Uranium-238

Angela Mae L. Pamisa

Department of Engineering/Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
University of Cebu – Maritime Education and Training Center
Cebu City, Philippines
[email protected]

atomic model and atomic structure of uranium 238

abstract

INTRODUCTION

The study of atomic models and structures helps to visualize the interior of an atom or molecule,
providing insights of chemical reactions, bonds, and properties. Uranium-238, an isotope of the
element Uranium, is a primordial radionuclide and the head of the uranium/radium series. The
isotopes of uranium have long physical half-lives, with 238U having 4.5 × 109 years. All uranium
atoms contain 92 protons (Z = 92) and various numbers of neutrons (N = 135 to 148) within the
atom's nucleus. There are no stable isotopes of uranium; all are radioactive. Of which, Uranium-238
being an isotope with significant role in nuclear science.

A. Atomic Model and Structure of Uranium 238

Fig 1. Diagram of the nuclear composition and electron configuration of an atom of uranium-
238 (atomic number: 92)

Uranium is element number 92 and occurs only in radioactive form.

238U is not produced by humans. It exists as a naturally-occurring nuclide in nature. This
nuclide comprises more than 99% of all existing natural uranium and makes up
approximately 4 ppm
of the earth's crust. For use in nuclear reactors, uranium (enriched to a higher concentration of
^U)
is typically formed into U02
pellets, though in some reactors metallic uranium is used (often alloyed
with another metal such as aluminum).
Economically minable ores (defined as containing at least 500 ppm uranium) are available,
though not abundant.14
Deposits occur in nearly every major rock type. The majority of uranium ore
processing techniques involve leaching with sulfuric acid. This means that uranium tailings
typically
are acidic in pH, which affects the solubility of uranium in groundwater and soil.

Although
238U is the predominant isotope of uranium, a lower mass isotope, ^U , is the nuclide
most often used for energy purposes. This has given rise to a new term to describe
238U, namely
"depleted uranium." This is because as
235U is extracted from uranium, that which is left is uranium
"depleted" of this desirable isotope and contains an even higher fraction of
238U. Thus, depleted
uranium and
238U are used interchangeably in this report.
The primary source of
B8 U in the environment is a natural ore, undisturbed by humans. The
principal manmade source of this nuclide is uranium that has been depleted of its original
store of ^ U
either by the enrichment process (whereby the ^ U is extracted from the uranium, leaving
depleted
uranium as a byproduct) or by removal of ^ U from uranium in the fissioning process. The
enrichment process results in large masses of depleted uranium that can be used for other
purposes
(discussed later in this report). The fissioning process results in large amounts of
B8 U that are
contaminated with highly radioactive fission and activation products and which are generally
disposed
of as high-level wastes. Because it does not generally result in disposal of
238U as low-level waste,
the second process (fissioning) is discussed only briefly in this report.
The specific activity of ^ U is relatively small. Therefore, this nuclide can be handled with
standard laboratory equipment, including ventilated hoods or enclosures used for general
laboratory
purposes.3
However, as discussed later in this report, the radiotoxicity of this nuclide is classified as
high. This may be because of the radiotoxicity of its decay daughters.

Because of the long half-life (and consequently low specific activity) of

a8 U , it is not, itself, a
major factor in the ability of a low-level radioactive waste disposal facility to meet
performance
objectives. The presence of the nuclide, however, can be relatively significant in assessing the
longterm performance of such a site due to the quantity, radiotoxicity, and mobility of its
daughter products, which include isotopes of radium and radon. For this reason, it was
decided to include ^ U in this report series.

Uranium was first isolated by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in 1789 from a sample of pitchblende
in Saxony.1 At first, it was assumed that the new "element" was a semimetal due to its
apparent chemical and physical characteristics. In 1841, Eugene-Melchior Peligot showed
that the original "element" was, in fact, the oxide and was able to reduce the oxide to obtain
the first pure metal. In 1896, Antoine-Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium undergoes
radioactive decay. In 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered the phenomenon of
spontaneous fissioning, which ultimately vaulted uranium from a position of relative
obscurity to a role of major importance.

All uranium atoms contain 92 protons (Z = 92) and various numbers of neutrons (N = 135 to
148) within the atom's nucleus. There are no stable isotopes of uranium; all are radioactive.
The half-lives of uranium isotopes range from less than 2 minutes ( 227U) to billions of years
(^U). Even though all of the isotopes of uranium are radioactive, three of the isotopes have
sufficiently long lifetimes and exist in nature for long periods of time. (^U half-life = 2.5 X
105 yr, 0.0057% of
naturally occurring uranium;235U half-life = 7.1 x 108 yr, 0.71% of naturally occurring
uranium; and238U, half-life = 4.5 x 109 yr, 99.3% of naturally occurring uranium.)
Essentially all of the existing 238U is naturally occurring, although a small fraction is
produced by neutron activation of lower mass nuclides. For the purpose of this report, it will
be assumed that all of this nuclide is natural and none is manmade.
Before 1942, uranium was used principally as a coloring agent in glass and ceramic glazes,
resulting in a yellow, orange, or red (depending on the chemical form) tint to objects where it
was
used.2
The principal source for this coloring agent was as a byproduct of the production of radium
and vanadium. However, discovery by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1939 of the ability
of
uranium to fission, creating enormous amounts of energy in the process, led to greatly
heightened
interest in this element.1
After demonstrating controlled nuclear fission in 1942, this element was
15-1
sought after as a source of heat to drive steam generators and as an explosive material for
military
uses. Additional uses for this element have been discovered and will be discussed in later
sections of
this report.

Uranium has an atomic number of 92 which means there are 92 protons and 92 electrons in
the atomic structure. U-238 has 146 neutrons in the nucleus, but the number of neutrons can
vary from 141 to 146. Because uranium is radioactive, it is constantly emitting particles and
changing into other elements. Uranium has a well-established radioactive decay series. U-238
and U-235 (which has 143 neutrons) are the most common isotopes of uranium. Uranium
naturally contains all three isotopes (U-238, U-235 and U-234), and it rarely varies more than
0.01% from the average composition shown in the table below without our intervention.

uranium (U), radioactive chemical element of the actinoid series of the periodic table, atomic
number 92. It is an important nuclear fuel. Uranium constitutes about two parts per million of
Earth’s crust.

Uranium is a dense, hard metallic element that is silvery white in colour. It is ductile,
malleable, and capable of taking a high polish. In air the metal tarnishes and when finely
divided breaks into flames. It is a relatively poor conductor of electricity. Though discovered
(1789) by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named it after the then recently
discovered planet Uranus, the metal itself was first isolated (1841) by French chemist
Eugène-Melchior Péligot by the reduction of uranium tetrachloride (UCl4) with potassium.

The formulation of the periodic system by Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleyev in 1869
focused attention on uranium as the heaviest chemical element, a position that it held until the
discovery of the first transuranium element neptunium in 1940. In 1896 the French physicist
Henri Becquerel discovered in uranium the phenomenon of radioactivity, a term first used in
1898 by French physicists Marie and Pierre Curie. This property was later found in many
other elements. It is now known that uranium, radioactive in all its isotopes, consists naturally
of a mixture of uranium-238 (99.27 percent, 4,510,000,000-year half-life), uranium-235 (0.72
percent, 713,000,000-year half-life), and uranium-234 (0.006 percent, 247,000-year half-life).
These long half-lives make determinations of the age of Earth possible by measuring the
amounts of lead, uranium’s ultimate decay product, in certain uranium-containing rocks.
Uranium-238 is the parent and uranium-234 one of the daughters in the radioactive uranium
decay series; uranium-235 is the parent of the actinium decay series. See also actinoid
element.

Only ninety-two elements occur in nature, from the lightest, hydrogen, having one proton, to
the heaviest, uranium, with ninety-two protons. Yet, scientists can produce even heavier
elements in the laboratory with the use of nuclear reactors. The element plutonium, which has
ninety-four electrons, is one such element.

[1] https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/uranium-238
[2] https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/27/032/27032342.pdf?r=1&r=1

I. INTRODUCTION
 Uranium-238, an isotope of the element Uranium, is a primordial radionuclide and
the head of the uranium/radium series. It is not produced by humans. It exists as a
naturally-occurring in nature. This nuclide comprises more than 99% of all
existing natural uranium and makes up approximately 4 ppm of the earth's crust.
Although 238U is the predominant isotope of uranium, a lower mass isotope, 235U, is the
nuclide most often used for energy purposes. This has given rise to a new term to describe
238U, namely "depleted uranium. After the extraction of ²³⁵U, the remaining uranium
contains less of this isotope and more ²³⁸U, making it what is known as "depleted
uranium" (DU). Depleted uranium has a lower radioactivity compared to natural uranium
but is still dense and has various military and industrial uses, such as in armor-piercing
projectiles and radiation shielding. Thus, depleted uranium and 238U are used
interchangeably.

II. ATOMIC MODEL AND STRUCTURE OF URANIUM 238

All uranium atoms contain 92 protons (Z = 92) and various numbers of neutrons
(N = 135 to 148) within the atom's nucleus. U-238 has 146 neutrons in the
nucleus, but the number of neutrons can vary from 141 to 146. Because uranium is
radioactive, it is constantly emitting particles and changing into other elements.
There are no stable isotopes of uranium; all are radioactive.

The half-lives of uranium isotopes range from less than 2 minutes ( 227U) to
billions of years (^U). Even though all of the isotopes of uranium are radioactive,
three of the isotopes have sufficiently long lifetimes and exist in nature for long
periods of time. (^U half-life = 2.5 X 105 yr, 0.0057% of naturally occurring
uranium;235U half-life = 7.1 x 108 yr, 0.71% of naturally occurring uranium; and
238U, half-life = 4.5 x 109 yr, 99.3% of naturally occurring uranium.) Essentially
all of the existing 238U is naturally occurring, although a small fraction is
produced by neutron activation of lower mass nuclides.

To produce fuel-grade uranium, the uranium has to be processed to produce

uranium dioxide and to enrich or concentrate the U-235 in the fuel pellets. During
this processing, depleted uranium (DU), enriched in U-238 and depleted in U-235,
is produced. U-235, when bombarded by neutrons, fissions or splits into two
smaller nuclei and releases energy and starts a nuclear chain reaction. Because of
the energy released, U-235 is efficient for power generation and the only isotope
of uranium that can sustain these reactions.
 Figure 3. nuclear fission

Uranium-235 (natural abundance 0.71%) is very scarce and difficult to separate

from uranium-238 (natural abundance 99.28%). The much more abundant
uranium-238 does not undergo fission and therefore cannot be used as a fuel for
nuclear reactors. However, if uranium-238 is bombarded with neutrons (from
uranium-235, for example), it absorbs a neutron and is transformed into uranium-
239. This isotope undergoes beta emission to generate neptunium-239, which, in
turn, undergoes another beta emission to produce plutonium-239

III. APPLICATIONS OF URANIUM 238 IN THE REAL

WORLD AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS