, B = C = 0. That is,
aa0 + bc0 = 1 = cb0 + dd0 , ab0 + bd0 = 0 = ca0 + dc0 .
14 NIKITA AGARWAL

This can be written as

   0    0  
a b 0 0 a 1 a d
 c d 0 0  c0  0  c0  1 −c
0 0 c d  b0  = 1 ⇒  b0  = ad − bc −b .
        
0 0 a b d0 0 d0 a
ad − bc
Clearly a0 d0 − bc = 6= 0. We have that
(ad − bc)2
dz − b
S(z) = ,
−cz + a
satisfies T ◦ S = I. Such a S is unique by the above arguments. Also check
S ◦ T = I. Hence S is an inverse of T .

Relation
 with matrices. Consider GL(2, C), the group of all invertible matrices.
  0 Each
a b0
  
a b a b
∈ GL(2, C) gives a Möbius tranformation T as above. Let , 0 0 ∈
c d c d c d
GL(2, C) with associated Möbius transformations T, S as above. Then the matrix product
  0 0  0
aa + bc0 ab0 + bd0
 
a b a b
=
c d c0 d0 ca0 + dc0 cb0 + dd0
gives the Möbius transformation T ◦ S. Hence the map
Φ : GL(2, C) → M
defined as  
a b az + b
Φ (z) = ,
c d cz + d
is a group homomorphism.
(An important observation) The preimage of T consists of all matrices of the form
   
a b
λ : λ ∈ C \ {0} .
c d
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 15

4. Week 4
Recall the definition of Mobius transformations from the last week.

az + b αz + β
Theorem 4.1. (see HW 2) Let Sz = and T z = . Show that S = T if and
cz + d γz + δ
only if there is a non-zero complex number λ such that a = λα, b = λβ, c = λγ, a = λδ.
Consider a Möbius transformation T of the form
az + b
T (z) = .
cz + d
We can view T as a mapping from C∞ to C∞ with
T (∞) = a/c, T (−d/c) = ∞.
Note that a = c = 0 or d = c = 0 is not possible since ad − bc 6= 0.
Definition 4.2. There are some special types of Möbius transformations.
• Translation: T (z) = z + b.
• Dilation: T (z) = az with a 6= 0.
• Rotation: T (z) = eiθ z, for a real constant θ (special dilation).
• Inversion: T (z) = 1/z.
Theorem 4.3. A Möbius transformation is a composition of translations, dilations and
the inversion.
Proof. If c = 0, then d 6= 0. We are done since T (z) = (a/d)z + b/d.
Suppose c 6= 0. Let T1 (z) = z + d/c, T2 (z) = 1/z, T3 (z) = ((bc − ad)/c2 ) z, and T4 (z) =
z + a/c. Then T = T4 ◦ T3 ◦ T2 ◦ T1 . 
Fixed points of T . We need to solve for T (z) = z. That is solve for z in
cz 2 + (d − a)z − b = 0.
Hence T can have at most two fixed points unless T is the identity transformation (a =
1, b = 0, c = 0, d = 1).
Let T be a Möbius transformation and a, b, c be three distinct points in C∞ . Let
T (a) = α, T (b) = β and T (c) = γ. Let S be another map Möbius transformation with
S = T on the set {a, b, c}. Then S −1 ◦ T has three (distinct) fixed points a, b, c. Therefore
S −1 ◦ T = I. Hence S = T . Hence we have the following result.
Theorem 4.4. A Möbius transformation is uniquely determined by its image on three
distinct points in C∞ .
Let z2 , z3 , z4 be three distinct points in C∞ . The unique Möbius transformation T such
that
S(z2 ) = 1, S(z3 ) = 0, S(z4 ) = ∞
is given by
   
z − z3 z2 − z3
S(z) = / , if z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ C,
z − z4 z2 − z4
z − z3
S(z) = , if z2 = ∞,
z − z4
z2 − z4
S(z) = , if z3 = ∞,
z − z4
z − z3
S(z) = , if z4 = ∞.
z2 − z3
16 NIKITA AGARWAL

Definition 4.5. (Cross ratio) Let z1 ∈ C∞ . The image of z1 under the Möbius trans-
formation S with S(z2 ) = 1, S(z3 ) = 0, S(z4 ) = ∞, is known as the cross ratio of
z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 . It is denoted as (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ).
For instance, (z2 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = 1 and (z3 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = 0.
Theorem 4.6. Let z2 , z3 , z4 be three distinct points in C∞ . Let T be any Möbius trans-
formation. Then
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (T z1 , T z2 , T z3 , T z4 ),
for all z1 ∈ C∞ .
Proof. Let Sz = (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) and S1 z = (z, T z2 , T z3 , T z4 ). Then S = S1 ◦ T by Theo-
rem 4.4. Hence
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = Sz1 = S1 ◦ T z1 = S1 (T z1 ) = (T z1 , T z2 , T z3 , T z4 ).

Theorem 4.7. (Three-fold transitivity) Let z1 , z2 , z3 be three distinct points of C∞ and let
w1 , w2 , w3 be three distinct points of C∞ . Then there is a unique Möbius transformation
which takes zj to wj for j = 1, 2, 3.
Proof. Let T z = (z, z1 , z2 , z3 ) and Sz = (z, w1 , w2 , w3 ), for all z ∈ C. Then S −1 ◦ T works.
Uniqueness follows from Theorem 4.4. 
Definition 4.8. (Clircle) By a clircle, we mean a straight line in C together with the
point ∞, or a circle in C.
Note that a clircle in C∞ is the image of a circle on S 2 under the stereographic projec-
tion.
Theorem 4.9. A Mobius transformation maps clircles onto clircles.
Proof. The result is clearly true for a translation, dilation, and a rotation. We will just
prove it for the inversion.
The equation of a circle in C is given by: for some a ∈ C and r > 0,
|z − a| = r ⇒ |z|2 + βRe(z) + γIm(z) + δ = 0,
for suitable constants β, γ, δ ∈ R.
The equation of a straight line in C is of the form: for z = x + iy,
y = mx ⇒ βRe(z) + γIm(z) + δ = 0,
for suitable constants β, γ, δ ∈ R. Note that the lines passes through the origin if and
only if δ = 0.
Thus the equation of a clircle is of the form:
α|z|2 + βRe(z) + γIm(z) + δ = 0,
for suitable constants α, β, γ, δ ∈ R.
The image of this clircle under inversion is
α/|z|2 + βRe(z)/|z|2 − γIm(z)/|z|2 + δ = 0 ⇒ δ|z|2 + βRe(z) − γIm(z) + α = 0,
which is again a clircle. 
Theorem 4.10. Let z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 be four distinct points in C∞ . Then (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is a
real number if and only if the four points lie on a clircle.
Proof. Let S be the MT defined as Sz = (z, z2 , z3 , z4 ), for all z ∈ C. Since a MT maps
clircles onto clircles, the set of points {z1 , z2 , z2 , z4 } lie on a clircle if and only if the set of
points {Sz1 , Sz2 , Sz3 , Sz4 } = {Sz1 , 1, 0, ∞} lie on a clircle if and only if Sz1 ∈ R (since
the clircle containing the points 1, 0, ∞ is the extended real line R∞ ). 
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 17

Conformality.
Definition 4.11. A curve in C is a continuous function γ : [a, b] → C. We will think of
curve as a subset of C, that is, {γ(t) t ∈ [a, b]} is a curve.
We say that a curve is differentiable at t0 ∈ (a, b) if both real and imaginary compo-
nents of γ are differentiable at t0 . That is,
γ(t) − γ(t0 )
lim
t→t0 t − t0
0
exists. Denote this limit as γ (t0 ).
We say that a curve is regular at t0 ∈ (a, b) if it is differentiable at t0 and γ 0 (t0 ) 6= 0.
If γ is regular at t0 , then it has a well-defined direction at t0 , by specifying the argument
of γ 0 (t0 ).
Suppose γ1 and γ2 be two curves in C. Suppose they intersect at a point γ1 (t1 ) = γ2 (t2 ).
Also suppose that γj is regular at tj , for j = 1, 2. The angle between γ1 and γ2 is defined
as
argγ20 (t2 ) − argγ10 (t1 ) = argγ20 (t2 )γ10 (t1 ).
The angle depends on the order in which we take the curves.
Let us look at the following observations. Let f be a holomorphic function on an open
set G in C. Let γ be a curve in G. Let γ be regular at t0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 for z0 = γ(t0 ).
Then
(f ◦ γ)0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z0 )γ 0 (t0 ) 6= 0.
Hence f ◦ γ is also regular at t0 . Moreover
arg(f ◦ γ)0 (t0 ) = argf 0 (z0 ) + argγ 0 (t0 ).
Thus we have the following result.
Theorem 4.12. Let f be a holomorphic function on an open set G in C. Let z0 ∈ G and
f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0. Let γ1 , γ2 be two curves such that γ1 (t1 ) = γ2 (t2 ) = z0 and that γj is regular
at tj , for j = 1, 2. Then the angle between f ◦ γ1 and f ◦ γ2 equals the angle between γ1
and γ2 .
Proof. For j = 1, 2,
arg(f ◦ γj )0 (tj ) = argf 0 (z0 ) + argγ 0 (tj ).
Hence
arg(f ◦ γ2 )0 (t2 ) − arg(f ◦ γ1 )0 (t1 ) = argγ 0 (t2 ) − argγ 0 (t1 ).

Example 4.13. Consider f (z) = z 2 . Note that f 0 (0) = 0. Consider two curves γ1 :
[0, 1] → C as t 7→ t and γ2 : [0, 1] → C as t 7→ teiα for α 6= 0. Clearly γ1 (0) = γ2 (0) = 0.
The angle between γ1 and γ2 at 0 is α, but the angle between f ◦ γ1 and f ◦ γ2 at f (0) = 0
is 2α.
18 NIKITA AGARWAL

5. Week 5
Definition 5.1. A complex-valued function f on an open set G in C is said to be
conformal at the point z0 ∈ G if it preserves the angles between pairs of regular curves
intersecting at z0 .
By the preceding theorem, if f is holomorphic and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0, then f is conformal. Let
us look at the converse.
Theorem 5.2. Let f be a complex-valued function on an open set G in C, whose real
and imaginary parts have continuous first order partial derivatives. If f is conformal at
each point of G, then f is holomorphic on G and f 0 is never 0 on G.
We will come back to discuss the proof.
Theorem 5.3. A Mobius transformation T is conformal at all points z where T z ∈ C.
az + b ad − bc
Proof. Let T z = be a Mobius transformation. Then T 0 z = 6= 0, when
cz + d (cz + d)2
z 6= −d/c. 
Example 5.4. Let us compute a Mobius transformation mapping 0, 1, ∞ to 1, ∞, −i,
respectively.
Let T be such a map.
• Method 1: You need to know the form of cross-ratio (the map S) to apply this
method.
We know that
1+i z−1
(T z, 1, ∞, −i) = (T z, T −, T 1, T ∞) = (z, 0, 1, ∞) ⇒ = = 1 − z.
Tz + i 0−1
Hence
1+i −i(1 − z) + 1 + i iz + 1
T z = −i + = = .
1−z 1−z 1−z
az + b
• Method 2: Let T z = .
cz + d
Since T 1 = ∞, we can take the denominator of T to be z − 1. That is, c = 1,
d = −1.
az − 1
Since T 0 = 1, we have b = −1. Thus T z = .
z−1
Finally, T (∞) = −i implies a = −i. Hence
−iz − 1
Tz =
z−1
Example 5.5. Consider the MT
z+i
Tz = .
z−i
• Observe that T maps 0 7→ −1, i 7→ ∞ and −i 7→ 0. The clircle determined by
the points 0, i, −i is the extended imaginary axis denoted by iR∞ . The clircle
determined by their images −1, ∞, 0 is the extended real axis R∞ . Hence T takes
the extended imaginary axis to the extended real axis. That is,
T (iR∞ ) = R∞ .
• We will use these labels.
P+ : the right half plane
P− : the left half plane
H+ : the upper half plane
H− : the lower half plane.
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 19

• Since T is a bijection, we have

T (P+ ) ∪ T (P− ) = H+ ∪ H− .
Moreover since T is continuous and P+ , P− are connected, T (P+ ), T (P− ) are con-
nected. Therefore, both T (P+ ) and T (P− ) are disjoint and are either H+ or H−
(since T (C∞ ) = C∞ ).
• Since T (1) = i, we have
T (P+ ) = H+ , T (P− ) = H− .
• The image of the unit circle S 1 (|z| = 1) under T contains T 1 = i, T i = ∞,
T (−i) = 0, hence
T (S 1 ) = iR∞ .
• Let D denotes the open disk in the complex plane bounded by S 1 and let E be
the extended exterior of S 1 . That is,
E = {z ∈ C : |z| > 1} ∪ {∞}.
By the connectedness argument and onto property of T , since T 0 = −1, we get
T (D) = P− , T (E) = P+ .
• The image of the extended real axis contains the points T 1 = i, T 0 = −1 and
T ∞ = 1. Hence
T (R∞ ) = S 1 .
By the connectedness argument and onto property of T , since T i = ∞, we get
T (H+ ) = E, T (H− ) = D.
• Let us now understand the image of the coordinate grid (horizontal lines and ver-
tical lines) under T .
Consider an extended vertical line L other than the imaginary axis. It is orthog-
onal to the extended real axis R∞ meeting it at ∞ (only). Hence, since T is
conformal, their images T (L) and T (R∞ ) = S 1 are orthogonal meeting at the
point T (∞) = 1. Moreover T (L) being a clircle and ∞ = T (i) ∈ / T (L) implies
T (L) is a circle. Thus T (L) is a circle orthogonal to S 1 at the point 1.
Further, the images T (L) are circles crossing the point 1 and tangent to the real
axis.
Similarly, the images of the extended horizontal lines, except for the extended real
axis, under T are the circles through the point 1 orthogonal to real axis.
Complex integration.
• A function φ : [a, b] → C is said to be piecewise continuous if it is continuous
at all but finitely many points of [a, b] and has one sided limit at each point of
discontinuity.
• Since then both Re φ and Im φ are Riemann-integrable, we define the integral of
φ over [a, b] as
Z b Z b Z b
φ(t) dt = Re φ(t) dt + i Im φ(t) dt.
a a a
Linearity of Riemann integral for real-valued functions implies linearity of integral
for complex-valued functions. That is,
Z b Z b Z b
(αφ + βψ)(t) dt = α φ(t) dt + β ψ(t) dt,
a a a
20 NIKITA AGARWAL

where φ, ψ : [a, b] → C are piecewise continuous functions and α, β ∈ C are

constants.
• We say that a function φ : [a, b] → C is said to be piecewise C 1 if it is continuous, it
is differentiable at all but finitely many points of [a, b], its derivative is continuous
at each point where it exists and its derivative has one-sided limits at each of the
finitely many points where it fails to exist.
• By the fundamental theorem of calculus for real-valued functions, we obtain the
following result:
Theorem 5.6. If a function φ : [a, b] → C is piecewise C 1 , then
Z b
φ0 (t) dt = φ(b) − φ(a).
a

• As for real-valued functions, we have the following result.

Theorem 5.7. If φ : [a, b] → C is piecewise continuous function, then
Z b Z b
φ(t) dt ≤ |φ(t)| dt.
a a
Rb
Proof. If a φ(t) dt = 0, we are done. Suppose it is not zero.
Rb Rb
Let λ = | a φ(t) dt|/ a φ(t) dt. Then
Z b Z b Z b Z b
φ(t) dt = λ φ(t) dt = λφ(t) dt = Re λφ(t) dt
a a a a
Z b Z b Z b
= Re (λφ(t)) dt ≤ |λφ(t)| dt = |φ(t)| dt.
a a a


• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve. We define the length of γ as
Z b
L(γ) = |γ 0 (t)| dt.
a

This formula is derived from taking supremum over all possible polygonal paths
inscribed in γ.
• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve. A complex-valued function f is said to
be defined on γ is it is defined on the image set of γ, which is {γ(t) : t ∈ [a, b]}.
In this case, we can define f ◦ γ : [a, b] → C. If f is continuous and defined
R on γ,
then f ◦ γ is continuous. We define the integral of f over γ, denoted by γ f (z) dz,
as
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ 0 (t) dt.
γ a

Clearly
Z Z Z
(αf + βg)(z) dz = α f (z) dz + β g(z) dz,
γ γ γ

where f, g are continuous functions defined on γ and α, β ∈ C are constants.

Moreover, if c ∈ (a, b) and γ1 = γ|[a,c] and γ2 = γ|[c,b] , then
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz.
γ γ1 γ2
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 21

• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve. Let f be a holomorphic function

defined on an open set containing γ. Assume that f 0 is continuous. Then
Z
f 0 (z) dz = f (γ(b)) − f (γ(a)).
γ

In particular, if γ is closed, that is, if γ(a) = γ(b), then γ f 0 (z) dz = 0.

R

The above follows since

Z Z b Z b
0 0 0
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ (t) dt = (f ◦ γ)0 (t) dt.
γ a a

Now use Theorem 5.6.

• (Reparametrization) Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve. We say that
γ1 : [c, d] → C is a reparametrization of γ if there is an increasing piecewise C 1
function α : [c, d] → [a, b] such that γ1 = γ ◦ α. In this case,
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz,
γ γ1

since
Z Z d Z d
f (z) dz = f (γ1 (s))γ10 (s) ds = f (γ ◦ α(s))γ 0 (α(s))α0 (s) ds.
γ1 c c

Using the change of variable t = α(s), we get

Z d Z b Z
0 0 0
f (γ ◦ α(s))γ (α(s))α (s) ds = f (γ(t))γ (t) dt = f (z) dz.
c a γ
1
• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C closed curve. Let c ∈ (a, b) and let d =
c + (b − a). Define γ1 : [c, d] → C as
(
γ(t), c ≤ t ≤ b,
γ1 (t) =
γ(t − b + a), b ≤ t ≤ d.
The curve remains the same but the initial point is shifted from γ(a) to γ(c).
• (Reverse of a curve) Let γ : [a, b] → C be a curve. The curve given by the function
−γ : [−b, −a] → C defined as −γ(t) = γ(−t) is known as the reverse of the curve
γ. Note that the direction of the curve is reversed. If γ is piecewise C 1 , then so
is −γ, and
Z Z −a Z a Z
0 0
f (z) dz = − f (γ(−t))γ (−t) dt = f (γ(s))γ (s) ds = − f (z) dz.
−γ −b b γ

• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 closed curve. Let f be a continuous complex-

valued function on γ. Then
Z Z b Z b
0
| f (z) dz| = | f (γ(t))γ (t) dt| ≤ |f (γ(t))||γ 0 (t)| dt ≤ M L(γ),
γ a a

where M = sup{f (γ(t)) : t ∈ [a, b]} < ∞.

• Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 closed curve. Let (fn ) be a sequence of
continuous complex-valued functions on γ converging uniformly to f on γ. Then
Z Z Z
| f (z) dz − fn (z) dz| = | (f (z) − fn (z)) dz| ≤ Mn L(γ),
γ γ γ
22 NIKITA AGARWAL

where Mn is the maximum of |f − fn | on γ. Since fn → f uniformly on γ, we

have Mn → 0. Thus
Z Z
lim fn (z) dz = f (z) dz.
n→∞ γ γ

Theorem 5.8. If ∞
P
n=1 fn = f (uniform limit), then
Z Z XN N Z
X ∞ Z
X
f (z) dz = lim fn (z)dz = lim fn (z)dz = fn (z)dz.
γ n→∞ γ n=1 n→∞ γ γ
n=1 n=1

Example 5.9. Let n ∈ Z be an integer. Integrate the function f (z) = z n around the
unit circle parametrized by the curve γ(t) = eit , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
For n 6= −1, z n is the derivative of the function z n+1 /n + 1 (defined in an open set
containing γ). Hence, for n 6= −1,
Z
z n dz = 0.
γ
Now consider n = −1, Z Z 2π
−1
z dz = e−it ieit = 2πi.
γ 0

Example 5.10. Let n ≥ 1 be an integer. Integrate the function f (z) = z −1 (z + z −1 )2n

around the unit circle parametrized by the curve γ(t) = eit , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
From the above discussion,
Z Z 2π
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ 0 (t) dt
γ 0
Z 2π
= e−it (eit + e−it )2n ieit dt
0
Z 2π
= i (2 cos t)2n dt
0
On the other hand,
2n   2n
−1
X 2n k −(2n−k) X 2(k−n)−1
f (z) = z z z = z .
k=0
k k=0
Using the fact that (
n 6= −1
Z
0,
zn =
γ 2πi, n = −1,
we get  
1.3 . . . (2n − 1)
Z
2n 1.2 . . . (2n)
f (z) dz = 2πi = 2πi = 2πi .
γ n (1.2 . . . n)2 1.2 . . . n
R
Comparing the two expressions for γ f (z) dz obtained, we get
Z 2π
1 1.3. . . . .(2n − 1)
(cos t)2n dt = .
2π 0 2.4. . . . .(2n)
Example 5.11. Prove that
Z ∞ √ p √
−t2 2 π 1+ 2
e cos t dt = .
0 4
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 23
2
Let us integrate the function f (z) = e−z over the boundary of the region {z : 0 ≤
|z| ≤ R, 0 ≤ Arg(z) ≤ π/8}. The boundary γ (in counterclockwise direction) can be
written as the union of three curves (plot them on the complex plane):
γ1 : [0, R] → C given by γ1 (t) = t,
γ2 : [0, π/8] → C given by γ1 (t) = Reit ,
and the reverse of
γ3 : [0, R] → C given by γ3 (t) = teiπ/8 .
Thus, since γ is a closed curve (here we are using f = g 0 for some differentiable/holomorphic
function g), Z Z Z Z
0= f = f+ f− f.
γ γ1 γ2 γ3
Note the negative sign in the third term.
Now consider the three integrals one by one.
Z Z R Z ∞ √
−t2 2
f = e dt → e−t dt = π/2,
γ1 0 0

as R → ∞ (we are using the last identity above from your earlier courses). Now
Z
f ≤ MR L(γ2 ) → 0,
γ2
2/
√
as R → ∞, where MR = sup{|f (z)| : z ∈ γ2 } = e−R 2
and L(γ2 ) < ∞.
See HW 4.
24 NIKITA AGARWAL

6. Week 6
Cauchy’s theorem.
Theorem 6.1. (On a triangle) Let T be a triangle in C and let f be a holomorphic
function in an open set containing T and its interior (region enclosed by T ). Then
Z
f = 0.
T

The above result is sometimes known as Goursat’s lemma, after E. Goursat (late 1800s).

Proof. Let us integrate f over T in the counterclockwise direction, let I denote the inte-
gral.
• Divide T into 4 triangles by joining the midpoints of the sides of T , as shown in
the figure below. Then
X 4 Z
I= f.
j=1 T0j
R
Hence there is a j such that | T0j
f | ≥ |I|/4, otherwise
4 Z
X 4
X Z
|I| = | f| ≤ | f | < |I|,
j=1 T0j j=1 T0j

which is a contradiction.
Denote such a T0j by T1 . Again divideRthis process R for T1 to get four triangles
such that one of them, say T2 satisfies | T2 f | ≥ | T1 f |/4.
• Repeating this process, we get a sequence (Tn ) of decreasing triangles with
Z
| f | ≥ |I|/4n , n ≥ 1.
Tn

• Observe that L(Tn ) = L(T )/2n , for all n ≥ 1.

• Let Kn be the union of Tn and the region it encloses. Then Kn is compact,
Kn ⊃ Kn+1 , and the diameters of Kn tend to 0, as n → ∞. Hence ∩Kn = {z0 },
a singleton point (by the Cantor’s intersection theorem). Note that z0 ∈ T or z0
lies in the region enclosed by T . In any case, f is holomorphic at z0 .
• Thus
f (z) = f (z0 ) + f 0 (z0 )(z − z0 ) + R(z),
R(z)
where limz→z0 = 0.
Rz − z0
Observe that Tn (f (z0 ) + f 0 (z0 )(z − z0 )) = 0. Hence
Z Z
f= R(z).
Tn Tn

• Let n = supz∈Tn \{z0 } |R(z)/(z − z0 )|. Then n → 0 and for z ∈ Tn ,

|R(z)| ≤ n |z − z0 | ≤ n L(Tn ).
Hence Z
| R| ≤ n L(Tn )2 = n L(T )2 /4n .
Tn
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 25

• This and above inequality imply

Z Z
n
|I| ≤ 4 | f| = | Rn | ≤ n L(T )2 → 0.
Tn Tn

Hence I = 0.

Theorem 6.2. (Existence of primitive) Let G be a convex open subset of C and let f be
a holomorphic function in G. Then there exists a homolorphic function g on G such that
g0 = f .
Proof. Fix a point z0 ∈ G.
• For z ∈ G, define Z
g(z) = f,
[z0 ,z]

where [z0 , z] denotes the line segment joining z0 to z. We prove that g 0 = f .

• Fix a point z1 ∈ G. Then
Z Z Z
f+ f+ f = 0,
[z0 ,z1 ] [z1 ,z] [z,z0

by Cauchy’s theorem for a triangle.

• Hence Z
g(z) − g(z1 ) = f.
[z1 ,z]
Thus
g(z) − g(z1 )
Z
1
− f (z1 ) = (f (w) − f (z1 )) dw.
z − z1 z − z1 [z1 ,z]

• Since f is continuous at z1 , given  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (w) −
f (z1 )| < , whenever |w − z1 | < δ.
• Hence if |z − z1 | < δ, we have
g(z) − g(z1 )
Z
1 1
| − f (z1 )| = | (f (w) − f (z1 )) dw| ≤ L([z1 , z]) = .
z − z1 z − z1 [z1 ,z] |z − z1 |
Thus
g(z) − g(z1 )
lim = f (z1 ).
z→z1 z − z1
That is, g is differentiable at z1 and g 0 (z1 ) = f (z1 ).
• Note: the definition of g is independent of the point z0 up to addition of a constant
since if z00 is another point, then
Z Z Z
f+ f= f.
[z0 ,z00 ] [z00 ,z] [z0 ,z]

by Cauchy’s theorem for a triangle.


Corollary 6.2.1. (For a convex region)
R Let G be a convex open subset of C and let f be
a holomorphic function in G. Then γ f = 0, for each piecewise C 1 closed curve γ in G.

The result follows from the preceding result and γ f = γ g 0 = 0.

R R
26 NIKITA AGARWAL

Corollary 6.2.2. Let f be a continuous complex-valued function in a convex open subset

G of C such that the integral of f over every triangle contained in G is 0, then f has a
primitive in G.
In the preceding theorem, we used the Cauchy’s theorem for triangles to get that the
integral of f over every triangle contained in G is 0, and continuity of f . If we apriori
know that the integral of f over every triangle contained in G is 0, then we can bypass
the Cauchy’s theorem for triangles, and just use continuity of f to prove the preceding
theorem.
Theorem 6.3. (Cauchy’s formula for a circle) Let C be a counterclockwise oriented circle
and let f be a holomorphic function in an open set containing C and its interior. Then
Z
1 f (w)
f (z) = dw,
2πi C w − z
for all z in the interior of C (open disk enclosed by the circle C).
Proof. Let z0 be a point in the interior of C.
• Let 0 <  < d(z0 , C). Let C be the circle centered at z0 with radius  oriented
counterclockwise as shown in the figure.
• Let γj , j = 1, 2, 3, 4, be the closed curves, all oriented counterclockwise as shown
in the figure.
f (w)
• Then is holomorphic in a convex open set containing each γj . Thus
w − z0
Z
f (w)
dw = 0, j = 1, 2, 3, 4.
γj w − z0

• Since
4 Z Z Z
X f (w) f (w) f (w)
dw = dw − dw,
j=1 γj w − z0 C w − z0 C w − z0
we have Z Z
f (w) f (w)
dw = dw.
C w − z0 C w − z0
Also Z Z
1 1
dw = dw = 2πi.
C w − z0 C w − z0
• Consider
f (w) − f (z0 )
Z Z Z Z
1 f (w) 1 f (w) f (z0 ) 1 1
−f (z0 ) = − dw = dw.
2πi C w − z0 2πi C w − z0 2πi C w − z0 2πi C w − z0
f (w) − f (z0 )
• Let M denote the maximum of | | on C (finite since it is continuous
w − z0
on compact C ). Then
f (w) − f (z0 )
Z Z
1 f (w) 1 M L(C )
| dw − f (z0 )| = | dw| ≤ = M .
2πi C w − z0 2πi C w − z0 2π
• Finally, as  → 0, M → |f 0 (z0 )| since f is holomorphic at z0 . Hence M → 0.
Therefore Z
1 f (w)
f (z0 ) = dw.
2πi C w − z0

 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 27

Remark 6.4. (Mean value property) Let f be holomorphic in the disk |z − z0 | < R. For
0 < r < R, let Cr be the circle centered at z0 with radius r oriented in counterclockwise
direction. Parametrize Cr by γ(t) = z0 + reit , for t ∈ [0, 2π]. Then
Z 2π Z 2π
f (z0 + reit ) it
Z
1 f (w) 1 1
f (z0 ) = dw = rie dt = f (z0 + reit ) dt.
2πi Cr w − z0 2πi 0 reit 2π 0
We have got a useful formula:
Z 2π
1
f (z0 ) = f (z0 + reit ) dt.
2π 0

In other words, the value of f at the center of Cr is the average of its values over Cr .
Definition 6.5. (Cauchy integral formula) Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve,
and let φ be a continuous complex-valued function on γ. The Cauchy integral of φ over
γ is defined as the function f : C \ γ → C given by
Z
φ(w)
f (z) = dw, z ∈ C \ γ.
γ w−z

Remark 6.6. By the Cauchy’s formula for a circle, let γ be a counterclockwise oriented
circle C and let φ be a holomorphic function in an open set containing C and its interior.
Then Z
1 φ(w)
φ(z) = dw,
2πi C w − z
for all z in the interior of C (open disk enclosed by the circle C). That is, the Cauchy
integral formula for φ in the interior of C equals 2πiφ.
Let γ : [a, b] → C be a piecewise C 1 curve, and let φ be a continuous complex-valued
function on γ. Let z0 ∈/ γ and let R = d(z0 , γ) > 0. Let z be such that |z − z0 | < R.
Observe that
∞  n
1 1 1 X z − z0
= = ,
w−z w − z0 − (z − z0 ) w − z0 n=0 w − z0
provided |z − z0 | < |w − z0 | (series (in w) converges uniformly on any compact subset of
this region). Since for w ∈ γ and z with |z − z0 | < R, we have |z − z0 | < R ≤ |w − z0 |,
the above series converges uniformly on γ (a compact subset of the the above region).
Since the function φ is bounded (being continuous) on γ, we have
∞
X φ(w)(z − z0 )n
n=0
(w − z0 )n+1
φ(w)
converges uniformly to on γ. Hence we can integrate term by term (using Theo-
w−z
rem 5.8) to get
∞
φ(w)(z − z0 )n
Z Z
φ(w) X
f (z) = dw = n+1
dw, |z − z0 | < R.
γ w−z γ (w − z0 )
n=0

We have thus shown that f can be expressed as the power series ∞ n

P
n=0 an (z − z0 ) in the
disk |z − z0 | < R, where
Z
φ(w)
an = n+1
.
γ (w − z0 )
28 NIKITA AGARWAL

By power series discussion, we have

f (n) (z0 )
Z
φ(w)
an = ⇒ f (n) (z0 ) = n! dw, z ∈ γ.
n! γ (w − z0 )n+1
Observe the following:
Let f be a holomorphic function in an open set G. Let z0 ∈ G. For 0 < r < dist(z0 , C \
G), let Cr denote the circle centered at z0 with radius r, oriented counterclockwise. Then,
f
inside Cr , the function f coincides with the Cauchy integral of the function over Cr .
2πi
Hence we have the following result.
Theorem 6.7. Let f be a holomorphic function in an open set G. Let z0 ∈ G. For r > 0,
let Cr denote the circle centered at z0 with radius r, oriented counterclockwise. Then
• the function f is differentiable to all orders and for any positive integer n,
Z
(n) n! f (w)
f (z0 ) = dw, |z − z0 | < r < dist(z0 , C \ G).
2πi Cr (w − z0 )n+1
• in the disk |z − z0 | < dist(z0 , C \ G), the function f is represented by its Taylor’s
series centered at z0 .
Theorem 6.8. (Converse of Goursat’s Lemma, Theorem R 6.1) Let f be a continuous
complex-valued function in an open subset G of C. If T f = 0 for all triangles T which
are contained in G along with their interiors, then f is holomorphic on G.
Proof. It is enough to prove this result when G is an open disk since G is a union of open
disks and holomorphicity is a local property.
The given hypothesis imply that f has a primitive g, which is holomorphic.
Hence g is infinitely differentiable.
Thus, f = g 0 is holomorphic. 
Definition 6.9. A function that is holomorphic on all of C is known as an entire function.
Theorem 6.10. (Liouville’s Theorem) The only bounded entire functions are constant
functions.
Proof. Let f be a bounded entire function and |f (z)| ≤ M , for all z ∈ C. Fix a point
z0 ∈ C and let R > 0. Let CR denotes the circle |z − z0 | = R oriented counterclockwise.
Then Z
0 1 f (w)
f (z0 ) = dw.
2πi CR (w − z0 )2
Hence
1 M M
|f 0 (z0 )| ≤ 2
2πR = .
2π R R
Since the above is true for all R > 0, we get f 0 (z0 ) = 0. Hence f is a constant function. 
Theorem 6.11. (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) Every nonconstant polynomial with
complex coefficients has a complex root.
Proof. Let p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 be a nonconstant polynomial of degree
n with complex coefficients having no complex roots.
Let f = 1/p. Then f is an entire function.
Since an 6= 0, we have for z 6= 0,
 
n an−1 a1 a0
p(z) = an z 1 + + ··· + + .
an z an z n−1 an z n
 LECTURE NOTES ON COMPLEX ANALYSIS I 29

Hence  
n |an−1 | |a1 | |a0 |
|p(z)| ≥ |an z | 1 − − ··· − − .
|an z| |an z n−1 | |an z n |
There exists R > 0 such that whenever |z| ≥ R, the term in the parentheses on the right
is at least 1/2. Therefore
1 2
|f (z)| = ≤ , |z| ≥ R.
|p(z)| |an |Rn
Also, f being a continuous function is bounded in the compact set |z| ≤ R. Thus, f
is a bounded entire function, and hence is a constant function. We have arrived at a
contraction to the assumption that p is a nonconstant polynomial. 
The above is an existential proof. The problem of finding accurate roots is a major
theme in numerical analysis.
Definition 6.12. Let f be a holomorphic function on an open subset G of C. A point
z0 ∈ C is known as a zero of f of order (or multiplicity) m ≥ 1, if f (n) (z0 ) = 0, for all
0 ≤ n ≤ m − 1, and f (m) (z0 ) 6= 0.
If z0 is a zero of f of order (or multiplicity) m ≥ 1, the Taylor’s series of f about z0
has the form ∞
X
an (z − z0 )n ,
n=m
f (n) (z0 )
where an = , for n ≥ m, and am 6= 0.
n!
We can express f (z) = (z − z0 )m g(z), where
(
(z − z0 )−m f (z), z ∈ G \ {z0 },
g(z) =
am , z = z0 ,
is holomorphic in G.
Since the function g is nonzero at z0 , it is nonzero in a disk around z0 . Hence we have
the following result.
Theorem 6.13. Zeros of finite order of a holomorphic function are isolated.
What about zeros of infinite order?
The set of all zeros of f of infinite order is an open set since the Taylor series expansion
of f around each zero of f of infinite order is 0. By the above argument, the set of all
points of G that are not zeros of f of infinite order is an open set. If G is connected, one
of these sets is empty. If G is not connected, and if f has a zero z0 of infinite order, then
f is 0 in the connected component of G containing z0 .