U.S.T.H.

B Chapter 1 Coordination of MATH1 SM-ST

Faculty of Mathematics Set of Year 2023-2024
Real Numbers

I. Some notions of logic

Before starting the course on real numbers, we will give some notions of mathematical logic.

I.1 Glossary of mathematical statments

▶ Proposition : We call proposition a statement or expression that can be true or false.

Example 1.
• 3 + 5 = 0. Is false.
• n, m two natural numbers, n is greater than m. (This is not a proposition, it's a statement)

▶ Axiom : We call axiom any proposition considered as evident, accepted as true without demonstration.

Example 2. Euclide's Axiom asserts that through a given point A not on a line (D), there is one and
only one line in the plane of A parallel to (D).
▶ Theorem : We call theorem any proposition that is proven to be true.

▶ Corollary : A corollary is a direct consequence of a theorem.

▶ Lemma : We call lemma any true proposition preparatory to the establishment of a theorem of greater
importance.

I.2 Logical connectives

Logical connectives are used to dene other propositions from one or more initial propositions. Let P
and Q be two propositions, we dene by :

▶ Negation : The negation of a proposition P is the proposition, denoted P , which is true when P is
false and false otherwise.

Example 3. P : 3 is an even number (False), P : 3 is not an even number (True).

▶ Conjunction : The conjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P and Q), denoted
(P ∧ Q), which is true if P and Q are both true at the same time. It is false otherwise.

Example 4. The proposition (2 divides 9) and (136 is a multiple of 17) is false, because the rst one is
false .
▶ Disjunction : The disjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P or Q), denoted
(P ∨ Q), which is true if at least one of the two propositions are true. It is false otherwise.

Example 5. The proposition (2 divides 9) or (136 is a multiple of 17) is true, because the second is true.
▶ Implication : The proposition P implies Q, denoted (P =⇒ Q) is true since if P is true, Q must be
also true.
Remark. : The proposition (P =⇒ Q) is also the same as (P ∨ Q).

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Example 6.
Let x ∈ R.
1. (x = 3) =⇒ (x2 = 9) is true.
2. (x2 = 9) =⇒ (x = 3) is false.
3. (x2 = 9) =⇒ (x = −3 ou x = 3) is true.
4. (x > 3) =⇒ (x2 > 9) is true.
5. (x < −3) =⇒ (x2 > 9) is true.
6. (x < −3) =⇒ (x2 < 9) is false.
Remark. From the implication (P =⇒ Q), we dene :
• The implication (Q =⇒ P ), called converse of the implication (=⇒ Q).
• The implication (Q =⇒ P ), called contrapositive of the implication (=⇒ Q).
• The negation (P =⇒ Q) is the proposition (P ∧ Q).

Example 7. Let be the following implication : (n2 is even )=⇒ (n is even).

1. Its converse is : (n is even )=⇒ (n2 is even).
2. Its contrapositive is : (n is odd ) =⇒ (n2 is odd).
3. Its negation is : (n2 is even ) and (n is odd).
▶ Equivalence : The proposition P equivalent to Q, denoted (P ⇐⇒ Q), is true since P and Q are both
trues.
In other words, it is the proposition (P =⇒ Q) ∧ (Q =⇒ P ).

Example 8. Let x ∈ R. We have the following equivalence : x2 − 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1, or x = 1. (the

implication and its converse are both true).
Remark. In mathematical practice, we're only interested in true propositions. In other words, we'll write
P ⇐⇒ Q or P =⇒ Q only when they're true.

I.3 Quantiers
Let P (x) the proposition dependant on the element x of a set E . We write
 ∀x ∈ E, P (x) : when the proposition P is true for all the elements x ∈ E .
∀, which can be read whatever or for all, is called universal quantier.
 ∃x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists at least an element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
∃, which can be read there is at least one, is called existential quantier.
 ∃ ! x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists a unique element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
There is jointly existence and uniqueness of the element x verifying the proposition P .

Example 9.
1. The proposition  ∀n ∈ N∗ , n2 − 1 ≥ 0 is true.
2. The proposition  ∀p ∈ N, p2 ≥ 6 is false.
3. The proposition  ∃n ∈ N, n2 − n > n is true (n=3, n=10, n=100).
4. The proposition  ∃x ∈ Z, x2 = −4 est is false (no square of real number will give a negative number).
5. The proposition  ∃!n ∈ N, n2 − n > n is false.

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I.3.1 Negation of propositions depending on quantiers
 The negation of (∀x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∃x ∈ E, P (x)).
Example 10. The negation of (∀n ∈ N∗ , n2 − 1 ≥ 0) is (∃n ∈ N∗ , n2 − 1 < 0).
 The negation of (∃x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∀x ∈ E, P (x)).
Example 11. The negation of (∃n ≥ 0, n3 − n is a multiple of 3) is (∀n ≥ 0, n3 − n it is not a
multiple of 3).

II. Common sets of numbers

In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a continuous one-dimensional
quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. We consider the following subsets of R :
▶ Natural numbers are denoted by N.
▶ Integers are denoted by Z.

a
▶ Decimal numbers and are expressed in the decimal form n where a ∈ Z, n ∈ N. The set of decimal
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numbers is denoted by D.
p
▶ Rational numbers can be expressed as the quotient or fraction where p ∈ Z and q ∈ Z∗ . The set
q
of rational numbers is usually denoted by Q.
▶ Irrational numbers are all numbers that are not rational, i. e, any real number that cannot be
p √ √
expressed as the quotient of two integers where p ∈ Z and q ∈ Z∗ . For example : 2, 3..., π and
q
e are all irrational numbers are transcendental.

III. Fundamental Properties of real numbers set

III.1 Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is dened as :

x, if x ≥ 0

|x| =
−x, if x < 0

A(x), if A(x) ≥ 0

Note : Let A be a real-valued function : |A(x)| = −A(x), if A(x) < 0
Properties :The following properties hold :
1. ∀x ∈ R, | − x| = |x|.
2. ∀x ∈ R, |x| = 0 ⇔ x = 0.
√
3. ∀x ∈ R, x2 = |x|.
4. ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , |x × y| = |x| × |y|.
x |x|
5. ∀x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R∗ , = .
y |y|
6. ∀x ∈ R, ∀n ∈ N |xn | = |x|n .
7. ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| (Triangle Inequality).
8. ∀x ∈ R, ∀a ≥ 0, |x| ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a.
9. ∀x ∈ R, ∀a ∈ R, |x| ≥ a ⇔ x ≥ a or x ≤ −a.
10. ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , |x| = |y| ⇔ x = y or x = −y .

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III.2 Intervals
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a < b, the following intervals are dened in R
1. Open interval ]a, b[= {x ∈ R, a < x < b}
2. Closed interval [a, b] = {x ∈ R, a ≤ x ≤ b}
3. Right half-open interval [a, b[= {x ∈ R, a ≤ x < b}
4. Left half-open interval ]a, b] = {x ∈ R, a < x ≤ b}
5. [a, +∞[= {x ∈ R, x ≥ a}
6. ] − ∞, b] = {x ∈ R, x ≤ b}
7. The set of real numbers is denoted by R =] − ∞, +∞[.
8. The set R = R ∪ {−∞, +∞} is dened as the extended real line.

III.3 nth root

Denition :
√
▶ For x ∈ R+ and n ∈ N∗ with n is an even number, we call the nth root of x and denote it as n x = x n ,
1

the unique positive solution y ∈ R+ such that y n = x.

√
▶ For x ∈ R and n ∈ N∗ with n is an odd number, we call the nth root of x and denote it as n x = x n ,
1

the unique positive y ∈ R such that y n = x.

√ √ √ √
Examples : 3 8 = 2, 4 81 = 3, 5 3 = 3 5 , 3 −1 = −1.
1

Properties :
√ √ √
1. ∀x, y ∈ R+ , n x y = n x n y .
√ |x|, if n even

2. ∀x ∈ R, n n
x =
x, if n odd

III.4 Floor Function or integer part function

Denition : The oor of a real number x, denoted as f loor(x) (or ⌊x⌋ ) is the greatest integer that is
less than or equal to x. In other words, for any real number x, there exists a unique integer f loor(x) ∈ Z,
such that
f loor(x) ≤ x < f loor(x) + 1.

Figure 1  Representative curve of the integer part function

Properties : Let x be a real number. We have

1. x − 1 < ⌊x⌋ ≤ x.

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 2. ⌊x⌋ = x ⇐⇒ x ∈ Z.
3. ∀k ∈ Z, ⌊x + k⌋ = ⌊x⌋ + k.
 
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Examples : ⌊3⌋ = 3, ⌊−5⌋ = −5, ⌊2.8⌋ = 2, ⌊−3.1⌋ = −4, = 0.
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III.5 Some basic formulas in R

Newton's binomial formula : For all n ∈ N and for all a, b ∈ R, we have :
n
X n!
(a + b) = n
Ckn ak bn−k , with Ckn =
k=0
k! (n − k)!

The coecients Ckn are called binomial coecients. To calculate these binomial coecients, we can use the
following Pascal's triangle

HH
k
H k=0 k=1 k=2 k=3 k=4 k=5 k= 6 · · ·
n H HH

n=0 1

n=1 1 1

n=2 1 2 1

n=3 1 3 3 1

n=4 1 4 6 4 1

n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1

n=6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
..
.

Table 1  Pascal's triangle

We obtain for example C25 = 10, C34 = 4, C36 = 20, C26 = 15, C13 = 3 · · ·
Remark : The binomial coecient verify for all n in N the following properties :
Cnn = 1, C0n = 1, Cnn−1 = n

3 3
Example : Develop x + 2
 
and x − 1 .
We have
 3
3 X
x+2 = Ck3 xk 23−k = C03 x0 23 + C13 x1 22 + C23 x2 21 + C33 x3 20 = 8 + 12x + 6x2 + x3 .
k=0
and
 3
3 X
x−1 = Ck3 xk (−1)3−k = C03 x0 (−1)3 + C13 x1 (−1)2 + C23 x2 (−1)1 + C33 x3 (−1)0
k=0
= −1 + 3x − 3x2 + x3 .

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 n
n(n + 1)
Some of the rst n integers : We have ∀n ∈ N, 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n =
X
k= .
k=1
2
Some of the n rst terms of a geometric sequence : Let x ∈ R − {1}, then
n
X 1 − xn+1
xk = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn = .
k=0
1−x
n  1 − xn 
X
k 2 n x − xn+1
x = x + x + ··· + x = x = .
k=1
1−x 1−x

IV. Axiomatic denition of the real numbers set or theoretical

presentation of real numbers set
IV.1 Algebraic axioms of the Real Numbers
Endowed R the binary operations of addition (+) and multiplication (×) , we have the following properties.
Properties of addition :
• The addition is commutative : ∀x, y ∈ R, x + y = y + x.
• The addition is associative : ∀x, y, z ∈ R, (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
• Adding zero to any number, does not change the number ; this means that zero is the identity element
for addition, and is also known as the additive identity. In symbols, for every x ∈ R one has
0 + x = x + 0 = x.
• The additive inverse of a number a (sometimes called the opposite of a) is the number that, when
added to x, yields zero. In symbols, for every x ∈ R, there exists an element denoted by (−x) in R
such that x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0.
Properties of multiplication :
• The multiplication is commutative : ∀x, y ∈ R, x × y = y × x.
• The multiplication is associative : ∀x, y, z ∈ R, (x × y) × z = x × (y × z).
• Existence of a neutral element : there is a unique element 1 ∈ R such that ; for all x ∈ R we have
1 × x = x × 1 = x.
• Existence of multiplicative inverse : ∀x ∈ R∗ , there exists an element x−1 such that
x−1 × x = x × x−1 = 1.
Distributive property of multiplication over addition :
∀x, y, z ∈ R, x × (y + z) = (x × y) + (x × z).
Conclusion : The set of real numbers R forms a eld under addition and multiplication : (R, +, ×).

IV.2 Comparison between reals numbers (Order Axioms)

Real numbers possess an ordering relation (≤ or ≥), (R, +, ×, ≤) is a totally ordered eld. Indeed :
• ∀x ∈ R, x ≤ x (reexive property).
• ∀x, y, z ∈ R, x ≤ y and y ≤ z =⇒ x ≤ z (transitive property ).
• ∀x, y ∈ R, x ≤ y and y ≤ x =⇒ x = y (antisymmetric property ).
• ∀x, y ∈ R, x ≤ y or y ≤ x ( total ordering property ).
Proprieties : Let x, y, z, t ∈ R.
▷ x ≤ y and z ≤ t =⇒ x + z ≤ y + t.
▷ x ≤ y and z ≥ 0 =⇒ x × z ≤ y × z .
▷ x ≤ y and z ≤ 0 =⇒ x × z ≥ y × z .

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IV.3 Bounds of subsets of R (Supremum axiom)
Before stating the supremum axiom, we need some denitions of the least (minimum) and greatest
(maximum) elements of a part of R, the upper bound (majorant) and lower bound (minorant).

IV.3.1 Maximum and minimum :

Denition :Let A ⊂ R be a nonempty subsets of R.
▶ We say that α is the greatest element of A (or maximum of A) if and only if
α∈A and ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ α.
We denote α = max A.
▶ We say that β is the least element of A (or minimum of A) if and only if
β∈A and ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ β.
Notice that β = min A.
Examples :
1. The sets N, Z, Q and R do not have a greatest element.
 
2. The set N has a least element 0 ∈ N min N = 0 because ∀x ∈ N, x ≥ 0 .
3. A = [2, 6] has a maximum and minimum, min A = 2 and max A = 6.
4. B =]1, 7[ has neither maximum nor minimum.
5. C =] − 2, 3] has a maximum and does not have a minimum, max C = 3 and the minimum C does
not exist

IV.3.2 Upper and lower bounds (majorant and minorant) :

Denition :Let m and M be two arbitrary real numbers, and let A be a nonempty subset of R.
▶ We say that M is an upper bound of the set A (or A is bounded above by M ) if and only if
∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M.

▶ We say that m is a lower bound of the set A (or A is bounded below by m) if and only if
∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m.

▶ If the set A is both bounded above and bounded below, then A is said to be bounded.
Remark :
• "The least element of A is a lower bound of A, and the greatest element of A is an upper bound of
A."
• "A lower bound of A (respectively, an upper bound of A) may not be the least element of A (res-
pectively, the greatest element of A), as it is not necessarily in A."
• "The least element and the greatest element, if they exist, are unique."
Examples :
1. A = [2, 6] is bounded ; it is both bounded above and bounded below. The set of upper bounds of A
is [6, +∞[ and the set of lower bounds of A is ] − ∞, 2].
Hence, we have max A = 6 and min A = 2.
2. B =]1, 7[ is bounded ; it is both bounded above and bounded below.
The set of upper bounds of B is [7, +∞[ and the set of lower bounds of B is ] − ∞, 1].
Thus, 7 is an upper bound of B but it is not a maximum of B , and we write max B does not exist.
1 is a lower bound of B but it is not a minimum of B , and we write min B does not exist.
3. C =] − ∞, 5] is bounded above, and the set of upper bounds of C is [5, +∞[, but it is not bounded
because it is not bounded below.

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IV.3.3 Supremum and inmum (sup and inf)
Denition : Let A be a nonempty subset of R.
▶ The supremum of A, denoted as sup A ; is the least upper bound of A.
▶ The inmum of A, denoted as inf A ; is the greatest lower bound of A.
Examples :
1. A = [2, 6] the set of upper bounds of A is [6, +∞[, then, sup A = 6.
The set of lower bounds of A is] − ∞, 2], then, inf A = 2.
2. B =]1, 7[ the set of upper bounds of B is [7, +∞[, then, sup B = 7.
The set of lower bounds of B is ] − ∞, 1], then, inf B = 1.
3. C =] − ∞, 5] the set of upper bounds of C is [5, +∞[, then, sup C = 5.
The set C is not bounded below, so inf C does not exist.
Supremum axiom
▶ Every nonempty set in R that is bounded above has a supremum.
▶ Every nonempty set in R that is bounded below has an inmum.
Proposition :
Let A and B be two nonempty sets in R, then
n o
• sup(A ∪ B) = max sup A, sup B .
n o
• inf(A ∪ B) = min inf A, inf B .

 
1
Exercise : Let A = 3− | n ∈ N , determine sup A, inf A, min A et max A, if exist.
2n + 1
First method
For all n ∈ N, we have
n ≥ 0 ⇒ 2n + 1 ≥ 1
1
⇒0< ≤1
2n + 1
1
⇒2≤3− <3
2n + 1
So, 2 is a lower bound of A, and 2 ∈ A( for n = 0) therefore min
A = inf A =2.
1
Furthermore, 3 is an upper bound of A and 3 ∈ / A. Since lim 3 − = 3, then sup A = 3.
n→+∞ 2n + 1
The max A does not exist because (3 ∈/ A).

Second Method
This method consists of using the theorem of convergence of monotonic sequences as follows :

Theorem 1. (Convergence of a monotone sequence )

1. If a sequence (un )n∈N is increasing and bounded above, then its supremum is the limit

lim un = sup{un , n ∈ N}.

n→+∞

2. If a sequence (un )n∈N is decreasing and bounded below, then its inmum is the limit

lim un = inf{un , n ∈ N}.

n→+∞

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 We consider the sequence (Un )n∈N dened for all n ∈ N, by

1
Un = 3 − .
2n + 1
We will now apply Theorem 1, to nd the bounds of the set A. Indeed
• Study of the Monotonicity of the Sequence (Un )n∈N
For all n ∈ N, we have :
   
1 1 2
Un+1 − Un = 3 − − 3− = >0
2n + 3 2n + 1 (2n + 1)(2n + 3)

Therefore, the sequence (Un )n is strictly increasing.

• Bounds of A
Since the sequence (Un )n is strictly increasing, we have, U0 < U1 < U2 · · · < Un , ∀n ∈ N.
It follows that min A = inf A = U0 = 2.  1 
The sequence (Un )n is increasing and 3 is an upper bound because 3 − < 3, ∀n ∈ N , then
2n + 1
(Un )n converges to l = sup A
 
1
l = lim Un = lim 3 − = 3.
n→+∞ n→+∞ 2n + 1

Remark that 3 ∈
/ A, hence max A does not exist.

V. Some type of mathematical reasoning

Here is some mode of reasoning in mathematics.

V.1 Direct reasoning

We want to show that the proposition P =⇒ Q is true. This reasoning consists in assuming that P is
true and showing that Q is true.
a b
Example 12. Let a, b ≥ 0. Let us show that if = then a = b.
1+b 1+a
a b
We suppose that = then a(1 + a) = b(1 + b) so a + a2 = b + b2 d'où a2 − b2 = b − a. This leads
1+b 1+a
to (a − b)(a + b) = −(a − b) that is to say (a − b)(1 + a + b) = 0 thus a = b or a + b = −1. As a, b ≥ 0 then
their sum cannot be negative. Therefore, we conclude that a = b.

V.2 Contrapositive
The reasoning by contrapositive is based on the following equivalence :
(P ⇒ Q) ⇐⇒ (Q =⇒ P ).
So if we want to show P =⇒ Q, we just need to show Q =⇒ P .

Example 13. Let n ∈ N. Let's show that if n2 is even then n is even.

First, let's write the contrapositive : If n isn't even, then n isn't even.
2

It is assumed that n is not even. We want to show that n2 is not even. Since n is not even, it is odd and
so there exists k ∈ N such that n = 2k + 1. Then

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2l + 1 with l = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ N.

And so n2 is odd.
Therefore, by contraposition, this is equivalent to : if n2 is even then n is even.

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V.3 Contradiction
Reasoning by contradiction to show that a proposition P is true is based on the following principle :
We assume that P is true and look for a contradiction. Thus, if P is false, this means that P must be true.

Example 14. Let's show the following proposition : 0 has no inverse in R. Let's reason by the absurd, i.e.
suppose 0 admits an inverse in R.
1
Then ∃x′ ∈ R : 0 = ′ =⇒ 0.x′ = 1 =⇒ 0 = 1. Which is absurd, so 0 has no inverse in R.
x

V.4 Counter-example
This mode of demonstration is used to show that a proposition of the form : For any x in E , P (x) is
false. To do this, we need only show that its negation is true, which means that : If there exists x in E ,
P (x) is true.

Example 15. Let's show the following proposition ∀x ∈ R, x2 + 1 = 0 is false.

It suces to show that its negation is true, i.e. ∃x ∈ R, x2 + 1 ̸= 0 is true. For x = 1, x2 + 1 = 2 ̸= 0 is
true. So the proposition ∀x ∈ R x2 + 1 = 0 is false.

V.5 Induction
The principle of induction makes it possible to show that a proposition P (n), depending on n, is true
for all n ∈ N. Demonstration by induction involves three steps :
Initialization : we show that P (0) is true.
Heredity : Assume that P (n) is true for a given n ≥ 0 and show that the assertion at the next rank
P (n + 1) is true.
The conclusion : Recall that the induction principle P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.
Remark. If we need to show that a proposition is true for all n ≥ n0 then we start the initialization at
rank n0 .

Example 16. Let's show that : ∀n ∈ N, 2n > n.

For n ≥ 0, let's denote P (n) the following assertion : 2n > n.
We'll show by induction that P (n) is true for all n ≥ 0.
Initialization : For n = 0 we have 20 = 1 > 0 so P (0) is true.
Heredity : Set n ≥ 1. Assume that P (n) is true and show that P (n + 1) is true.
2n+1 = 2 · 2n
= 2 n + 2n
> n + 2n car 2n > n
> n + 1 car 2n ≥ 1
So P (n + 1) is true.
Conclusion : by the induction principle of P (n) is true for each n ≥ 0, i.e. 2n > n ∀n ≥ 0.

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