J.H.

CERILLES STATE COLLEGE

School of Criminal Justice Education
Mati, San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

Chapter 6
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality Disorders are disorders in which one's personality results in personal
distress or significantly impair social or work functioning. Every person has a character
that is a unique way of thinking, feeling, behaving, and relating to others. Most people
experience at least some difficulties and problems that result from their personality.
3 CLUSTERS OF PERSONALITY DISORDER

Cluster A-disorders of odd/eccentric reactions

1. Paranoid Personality Disorder. People with Paranoid Personality Disorder are
excessively mistrustful and suspicious of others, without any justification. They tend
not to confide in others and to think other people want to harm them. People with
this disorder may be argumentative, may complain, or may be quiet, but they are
obviously hostile towards others. They often appear tense and are very sensitive to
criticism and have an excessive need for autonomy.
A paranoid personality disorder is manifested by a pervasive distrust and
suspiciousness of others and a tendency to interpret the actions of others as
malevolent or threatening.
Characteristics of a Paranoid-Schizophrenic
a) The paranoid-schizophrenic is disturbed to a degree such that he is out of touch
of reality, suffering from psychosis, mentally deranged or insane.
b) There are usually two primary symptoms, i.e., hallucinations and delusions.

Definition of Hallucinations
Hallucinations involve hearing or seeing things that are not really there.
Definition of Delusions
Delusions involve a false system of beliefs that persists despite evidence to the
contrary.

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 2. Schizoid Personality Disorder:
People with this Personality Disorder show a pattern of detachment from social
relationships and a very limited range of emotions in interpersonal situations. They
seem aloof, cold, and indifferent to other people. Individuals with Schizoid
Personality Disorder seem neither to desire or enjoy closeness with others, including
romantic or sexual relationships.
A schizoid personality disorder is characterized by a tendency to be indifferent to
social relationships and by restricted expression of emotions in interpersonal
settings.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder:
People with Schizotypal Personality Disorder are typically socially isolated, like
those with Schizoid Personality Disorder. In addition, however, they also behave in
ways that would seem unusually to many of us, and they tend to be suspicious and
to have odd beliefs. They often have ideas of reference, which means they think
insignificant events relate directly to them. They often report unusual perceptual
experiences, including such illusions as feeling the presence of another person when
they are alone. Those with this disorder tend to have paranoid thoughts and express
little emotion.
Those with a schizotypal personality disorder display eccentric ways of thinking.
perceiving, communicating, and behaving and are acutely uncomfortable in close
relationships.

Cluster B-disorders of dramatic, emotional, or erratic reactions.

1. Anti-social Personality Disorder
> Anti-social personalities usually fail to understand that their behavior is
dysfunctional because their ability to feel guilty, remorseful, and anxious is impaired
Guilt, remorse, shame, and anxiety are unpleasant feelings, but they are also
necessary for social functioning and even physical survival.
For example, people who cannot feel anxious will often fail to anticipate actual
dangers and risks. They may take chances that other people would not accept.
a.) A person with an anti-social personality is also known as a sociopath or
psychopath.
Definition of Sociopath
Is a person who lacks any sense of social or moral responsibility due to mental
illness.
Definition of Psychopath

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 Is person having personality disorders characterized an-social behavior, indifference
to immorality and abnormal changes in mood or activity.
b) He is the classic manipulator or con artist.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOPATHS:

1. Absence of conscience
2. Emotional Immaturity
3. Absence of life plan
4. Failure to learn from experience

2. Borderline Personality Disorder

> People with borderline personality disorder experience intense emotional
instability, particularly in relationships with others. They may make frantic efforts
to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others. They may experience minor
problems as significant crises.
> They may also express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal
gestures, self-mutilation, and other self-destructive acts. They tend to have an
unstable self-image or sense of self.
A borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability of interpersonal
relationships, self-image, and emotions as well as by marked impulsivity.
3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder:
People with this disorder show an exaggerated sense of self-importance and are
preoccupied with receiving attention. They lack sensitivity and compassion for
others due to their unreasonable self-absorption. They are not comfortable unless
someone is admiring them. They are often grandiose and also tend to use or exploit
others for their own interests and show little empathy. They can be extremely
envious and arrogant when confronted with other successful people, and are
frequently depressed because they often fail to live up to their own expectations.
Manifestations of a narcissistic personality disorder include a pervasive pattern of
grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy
Cluster C-disorders involving anxiety and fearfulness
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder
>An avoidant personality disorder is a social withdrawal due to intense, anxious
shyness. People with avoidant personalities are reluctant to interact with others
unless they feel confident in being liked. They fear being criticized and rejected.
Often, they view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
2. Dependent Personality Disorder

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 >Dependent personality disorder involves severe and disabling emotional
dependency on others. People with the disorder have difficulty making decisions
without a great deal of advice and reassurance from others. They urgently seek out
another relationship when a close relationship ends. They feel uncomfortable by
themselves.
Those with a dependent personality disorder allow others to make decisions and
display a need to be taken care of that leads to submissive and clinging behavior
accompanied by fears of separation.
3. Histrionic Personality Disorder
>People with historical personality disorder continually strive to be the center of
attention. They may act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention. They
may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated emotional
reactions.
4. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
>An obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a preoccupation
with details, orderliness, perfection, and control. People with this disorder often
devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take time for
leisure activities and friendships. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and
dangerous. This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often
includes more bizarre behavior and rituals.
An obsessive-compulsive personality disorder involves, in many contexts, a
tendency toward perfectionism, a rigid preoccupation with orderliness, and mental
and interpersonal control at the expense of flexibility, openness, and efficiency.
A disorder termed a personality disorder not otherwise specified is one that does not
meet the criteria for a specific personality disorder but in which the combination of
symptoms causes clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning.

MEMORY DISORDER
1. A delirium is characterized by a disturbance in consciousness and a change in
cognition that develop over a short time. Some examples are delirium due to a
medical condition, and substance-induced delirium (such as caused by a drug of
abuse or a toxin). Drugs that are listed as causing the condition include alcohol,
amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, marijuana, nicotine,
opiates, phencyclidine (PCP), sedatives, and other unspecified chemicals.
Substance withdrawal may also produce a delirium.
2. A dementia is characterized by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory
impairment. Examples are dementia of Alzheimer's type, vascular dementia, and
dementia due to HIV disease

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 3. An amnestic disorder is shown by multiple cognitive deficits that include
memory impairment, but the disorder is not connected with states of delerium or
dementia. A major problem is the transfer of information from short term to long
term memory. Amnestic disorders result from a physical cause such as a
traumatic event (for example, a head injury incurred in an accident, during
surgery, or from an electric shock), drug abuse, or the use of medications.
4. A fourth category, cognitive disorder not otherwise specified, is used to
delineate a cognitive dysfunction presumed to be due to a general medical
condition or substance use but that does not meet the other diagnostic criteria.
Classifications of Mental Retardation

1. Profound
I.Q. is under 20, and capable at most of limited self-help. There is most likely a need
for hospitalization or some type of environment in which care is available
throughout his lifetime.
2. Severe
1.Q. is between 20 and 35, and capable of habit- training as a child. As an adult he
is likely in need of a controlled environment.
3. Moderate
I.Q. is 36 to 51 and can develop academic skills equal to about the second- grade
level. As an adult hee will most probably need a sheltered environment.
4. Mild
IQ. is 56 to 67 and constitutes the largest group of mentally retarded. He can develop
academic skills about the sixth-grade level. As an adult he can develop social and
vocational skills. Whether he is to be institutionalized or not depends more on his
social skills and on the range of alternatives available to him. Although it is not part
of the original standard classification, a fifth degree known as borderline retardation
with an IQ of 68 83 may be added.
CLASSICAL TYPES OF MENTAL DEFICIENCES
1. Idiot
Usually congenital and due to the defective development of the mental faculties. An
idiot is wanting in memory, willpower and emotion. He cannot express himself by
language, is quiet, timid and easily irritated. He cannot guard himself against
common physical dangers. The deficiency is usually associated with physical
abnormalities like microcephaly and mongolism.Mentality never exceeds that of a
normal child over 2 years old. The 1.Q 1s from 0 - 20.
2. Imbecile

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 Although the mental defect is not as severe as that of idiots, he cannot manage his
own affairs. He may be able to speak but with poor command of language. He can
easily be aroused to passion and may show purposeful behavior. He may be trained
to do simple work under supervision. The mental age may be compared to a normal
child from 3 to 7 years old and the I.Q. is 21 - 40.
3. Feeble-Minded
A person whose mental defect, although not amounting to imbecility is so
pronounced such that he receives care, supervision, and control for his protection
and for the protection of others. He is incapable of receiving benefits from
instruction in ordinary school. He lacks initiative and ability for any work or
responsibility. He has a mentality similar to that of a normal child between 8 and 12
years old and an 1.Q. of 41-70.
4. Morally Defective
In addition to the mental defect, there are strong vicious and criminal propensities,
so that the person requires care, supervision and control for the protection of others.
He is devoid of a moral sense and offer show intellectual deficiency though he may
be mentally alert. He is careless, pleasure-loving, and a devil-may-care sort who
adheres to the principles of live today for tomorrow we die, live fast and die young
and it is only happiness that counts.

MENTALLY DERANGED
Mental Illness - any behavioral disorder, whether functional or organic, with such a
degree of severity as to require professional help and (usually) hospitalization.
3 Major Classes of Mental Disorders:

1. Psychoses - which entail a gross derangement of mental processes and inability to

evaluate external reality correctly
2. Neuroses which entail impairment of functioning, often a segment of a behavior but
no sharp break with reality.
3. Psychosomatic disorders which entail very real organic symptoms and malfunctions
caused at least in part by psychological processes.
. EATING DISORDER
An individual suffering with Anorexia Nervosa has a very low body weight caused
by self-imposed starvation. In women this can also result in cessation of menstrual
periods. Those with Bulimia Nervosa engage in a pattern of binge-eating episodes
followed by inappropriate and harmful compensatory behaviors such as self-induced
vomiting, abuse of laxatives and/or diuretics, and excessive exercise. Bulimics are

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 usually of normal or slightly above average weight. The underlying link between
anorexia and bulimia is that both conditions are characterized by an overriding
preoccupation with body size and shape.
TWO TYPES OF EATING DISORDER
1. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal
weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and distortion in the perception of the
shape or size of one's body. Postmenarcheal females with this condition are often
amenorrheic (having missed three consecutive menstrual cycles). Muscular
weakness and osteoporosis (bone loss) may also occur.
2. Bulimia nervosa is manifested by binge eating and use of inappropriate
techniques, such as purging or use of laxatives, to prevent weight gain. To
qualify for this diagnosis, an individual must engage in binge eating and the
inappropriate compensatory acts (purging, use of laxatives), on average, twice a
week for three months

ABNORMAL PATTERN OF SEXUAL DEVIANCE

Transsexualism
< It refers to a condition in which an individual feels trapped in the wrong sex's
body. Male transsexual thinks of themselves as women who want heterosexual
relations with men and sometimes request surgery to correct their anatomy,
including also for females.

BESTIALITY
It is sexual deviance wherein the sexual gratification is attained by having sexual
intercourse with living animals

NECROPHILIA
A kind of sexual deviancy wherein sexual gratification can be attained by having
sex with dead bodies.

SODOMY
➤ An abnormal pattern of sexual deviance wherein the sexual gratification is
attained by having intercourse through the anus.

Voyeurism-
>It is the practice of obtaining sexual desire pleasure by watching members of the
Opposite sex undress or engage in sexual activities (voyeurs or peeping Toms).

TRANSVESTISM
A It is an Abnormal pattern of Sexual deviance, which refers to obtaining sexual
pleasure by dressing in the clothes of the opposite sex.

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 Exhibitionism (indecent exposure)
> It is an intentional exposure of the genitals to members of the opposite sex under
inappropriate conditions. It could be in the park, public places such as department
store, theater, church, or bus. The act sometimes accompanied by masturbation.

Sadism
> It is the practice of obtaining sexual pleasure by inflicting pain on others.

Masochism
> It is a condition in which receiving pain is sexually exciting.

Additional Sexual Deviance

Forced Sexual Behavior

> Rape- a condition whereby an individual forces another person to engage in a

sexual act

> Pedophilia- obtaining pleasure from sexual contact with children. Generally, overt
force is not employed, and often the child is not aware of the sexual nature of what
is occurring.

> Incest sexual relations between relatives.

Chapter 7
VICTIMOLOGY

Victimology is the study about victims of crime. It is a branch of criminology that

deals purely with the underlying factors of victimization and the contributory role
of the victims in the commission of crimes.

Victimology is the study of "crime targets," showed that a person becomes a victim
of crime consciously (knowingly) and unconsciously (unknowingly). A person
could become a victim due to his own action or fault. He somehow contributes to
the commission of a crime because of his own making

GOALS OF VICTIMOLOGY
The study of victimology focuses on five goals:

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 1. To understand and measure the extent and nature of the crime as victims perceive
them
2. To assess the relative risk of victimization
3. To appreciate the nature and extent of losses, injuries, and damage experienced
by victims of crime
4. To study the relationship between victims and offender
5. To investigate the social reaction of the family, community, and society toward
the victim of crime

CONCEPT OF VICTIMOLOGY
One of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime is its victim: the person,
households, and businesses that bear the brunt of crime.
The word victim was connected to the notion of sacrifice, especially in ancient
cultures. Initially, the term is referred to as a person or an animal put to death during
a ceremony in order to appease some supernatural power or deity.
Today the term commonly refers to individuals who experience injury, loss, or
hardship for any reason. People can be victims of accidents, diseases, natural
disasters, or social problems like warfare, discrimination, or other injuries. Crime
victims are harmed because of illegal acts.
Victimization can happen either with or without the knowledge or consent of those
who are victimized. Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is abusive,
destructive, unfair, and in many cases, in violation of the law.

What Victimization Implies

The word victimization has a negative connotation. It conveys adverse effects or
undesirable consequences caused or brought by, some external forces or by some
individuals, groups, or organizations. It implies the incurring of

a. Injury, harm, loss, inconvenience, discomfort, pain and suffering

b. One party prey upon another (Fattah & Socco)
Contrary to popular conception, many forms of violent victimization are not
punishable under criminal law. The physical violence in sports, such as boxing,
wrestling, and martial arts are an example of this (Kalalang, 2018).
THE NATURE OF VICTIMIZATION

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 Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and non-victims. Among
them are age, gender, social status, marital status, race, and residence
VICTIM CHARACTERISTICS
AGE - victim data reveal that young people face a much higher victimization risk
than do an older person.
GENDER - except for the crimes of rape and sexual assault, makes are more likely
than females to suffer violent crime. Men are twice as likely as a woman to
experience aggravated assault and robbery. Women, however, are six times more
likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
When men are the victims of violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger, women are
much more likely to be attacked by a relative than are men. About two-thirds of all
attacks against women are committed by a husband, boyfriend, family member, or
acquaintance
SOCIAL STATUS - people in the lowest income categories are much more likely
to become crime victims than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals are most
likely the victims of crime because they live in crime prone areas, such as the slums
and the urban regions. Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes,
the wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes, such as pocket-
picking and purse (bag) snatching.
MARITAL STATUS - discovered and never-married males and females are
victimized more often than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest
victimization risk.
RACE - in the US., African Americans (blacks) are more likely than whites to be
victims of violent crime.
RESIDENCE - urban residents are more likely than rural or suburban residents to
become victims of crime

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS THAT INCREASE THE POTENTIAL FOR

VICTIMIZATION

Three types of characteristics increase the potential for victimization: (Finkelhor and
Asigan, 1996)

1. TARGET VULNERABILITY. Victim's physical weakness or psychological

distress renders them incapable of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy
targets.

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 2. TARGET GRATIFIABILITY Some victims have some quality, possession, kill,
or attribute that an offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate.
Having attractive properties, such as a leather coat, may make one vulnerable to
predatory crime
3. TARGET ANTAGONISM - some characteristics increase risk because they
arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders Being gay or
effeminate, for example, may bring on underserved attacks in the street, being
argumentative and alcoholic may provoke the assault.

THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION

For many years criminological theories focused on the actions of the criminal
offender, the role of the victim was ignored. In contrast, modern victimization
theories already acknowledge that the victims are not a passive target in crime, but
someone whose behavior can influence his or her fate.
1. VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY according to this view, some people may
initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim
precipitation can be either active or passive.
Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting
words, or even attack first.
Passive precipitation, on the other hand, occurs when the victim exhibits some
personal characteristics that unknowingly threaten or encourage the attacker The
crime can occur because of personal conflict - for example, when two people
compete over a job, promotion, love interest, or some other scarce and in- demand
commodity

2. LIFESTYLE THEORY- according to this theory, people may become crime

victims because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.
- Developed by Michael Hindelang, Michael Gottfredson, and James Garofalo
Centers of specific propositions Probability of suffering a personal victimization is
related to the amount of time a person spends in public places.
Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors when:
*associating with young men
*going out in public places late at night
*living in an urban area

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 One's chances of victimization can be reduced by staying home at night, moving to
a rural area, staying out of public places, earning more money, and getting married.
People who have high-risk lifestyles like drinking, taking drugs, and getting
involved in the crime thus maintain a much higher chance of victimization
During the investigation, victims are classified into three general categories that
describe the level of risk their lifestyle represents the violent crime that has been
committed
This information is essential to the investigation better to understand the
sophistication or possible pathology of the offender.
A HIGH-RISK VICTIMS - victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes them a
higher risk of being a victim of a violent crime.
The most apparent high-risk victim is the prostitute. Prostitutes place themselves at
risk every single time they get into strangers, and for the most part, attempt to
conceal their actions for legal reasons.
B. MODERATE RISK VICTIMS - victims that fall into this category are lower risk
victims, but for some reason is in the situation that placed them at a higher level of
risk.
A person who is stranded in a dark and secluded area and accepts a ride from a
stranger would be a good example.
C. LOW-RISK VICTIMS - the lifestyle of these individuals would typically not
place them in any degree of risk for becoming a victim of a violent come
These individuals stay out of trouble, do not have peers that are criminal, are aware
of their surroundings, and attempt to take precautions so as not to be victimized.
They lock the doors, do not use drugs, and do not go into areas that are dark and
secluded

3. DEVIANT PLACE THEORY - according to this theory, victims do not

encourage crime but are victim-prone because they reside in socially disorganized
high-crime areas where they have the greatest risk of coming into contact with
criminal offenders, the more exposure to dangerous places makes an individual more
likely to the victim of crime.
4. ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY LAWRENCE COHEN and MARCUS
FELSON first articulated this theory. They concluded that the volume and
distribution of predatory crime (violent crimes against a person and crimes in which
an offender attempts to steal an object directly) are closely related to the interaction
of three variables that reflect the routine activities
Offenders often rely on all of these factors and specifically target prostitutes because
such conditions lower their chances of becoming suspects in the crime. Therefore,

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 in the example, the prostitute is a high-risk victim creating a lower risk to the
offender
The availability of suitable targets, such as homes containing easily saleable goods
The absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbors, friends,
and relatives The presence of motivated offenders, such as a large number of
unemployed teenagers
5. VICTIM FACILITATION
Victim facilitation is a more accepted theory than victim proneness, finds its roots
in the writings of Marvin. Wolfgang. The interaction of the victim allows certain
crimes committed against them or makes them vulnerable to become a victim.

CRIME VICTIM

The legal definition of a victim typically includes the following:

A victim refers to a person who has suffered direct, or threatened, physical,
emotional or pecuniary harm as a result of the commission of a crime; or in the case
of a victim being an institutional entity, any of the same harms by an individual or
authorized representative of another entity.
Group harms are normally covered under civil and constitutional law, with hate
crime being an emerging criminal law development, although criminal law tends to
treat all cases as individualized.

Besides "primary crime victims", there are also secondary victims who experience
the harm second hand, such as intimate partners or significant others of rape victims
or children of a battered woman. It may also make sense to talk about tertiary crime
victims who experience the harm vicariously, such as through media accounts or
from watching television (Eduardo, 2018).

Who is a crime victim?

Crime Victim refers to any person, group, or entity who has suffered injury or loss
due to illegal activity (man- made). The harm can be
a Physical- include physical injury, generally, it involves physical pain
b. Psychological- the following are psychological reactions.
1. Increase in the belief of personal vulnerability,

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 2. Perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible,
3. View themselves in a negative light

Effects of Victimization

Being the target or victim of rape, robbery, or assault is a terrible burden that can
have considerable long- term consequences. The costs of victimization can include
such things as damaged property, pain and suffering to victims, and the involvement
of the police and other agencies of the justice system. In this section, we explore
some of the effects of these incidents.

1. ECONOMIC LOSS

When the costs of goods taken during property crimes are added to productivity
losses caused by injury, pain, and emotional trauma, the cost of victimization is
estimated to be in huge amounts Economical, it includes loss of property like family
house, business establishment, and the like.
2. SYSTEM ABUSE

The suffering endured by the victims does not end when their attacker leaves the
scene of the crime. They may suffer more victimization by the justice system.
While the crime is still fresh in their minds, victims may find that the police
interrogation following the crime is handled callously, with innuendos that they
were somehow at fault. Research by Courtney Ahrens found that rape survivors who
speak out about their assault experiences are often punished for doing so when they
are subjected to negative reactions from people who were supposed to give them
support, leading some rape survivors to choose their silence.

Ahrens uncovered three routes to silence:

*negative reactions from professionals led survivor to question whether future
disclosures would be useful,
*negative reactions from friends and family reinforced feelings of self-blame
*negative reactions from either sourced reinforced uncertainty about whether their
experiences qualified as rape.

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 3. LONG-TERM STRESS
Victims may suffer stress and anxiety long after the incident is over, and the justice
process has been completed.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)- a condition whose symptoms include
depression, anxiety, and self- destructive behavior is a common problem, especially
when the victim does not receive adequate support from family and friends.
4. FEAR
Many people fear crime, especially the old, the needy, and marginal group members.
Victims of violent crimes are the most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their
attack. These people are more likely to suffer psychological stress for extended
periods of time Crime can have devastating effects on its victims, who may take
years to recover from the incident.

5. ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Kids who are victims share many of the same behavior tendencies and impulsive
personalities. As Adults, victims are more likely to commit crimes themselves

People who were physically or sexually abused, especially young males, are much
more likely to smoke, drink, and take drugs than are non-abused youth.
Victims may seek revenge against the people who harmed them or who they believe
is at fault for their problems. In some cases, these feelings become generalized to
others who share the same characteristics of their attackers (Siegel).

Models of Victimization

There are a number of procedural models that can be applied to the study of the
victimization process for the purpose of understanding the experience of the victims.
1. "Victims of Crime Model" (by Bard and Sangrey). According to this model, there
are three stages involved in any victimization:
a. Stage of Impact & Disorganization stage during and immediately following the
criminal
b. Stage of Recoil - stage during which the victim formulates psychological defenses
and deals with conflicting emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance, and desire of
revenge (said to last three to eight months),

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 c. Reorganization Stage - stage during which the victim puts his or her life back to
normal daily living. Some victims, however, may not successfully adopt the
victimization experience, and a maladaptive reorganization stage may last for many
years.
2. "Disaster Victim's Model" - this model was developed to explain the coping
behavior of victims of a natural disaster.

According to this model, there are four stages of victimization:

a. Pre-impact-stage describe the victim's condition prior to being victimized

b. Impact - the stage at which victimization occurs
c. post-impact - stage which entails the degree and duration of personal and social
disorganization following victimization
d. Behavioral outcome - the stage that describes the victim's adjustment to the
victimization experience.

Do Victims have shared responsibility in crime?

Schools of Thought argues, "why laws are broken, and people get hurt?". They are
stuck with the argument of Victim Blaming Victim Defending-Fixed responsibility.
To answer the question asked above, one has to learn and understand the following
concept?

Victim Facilitation
Victim precipitation and provocation shared responsibility in violent crimes
Recognizing complete innocence and full responsibility
The term is more appropriate to be used in cases of burglaries and theft. The term
facilitation refers to those situations which the victim unknowingly and negligently
makes it easier for the criminal to commit criminal acts.
Facilitating victims assist their offenders and therefore share a minor amount of
blame. They increase the risks of losing their property by their own thoughtless
actions.
Victim facilitation and provocation

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 Both terms are more appropriate to use on the victimization of murder, robbery,
assault, and rape.

❖ Victim precipitation- it is that which the person who gets hurt significantly
contributed to the outbreak of violence.
Precipitation was the label applied to those cases in which the person who was killed
had been the first to use force, either by drawing a weapon, striking the first physical
blow during and argument or in some other way initiating a resort to violence to
settle a dispute.
Victim provocation
The term implies that the loser is more responsible than the victor. The injured party
instigated the attack that otherwise would have taken place. A provocation victim,
challenge, or incited a law-abiding person into taking defensive measures in reaction
to a forceful initiative.

Shared responsibility for violent crimes.

Usually, victims that shared responsibility with the offender occur in crimes like
murders, assaults, rape, and robberies.
Recognizing Complete Innocence and Full Responsibility.
The degree of responsibility a victim might share with an offender has ranged from
facilitation to prescription to provocation. But the responsibility extends further in
each direction from complete innocence to full responsibility. Completely innocent
individuals cannot be blamed for what happened to them.
Victim Blaming Versus Victim Defending.
Arguments that the victims of crime might share responsibility with the offenders
for what happened due to facilitation, precipitation, and provocation have been
characterized as victim-blaming
Victim blaming follows a three-stage thought process:
1. The assumption is made that there is something "wrong" with victims. They are
singled out because of their attitudes, their behaviors, or both that distinguish them
from the majority.
2. These presumed differences are said to be the source of the victims' plight.
3. Victims must change how they think and act if they want to avoid trouble in the
future. They must abandon the careless, rash, or inciteful behaviors that brought
about their downfall.

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Victim defending is vague about what is supports in terms of who or what is to be
faulted.
Two tendencies can be distinguished:
1. Offender blaming resists any attempt to shift the burden of full responsibility from
lawmakers' back and onto the victims' shoulders.
2.A tendency to link victim defending with system blaming.
TYPOLOGY OF VICTIMS
Theorists have developed victim typologies that are primarily concerned with the
situational and victims' characteristics and the relationship between victims and
offenders. Benjamin Mendelsohn was one of the first criminologists to create a
victim typology. Listed below are the typology of crime victims.

Typology of Criminal Victims

(Based on the classification of Hans Von Hentig)
1. The Young-they are weak due to age and immaturity
2.The Female those who often less physically powerful and easily dominated by
males.
3. The Old - they are incapable of physical defense and the common object of
confidence scheme.
4. The Mentally Defective those who are unable to think clearly.
5. The Immigrant- those that are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding
society.
6. The Minorities - racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment
by the agency of justice.
General types of Victims
1. The Depressed-the submissive person under emotional condition
2 The Acquisitive or Greedy-person who wants more than what is sufficient makes
a natural victim of crime
3 The Wanton or Overly Sensual - those are the person who ruled by passion and
thoughtlessly seeking pleasure
4 The Lonesome-person who eventually becomes a victim under wanting
companionship or affection
5. The Heartbroken-one who is emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and
pains

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 6. The Tormented a victim who asked for it, often from his own family or friends
Other Types of Victims
CLASSIFICATION OF VICTIM TYPES (MENDELSON)

1. The completely innocent victim- such a person is an ideal victim in popular

perception. In this category, placed persons victimized while they were unconscious,
and the child victims
2. Victims with only minor guilt and those victimized due to ignorance
3 The victim is just as guilty as the offender and the voluntary victim Suicide cases
are common to these category
4 The victim more guilty than the offender- this category was described as
containing persons who provoked the criminal or actively induced their own
victimization
5. The guiltest victim who is guilty alone"- an attacker killed by a would-be a victim
in the act of defending themselves-was placed into this category
6. The imaginary victim mental abnormalities those who are suffering from mental
disorders or those victims due to extreme

TAKE NOTE:
Benjamin Mendelsohn is generally credited as the initiator of the word
VICTIMOLOGY, as well as the concept of PENAL COUPLE. The penal couple is
a term that describes the relationship between the victim and the criminal. He also
coined the term VICTIMAL to describe the victim counterpart of the criminal, and
the word VICTIMITY, which signified the opposite of criminality
Another class of victim is the 'LOSER' or one who is initially the attacker, but later,
the situation is reversed. An example could be the case of a mugger or a bully who
ends up injured, or a swindler becomes swindled.

CRIME VICTIM SERVICES AND VICTIMS RIGHT

CRIME VICTIMS SERVICES

Crime victim services are programs that are recognized to support a victim through
the criminal justice system.
Coping and help-seeking

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 One form of active coping is seeking help from others, and it can be from family
and friends or police. Attributions about victimization may play a role in whether an
individual seeks help or from whom they seek it.
For example, men who are victimized may be less likely to seek support and ask for
help due to shame and high expectations for men.
It is important to remember that victims do not choose to be victimized Becoming a
victim is an unpleasant and unwanted life experience at best.
Coping with and recovering from victimization are complex processes.
Unfortunately, some victims never able to do so.
Interaction with the Criminal Justice System
Possibly the most worrying experience for victims involves dealing with the
criminal justice system if and when an offender is apprehended. At this level, the
crime is considered to have been committed against the state, and victims become
witnesses of the crimes.
A victim can sometimes feel of losing complete control because he or she is not
directly involved in the prosecution or sentencing of the offender.
However, participation in the criminal justice system can aid victims in rebuilding
their lives. If victims are kept well-informed about the criminal proceedings and feel
that they have a voice in the process, they will feel that they are part of a team effort
it enables the victims to understand the judicial process and helps to return to them
a sense of control to their lives and circumstances (Tantanco,2018).
Police-based services
Trained personnel generally provide these services, and the programs are affiliated
with the local police department. Services are confidential and provide immediate
crisis intervention to victims and their families for a specified period following a
crime.
Community-based services
These include victim advocacy groups and safe homes.

What victims want and need from victim services?

Maguirre (1985) has reviewed existing research evidence about victims' needs and
identified three areas of need:
Information including the progress report in the police investigation and court
processes, and information about crime prevention and insurance.

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 Practical help including short-term financial support, claiming insurance or
compensation, etc. Emotional support, which, as we have already noted, is an
evident need, but difficult to quantify.
Provide immediate payment for loss of earnings and expenses incurred in connection
with the crime.
Provide interventions that can help protect people from further victimization-
particularly with domestic violence.
Provide more practical help and information.
Other services that victims can expect to be provided with:
- Compassionate and respectful treatment
Information on the legal proceedings and on their rights The presentation of their
views to decision-makers
Protection of their privacy and identity in appropriate cases Protection from
retaliation and intimidation where required
Court-ordered and state compensation
A special treatment to reflect special needs

Victim Rights
It is important to note that victims' rights, just like criminal offenses, will depend on
the jurisdiction where the crime is investigated and prosecute; hence these rights
vary depending on federal, state, or tribal law.
1. The right to be Leafed with dignity, respect, and sensitivity
Victims generally have the right to be treated with courtesy, faimess, and care by
law enforcement and other officials throughout the entire criminal justice process.
2. The right to be informed
The purpose of this right is to make sure that victims have the information they need
to exercise their rights and to seek services and resources that are available to them.
Victims also usually have the right to receive notification of important events in
their cases.
Most states require that victims receive notice of the following circumstances:
the arrest and arraignment of the offender
bail proceedings
pretrial proceedings
dismissal of charges

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 plea negotiations
trial
sentencing
appeals
probation or parole hearings
release or escape of the offender
3. Right to protection
Victims have the right to protection from threats, intimidation, or retaliation during
criminal proceedings. In some instances, depending on the jurisdiction, victims may
receive the following types of protection:
police escorts
witness protection programs
relocation
restraining orders
4. Right to Apply for Compensation
The purpose of compensation is to recognize victims' financial losses and to help
them recover some of these costs. Some types of damages that are usually covered
include:

medical and counseling expenses

lost wages
funeral expenses
5. Right to Restitution from the Offender
-which means the offender must pay to repair some of the damage that resulted from
the crime. The purpose of this right is to hold offenders directly responsible to
victims for the financial harm they caused, which includes the following:
lost wages
property loss
insurance deductibles
6. Right to Prompt Return of Personal Property
The prompt return of personal property reduces inconvenience to victims and helps
restore their sense of security
7. Right to a Speedy Trial

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 8.Right to Enforcement of Victim's Rights

RECOVERING FROM VICTIMIZATION

There is no right or wrong way to feel each victim experiences unique emotions at
different points during their recovery process.
Victims may feel shocked and numbness immediately after the crime. They may
find it difficult to react, think, make decisions, interact with others, or go about their
daily lives.
Recommendations for Victims
Talk about the crime with an enduring and compassionate listener Families and
spiritual leaders can often offer the needed time, support, and guarantee to assist you
in getting better at your own pace
Communicate with a victim advocate who can offer support, as well as information
about the criminal justice system, and referrals to other resources
Take steps to strengthen your sense of safety and security. Work with a victim
advocate to develop a safety plan and obtain a restraining order against the offender
Install new locks, a security system, or additional lighting.
Try to maintain a routine and make daily decisions to regain a sense of control.
Avoid isolating yourself from family and friends. Interacting with others can help to
speed your recovery.
Mental health professionals are offered help in the recovery course. Call a crisis
hotline and arrange for one-on-one counseling or group counseling.
Join a support group to talk with others who have experienced similar crimes and
learn what has helped them heal. A victim advocate will assist you in finding a
support group if one is available
Recall how you may have overcome difficulties or challenges in the past and try to
use some of the same coping strategies in your current situation.

➤ Try writing or keeping a journal about your feelings. Focus on the positive things
in your life and make a list of reasons to recover
These are things to avoid:
Be careful about using alcohol or drugs to relieve emotional pain.
Make daily decisions, but avoid making life-changing decisions in the immediate
aftermath, since judgment may be temporarily impaired.
Don't blame yourself it wasn't your fault.

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 Your emotions need to be expressed. Try not to bottle them up.
For Family and Friends of a Victim of Crime
Listen carefully
> Spend time with the victim.
Offer your assistance, even if they haven't asked for help.
Help with everyday tasks like cleaning, cooking, caring for the family, minding the
children.
Give them a special time
> Don't take their anger or other feelings personally.
Don't tell them they are "lucky it wasn't worse"-traumatized people are not consoled
by such statements.
Tell them that you are sorry such an event has occurred to them, and you want to
understand and help them.

Suggestions for Supporting People

> Encourage victims to express their feelings and provide a safe, nonjudgmental,
and comforting environment for doing so.
Validate victims' feelings and confirm that their confusing or troubling emotions are
normal
Tell them you are sorry about the incident.
Emphasize that they are not to blame for what happened.

Allow victims to respond in their own way and in their own time.
Check in with the victim on a regular basis and pay attention to any issues that
require intervention, such as substance abuse or mental health concerns.
Provide mutual support to the victim's family and friends, who may also be
experiencing a wide range of distressing feelings.
Offer to attend criminal justice proceedings with the victim or help with any needed
paperwork. Gather information about other resources the victim can contact for
additional support and assistance
It can help victims learn how to manage their emotions and regain a sense of control
over their lives.

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 Common emotional reactions of the crime victim
Anger
Victims often feel angry with the offender, the criminal justice system, and
sometimes with those closest to them. They may have thoughts of wanting to "get
even" with the offender accompanied by feelings of shame.
Grief and depression
Victims who are depressed often lose interest in their lives and struggle with feelings
of helplessness and hopelessness. It is essential to seek professional help if these
feelings last for an extended period.
Guilt
A normal reaction as victims tend to second-guess themselves, saying,
"I should have or "If only I had
Criminal justice system personnel and others who focus on how the victim could
have avoided or prevented the crime may add to this sense of guilt
Fear and distrust
Crime is sudden and often life-threatening Once victims have experienced it, feeling
safe again can be difficult Victims may fear staying at home or leaving home and
may find it impossible to trust anyone
→ Anxiety
It may cause victims to avoid certain places, people, and situations that remind them
of the crime and their vulnerability Worry can lead to physical problems, such as
headaches, changes in appetite, and sleep Difficulties Frustration loneliness, and
despair
This may set in when victims are unable to recover even after a significant period.
Victims may no longer wish to "burden" those closest to them with their troubles,
or those individuals may no longer have the time or patience to continue to provide
emotional support to the victim.
Crisis intervention and professional therapy also play a crucial role in recovery,
especially for victims who are struggling to recover on their own.

Topic: PREVENTING VICTIMIZATION

Reducing Your Risk

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 Crimes can happen almost anywhere, at all times of day, and to just about anyone.
While the criminal justice system plays a role in preventing victimization through
police patrols and public media campaigns, you are also a good resource for
protecting yourself
Let's look at some basic tips that can help prevent yourself from becoming a victim.
Walk with another person for safety. If you do have to walk alone, stick to the middle
of the sidewalk. Keep an eye on your food and drink when at a party.
Carry your cell phone with you at all times and have emergency numbers
programmed in for easy access.
Call the police if you are unsafe and need assistance
Carry non-lethal weapons, such as pepper spray, and noisemakers, such as whistles
Avoid strangers who ask for directions. If the person does try to attack you, run in
the opposite direction that the car was traveling.
Knowing the extent to which people are victimized, who is likely targeted, and the
reason why people are victimized can help in the development of prevention efforts.
From crime prevention to victimization prevention
Since victimization has gained popularity as much as criminology, the focus of
crime prevention strategies is now centered on victimization prevention. But before
delving on victimization prevention, the following terms are defined for a better
understanding of the topic
Crime prevention- refers to the strategies that are pursued to prevent the
development of illegal activities, the anticipation, recognition, appraisal of a crime
risk, and initiation of some action to remove or reduce it. A better term than crime
than crime prevention is victimization prevention.
Victimization prevention- this refers to the activities that would discourage criminals
from attacking particular targets such as homes, warehouses, stores, cars, or persons.
Victimization prevention demands that potential victims become crime conscious.
Crime control- measures that are taken in response to acts that have already been
committed.
Example: adequate patrolling
Crime resistance- means making the offender's task more difficult through advanced
planning.
Victimization prevention is activities that are done before any crime incident
happens and include risk reduction activities, like:

1. Avoidance strategies

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 This are actions taken by the people to limit their personal exposure to dangerous
persons and frightening situations. This is done to achieve victimization prevention.

Example:

not allowing strangers into their homes, Ignoring conversation from strangers
2.Risk management tactics
Tactics that are employed to manage the reduction of victimization risks and
minimize the chance of being harmed when exposure is unavoidable.
Example: walking home with other people,carrying weapon.
3.Crime prevention through environmental design. Stresses the importance of
creating well-protected defensible space by the target hardening. Target hardening
means adding lights, fences, and maintaining effecting surveillance
According to the National Commission who stressed on the causes and prevention
of violence, when a crime is displaced, and criminals are deflected, the risk of
victimization goes down for some, and are flexible in terms of time, place, targets,
and tactics. In other words, that adoption of victimization prevention strategies by
some very crime-conscious persons might endanger other people who may be less
conscious (Kalalang,2011).

The effectiveness of preventing victimization may depend on:

✓ prevention programs and policies need to target the known causes of

victimization. Although the offender is ultimately responsible for the crime
victimization, it is difficult to change offender behavior
✓ Victimization involves at least two elements- the offender and the victim- both of
which need to be addressed to prevent crime victimization, and it is easier to reduce
the opportunity than the motivation to offend.

Offenders should be discouraged from committing crimes, likely through informal

mechanisms of social control
Topic: OFFENDERS' REINTEGRATION IN THE COMMUNITY, AND THE
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS
Defining "Community"

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 The concept of community is neither easily defined nor simple to grasp within the
context of offender reentry. Many people tend to think of the community as a
physical place and space.
It is just as often created by relationships that people build, beginning with one-on-
one and emerging into groups of varying sizes that share a common bond and mutual
interests

In reentry partnerships, it requires collaboration between four vital existing

communities, which include:
Victims or those who provide support and services to victims.
*Offenders or advocates for offenders
*Individuals and agencies that implement venues for justice and community
safety
*Persons who are affected by an offender's reentry into their neighborhood.
The first two communities victims and offenders are, in many instances, isolated
from more traditional societies, such as families and friends. There is often shame,
blame, and guilt involved, as well as a lack of acceptance and understanding.
*The justice system, as the third community in reentry partnerships, is bonded
not only by profession but by a desire to improve public safety.
Myriad innovations over the past decade in offender management and treatment,
victim assistance, and community involvement provide an apex from which
offender reentry partnerships can emerge
Finally, the community into which offenders will be released
It is where a person, after service of his or her sentence, is released. A place which
is often the same community in which the victim resides - has a vital stake in reentry
partnerships.

THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS

The criminal justice system is one branch of government getting attacks from all
political quarters because of the consensus that it does not measure up to the
expectations of many
It is believed that it fails to deliver what is promises. It does not meet the needs and
wants of victims as its clients or consumers of its services.

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 Suppose a person is robbed and injured, what should the system do to dispense
justice in this case? Why should victims bring their problems to the attention of
justice officials- the police, prosecutors, judges, defense attorneys, and corrections
officials?
What do victims want? What would they like to be done? Victims can pursue one,
or even a combination of three distinct goals:

1. To see to it that a predator is punished

2. To use the justice process as leverage to compel the lawbreaker to undergo
rehabilitative treatment.
3. To get the court to order the convict to repay those he hurt for the cost arising
from their injuries and losses.
Law enforcement agencies are the criminal justice professionals that victims first
encounter. They are the first to help the victim and provide whatever physical and
psychological first aid that might be needed. They could apprehend the culprit and
speedily return stolen goods to the rightful owner. The prosecutor could indict the
defendant and press for a swift trial. The judge could hand down a sentence that
would balance the victim's wishes with the community's desires and the offender's
needs. Correctional authorities could make sure that the probationer, prisoners, or
parolee don't harass or harm the person whose complaint set the machinery of
criminal justice into motion.
Victims and the police. When the victims report crimes, they want the police to
come quickly and with dispatch. Psychological and physical first aid is expected to
be performed on them. Believe their story or account of the incident, immediate
apprehension of the perpetrators, gather evidence that is admissible in court and
recover any property taken from them. However, the police might take a while to
arrive, handle them insensitively, consider their versions of events unbelievable or
exaggerated, failed to solve their cases, and be unable to recover their stolen goods.
Victims and the prosecutor. Victims, especially indigent ones, want prosecutors'
offices to provide them with lawyers who will faithfully represent their interests, but
more often, they may be disappointed because the lawyer assigned to them can's
even take steps to protect them from reprisals and don't consult with them during
plea negotiations.
Victims and Defense Attorneys. Victims oftentimes are at the mercy of the defense
attorneys. During cross- examination at trials, defense attorneys try to wear down
the victims by stalling tactics and asking hostile questions intended to undermine
their credibility.
Victims and the Judges. Victims hope that judges shall be fair and impartial in
handing down sentences. The victim feels that the law is always in favor of the

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 accused that threatens their security and safety, especially if the judges set a bail low
enough or the defendants are released, or if the judge imposes sentences that do not
reflect the gravity of the offenses that harmed
Victims and Corrections Officials. The victim wants correction officials to keep
them posted concerning the whereabouts of convicts, protect them from reprisals
after release, and effectively supervise any restitution arrangements that were
imposed as conditions of probation or parole (Kalalang,2011).
TOPIC: Theories of Criminal Behavior

OVERVIEW

Crime is a complicated thing. For us to understand crime, we should know, first, it

causes. Crime is due to several factors. Sociological and psychological principles of
criminality are intertwined and technically not independent. As with psychological
theories, there are numerous sociological formulations of the cause and control of
crime.

QUESTION: What is meant by breeding grounds of crime?

> It refers to a situation or places where something develops quickly, such as crime.

2 Elements in the Environment that Impinge on Crime

1. Exogenous variables - these are beyond the control of man like calamities
2. Indigenous variables are factors or elements in the environment that can be
changed or influenced by man (this serves as the breeding ground of crime)

Definitions of Criminal Behavior

> Legal Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions prohibited by the state and
punishment under the law.

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 ➤ Moral Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions that may be rewarding to
work, but that inflict pain or one loss others. That is, Criminal Behavior is antisocial
Behavior.

> Criminal Behavior refers to antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming
a focus of the attention of criminal and juvenile justice professionals.

> Criminal Behavior Refers to acts that are injurious, prohibited under the law and
that render the actor subject to intervention by justice professionals

Overview of Theories on Criminal Behavior

1. Social location theories of crime suggest that criminal Behavior reflects where
one is located in the social system.

➤ Key theoretical idea Criminal Behavior reflects personal distress (strain) t linked
with socially structured inequality in the distribution of wealth and power

Major risk factors Lower class origins, low levels of success at school and work,
feelings of alienation (as opposed to feelings of and anger), perception of limited
opportunity in combination with desire for conventional success, being a gang
member, adoption of lower-class values.

2. Differential Association theory, like psychodynamic theory, actually has powerful

psychology of human Behavior at its base. That psychology is symbolic interactions
wherein people think is very important, and any particular situation may be defined
as one in which it is "Okay" to violate the law. The attitudes, values, beliefs, and
rationalizations that may support such a definition are learned through differentials
in exposure to pro- criminal and anti-criminal patterns. The major part of the
learning occurs in association with others.

> Key theoretical idea: Criminal Behavior is an expression of differentials in the

reinforcement punishment of criminal and non-criminal alternative Behavior.

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 3. A general personality and Social psychology of human Behavior of broad
applicability have emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s. Criminal Behavior is one
class behavior to whose analysis this general model appears particularly valuable.
The general model is perhaps best described as a social learning or cognitive
Behavior or social cognition theory.

Key theoretical idea: The chance of Criminal act (a) increases with the density of
rewards signaled for criminal Behavior, and (b) decreases with the frequency of
signaled costs of criminal behavior. These signaled awards reflect personal control
through antisocial attitudes, interpersonal control through antisocial attitudes,
interpersonal power through the social support for a crime no mediated control
established by a history of reinforcement of criminal Behavior and or personal
predispositions.

Major risk factors Antisocial attitudes, antisocial associates, antisocial behavior

history, antisocial personality, problematic conditions are the domains of home,
school, work, leisure

7 Perspective of Psychology on Criminal and General Human Psychology

1. Biological perspective- it tends to emphasize relatively enduring some based

predispositions (eg, the physiological of classical conditioning) and events with
significant somatic implications (eg, the effects of alcohol on bodily functioning).

2. Trait perspectives- it tends to emphasize relatively enduring behavioral, cognitive

and affective predispositions (eg, extraversion, intelligence, and emotionality)
without necessarily requiring particular assumptions regarding the biological,
psychological, or social bases of these traits

3. Psychodynamic perspectives emphasize what people think of as the truly

psychological" Psychodynamic perspectives search for understanding through an
appreciation of the personal psychological motivation and controls of overt
Behavior. The widespread tendency to equate psychodynamic perspectives with
psychology reflects the pervasive influence of Freudian theory on psychological and
popular culture.
4. Sociocultural perspectives within psychological emphasize the effects of the
family, peers, and community on individual Behavior. These theories tend to be
socialization theories whereby individual differences in personal Behavior,

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 cognition, and emotion are linked to differences in the training provided by different
families, peer groups, and social institutions.

5. Radical behavioral perspectives concentrate on how the immediate behavior-

environment contingencies are responsible for the acquisitions, maintenance, and
modification of individual Behavior. The effects to the immediate environments
depend very much upon how the settings reinforce, punishes and ignores behavior.

6. Humanistic and existential perspective It may be differentiated from the above

according to three concerns. The first is the emphasis placed upon 'free choice" and
"personal responsibility "The second is the emphasis placed upon a perception of
the self and the world as perceived and interpreted by a person. The third involves
an attraction to the motion that experience of interpersonal warmth, openness, and
acceptance is associated with a personal growth pattern that is both and socially
positive

7. Social learning cognitive-behavioral social cognition perspectives It may be

differentiated from the

emphasis placed upon learning by observation, the role of cognition, and the
importance of considering the person in combination with particular situations.
General social psychological perspectives emphasize personal attitudes and beliefs,
perceptions of others' expectations, and the demands of particular circumstances.

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