Suggested Textbook of Surveying

Surveying vol -1 by B .C. Punmia

Surveying Vol -1 by K.R. Arora
Surveying and Levelling by R. Subramanian
Surveying by S.K. Duggal
Reference book
Plane and Geodetic Surveying by D. Clark
Plane and Geodetic Surveying by S. Ramamrutham
 Surveying
Surveying is collection of data or information.
We Are concerned with surveying of geoinformation
• For Engineering Project
• For geographical map
Surveying is about Measurement.
The data procurement phase in surveying is called field work.
Surveying data graphical modes of expression like plan and maps.
 Surveying

“Surveying is the art and science of determining the

relative positions of various points or stations on the
surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal,
vertical distances and angles taking the details of these
points for preparing a map or plan on drawing them
down to any suitable scale.”
 Objective of Surveying

The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to

show the relative positions of the objects on the surface
of the earth. The map or plan is drawn to some
suitable scale. It also shows boundaries of districts,
states, and countries too. It also includes details of
different engineering features such as buildings, roads,
railways, dams, canals etc.
The primary aims of field surveying are :
To collect field data:-
• To measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
• To measure the Vertical elevation between points.
• To find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with
reference to any arbitrary direction.
• To find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference
to a fixed direction.
• To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.
• To analyze and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of
actual engineering works.
• To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.
 Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
(Small area) (large area)
(less than 195.5 sq.km.) (More Than 195.5 sq.km.)
Low Precision More Precision
Plane Surveying : In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the
earth is considered to be a plane surface. This type of survey is applicable
for small area (less than 200 square kilometer). Thus for most of the Civil
Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying are valid.
Geodetic Surveying: In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the
earth is taken into consideration. This type of surveying is being carried
out for highly precise work and is adopted for surveying of large area.
 Uses of Surveying
• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests,
villages, towns etc.
• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses
and other properties..
• To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works
such as buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.
• To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best
possible site for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
• Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological
map etc.
• For setting out work and transferring details from the map on the ground.
 CLASSIFICATION
OF SURVEYING

Based upon Based upon the

Based upon
objective of
nature of work Instrument used
Survey

1.Land 1. Engg. Survey 1.Chain,

1.1 Topographic 2. Mining Survey 2.Theodolite,
1.2 Cadastral 3. Military Survey 3.Traverse,
1.3City 4.Triangulation
2. Hydrographic 5.Techeometric
3. Astronomical 6.Plane Table,
7.Photogrammetric
8.Aerial Survey
Classification based on Nature of Field:
Land Survey:
Land Survey is done on land to prepare plans and maps of a given area. Topographical, city
and cadastral surveys are some of the examples of land surveying.
Hydrographic Survey:
This survey is conducted on or near the body of water such as lake, river, and coastal area.
This survey consists of locating shore lines of waters bodies.
Astronomic Survey:
The surveys are conducted or the determination of latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local
time, etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (The sun or star).
1. Classification based on Instruments used:
Chain surveys:
This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are made with a
chain or a tape. Angular measurements are not taken.
Compass survey:
In compass survey, the angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass.
Chain and Compass Survey:
In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a tape and angular
measurements with a compass.
Plane Table Survey:
It is a graphical method of surveying in which field works and plotting both are done
simultaneously.
Theodolite survey:
In this survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a theodolite more precisely than
compass and the linear measurements are made with chain or a tape.
Tachometry survey:
A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to determine horizontal and
vertical distances indirectly.
Levelling survey:
This type of survey is used to determine the vertical distances and relative heights of points
with the help of an instrument known as level.
Photogrammetric survey:
Photogrammetry is the science of taking measurements with the help of photograph taken
by aerial camera from the air craft.
EDM survey:
In this type of survey, all measurements (length, angles co-ordinates) are made with the
help of EDM instruments (i.e. total station).

Classification based on Methods employed:

Triangulation:
Triangulation is a basic method of surveying. When the area to be surveyed is large,
Triangulation is adopted. The entire area is divided into a network of triangles.
Traversing:
A traversing is a circuit of survey lines. It may be open or closed. When The linear
measurements are done with a chain and a tape and the directions or horizontal angles are
measured with a compass or a theodolite respectively, the survey is called traversing.

Classification based on Purposes:

Geological Survey:
In this both surface and subsurface surveying are conducted to locate different minerals
and rocks. In addition, geological feature of the terrain such as folds and are locate.
Mine Survey:
Mine surveys include both surface and underground surveys, It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunnelling and other operations associated
with mining.
Archaeological Survey:
It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization, Kingdome, forts, temples, etc.
Military survey:
It has a very important and critical application in the military. Aerial surveys are conducted
for this purpose. It is conducted to locate strategic positions for the purpose of army
operations
 Principles of Surveying

The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being carried out are:
1. working from whole to part.
2. After deciding the position of any point, its reference must be kept from at least
two permanent objects or stations whose position have already been well defined.
The purpose of working from whole to part is
• To localise the errors and
• To control the accumulation of errors.
This is being achieved by establishing a heirarchy of networks of control points.
The less precise networks are established within the higher precise network and
thus restrict the errors. To minimise the error limit, highest precise network
(primary network) Figure of control points are established using the most
accurate / precise instruments for collection of data and rigorous methods of
analysis are employed to find network parameters. This also involves most skilled
manpower and costly resources which are rare and cost intensive.
The reference of any point, say X, has to kept with respect to, at least, two permanent objects or
well defined points, say Y and Z. Generally, this has been achieved by taking measurement of
two parameters. The location of a point, say X can be done as shown in the figure below.
Scales: Scale is fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with corresponding
distance on the ground
1cm - 10 m
(on map) (on ground)
Representative Fraction (R.F.) (unit less)
1cm/10mX100 = 1/1000

Note: More the R.F., larger is the scale

A graphical representation, to some scale, is called a map if the scale

used is small while it is called a plan if the scale is large.

Plan – only horizontal distances and directions

Topographic Map – Vertical distances (Contour Lines)
 Chain Surveying
Chain surveying is a method of surveying in which only linear measurement
are made in field. This branch of surveying derives its name from that the
principal equipment used is the measuring chain.
• Chain Surveying is used for area of small extend open ground without
complicated undulating profiles, obstacles etc.
Principle of Chain Surveying
• The principal of chain surveying is to divide the area into a number of well
condition triangles of suitable sides.
• As a triangles is the only simple plane of geometrical figure which can be
plotted from the lengths of the three sides even if the angels are not known.
 LINEAR MEASUREMENT

What is Linear measurement?

Measurement of horizontal distance between two points on the
surface of the earth.
A---------------------B
Different methods
1. Direct method
2. Measurement by optical means
3. Electro-magnetic method
Direct Measurement :
1.Pacing
2. Measurement by passometer
3. Measurement by pedometer
4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer
5. chaining
Survey Station : Main station is a point in chain survey where the two sides of a triangle
meet. These stations command the boundaries of the survey. Here A, B, C, D are the
main stations
Tie station or Subsidiary station : Tie station is a station on survey line joining two
main stations. These are helpful to locating the interior detail of area to be surveyed, e, f,
g, h, i are the tie station
Main Survey Line :The chain line joining two main survey stations is called main survey
line AD, DB, BC, CA, BA are main survey line.
Tie line or Subsidiary line : A chain line joining two tie station is called tie line such as
ef or gh . These are also called auxiliary line. Tie lines are provided to locate the interior
details which are far away from the main survey lines
Base line : The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as the ‘base
line’. It is the most important line of the survey. Generally, the longest of the main line is
considered as the base line. This line should be taken through fairly level ground and
should be measured very carefully and accurately. AB is base Line
Check line :check line or proof line is a line provided to check the accuracy of the field
work. The measured length of check line and computed one must be the same . Ck & Dj
are check lines. Check line is not required for plotting the point.
 Indirect Ranging or Reciprocal Ranging
Is resorted to when both the ends of survey line are not inter visible either
due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between them. In
such a case, ranging is done indirectly by selecting two intermediate point.
Chaining on Level Ground
• If the taping is done over level ground where there is no underbrush,
the tape can rest on the ground
• If the distance being measured is greater than a tape length, it is
necessary to mark the terminal point with a range pole.

Chaining on sloping Ground

The term breaking chain is used to describe the procedure for measuring
directly horizontal distance on sloping ground, or through obstacles that
do not permit the use of a full chain or tape length.
 Obstructions in chaining and ranging
This problem lies in prolonging line beyond the obstacle and
determine the distance across it.

a) Obstacles to ranging
b) Obstacles to Chaining
c) Obstacles to both chaining and Ranging
• Optical method
• Electronic Method
Direct measurement of distance using tape is difficult when the terrain is rough or
the site is congested. Indirect measurement of distance using optical method is
not suitable for high accuracy measurement. Thus, to obtain high accuracy
measurement in difficult terrain or for long distance, measurements are taken
electronically.
 Electronic Method
• Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been
developed quite recently.
• These are practically replacing the measurement of distances
using chains or tapes. There is a large variety of such instruments
and depending upon the precision required the instruments
should be used.
• Electronic measurement of distance is being carried out either by using
an electro-optical (light wave) device coupled with reflector (also
called Laser Range Pole) or by a pair of electromagnetic (microwaves)
instruments.
• It is usually an integrated unit called EDMI (Electronic distance -
measuring instrument) consisting of an electro-wave generator, an
oscillator, a modulator, a transmitter, and a receiver etc. The type,
range and accuracy of an EDM instrument depend on the type of
carrier waves it can generate and subsequently can transmit, receive
and analyze
• An EDM instrument generally gets mounted in the framework of an
electronic theodolite. The net result is a single instrument termed as
total station (Figure 10.1) which can be used to measure all the
fundamental measurements involved in surveying.
Limiting the Length of an Offset in Chain Survey

The allowable length of offset depends upon the degree of accuracy

required, scale, method of setting out the perpendicular and nature of
ground.
Due to incorrect length of tape and direction short offset are
measured more quickly and accurately.
Effect of Error in laying out the direction perpendicular to the chain line
Let
AB be the chain line and P the point upto which the offset is to be measured. D
is the correct position of the foot of the perpendicular from P and PD is the
correct length of the offset. But while laying, CP is considered to be the direction
of the α. C being the foot of the perpendicular CP is the measured length of
offset (say l).
While plotting,
the measured length of the offset (l), is set out at right angles to AB at C, so that
the point P is displaced to P’ and the amount of displacement PP’ is
approximately equal l sin α to I sin α on the ground and on the paper, where s m
to 1 cm is the scale of the paper. The length of the offset should be limited to
such an amount that this displacement should not be appreciable on the paper. It
is assumed that the smallest distance on the paper which can be distinguished
while plotting is 0.025 cm.
= 0.025 cm

The displacement of the point in a direction perpendicular to the

chain line:
= CP’ – PD = I-I cos α

=l (1- cos α) on the ground

This is very small and hence negligible.

Putting the values of α (the angular error) and s (the scale) in the above
equations, the limiting length of the offset (l) can be found out.
 Errors in Length and Direction Combined:
Sometimes the error in measuring the length of the offset also occurs. In that case, referring to the

If CP= the true length of the offset

CP’=I= the measured length of the offset.
CP’’=I= the length of the offset as plotted on paper
α= the angular error in direction
Errors in Chaining
Any field surveying including chain surveying is fraught with many errors including
observational errors, affecting the accuracies of measurements and mapping. It is essential to
identify, rectify and adjust these errors before the results of surveying can be used for any
engineering applications. The errors can be broadly classified as
(a) Instrumental errors, and
(b) Observational errors
Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in instruments, wear and tear of instruments
due to continuous use and their rough handling. Instruments are thus required to be tested for
accuracy, adjusted and calibrated at frequent intervals to ensure that the results of surveying
exercises are well within the prescribed limits of accuracy and tolerances.
Observational errors are introduced because of involvement of human factor in surveying
process. It should be accepted that whenever a human element is involved, the process result will
be influenced by the attitude, efficiency and perception of individual human being in a subjective
manner. These can be avoided by proper training of surveyors, prescribing adequate and suitable
precautions to be undertaken in each observational and measurement process, and specifying
proper and detailed method statements for performing each operation of the process.
Both these types of errors, i.e. instrumental and observational, can be further classified into :
(a) gross errors,
(b) systematic errors, and
(c) accidental or random errors.
Gross Errors: Gross errors or mistakes are blunders that occur due to inexperience or
carelessness on the part of the surveyor. In chain surveying, these could be due to
• Displacement or loss of pegs or arrows, provided to identify and fix the location of various
types of stations and other places of interest,
• Reading the chain or tape in a wrong manner or using an instrument in an incorrect way, and
• Wrong recoding of measurements in the record book, e.g. field book.
There is no room for gross errors or blunders in the surveying processes. If gross errors are
detected, the entire surveying process and measurements are required to be repeated afresh,
resulting in substantial loss of time and resources. Such errors can be avoided by proper
training and testing of surveyors, adopting standard procedures, even to the minute details and
carrying out the survey work with utmost care.
Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors follow some specific pattern according to some mathematical or physical
law. The error could be cumulative, i.e. occurring in the same direction and tends to
accumulate affecting the accuracy of measurements to a great extent. In the context of chain
surveying, these could be due to :
(a) erroneous length of chain or tape (+ve or –ve),
(b) erroneous ranging,
(c) links in chain not straight (local bends) due to rough handling or twisting of metallic tapes,
etc.,
(d) non-horizontally of chain/tape over rough ground terrain,
(e) sag in chain or tape, when it is stretched across a depression in ground,
(f) variation in temperature and/or dampness, and
(g) variation in pull applied during measurement.

These errors could be identified and adjusted and can be modelled. Suitable corrections can be
applied to the measurements for obtaining greater accuracy. Following are some of the
important corrections applied to measurements using chain or tape
Correction for Erroneous Length of Chain/Tape
The chain surveying depends only on linear measurement of distances. For traversing only
the errors in distance measurements are of importance and significance. Measuring devise
either chain or tape can either be longer or shorter than the designated length. The measured
distance will be smaller than the actual if the length of chain is longer than the designated
length. It will be larger than the actual if the chain is shorter than the designated length. The
actual measured distance can be corrected by the following formula :

True or Correct Distance = L/L′ × Measured Distance

where,
L′ = Actual incorrect length of chain, and
L = Designated length of chain.
Correction for Temperature
Correction for temperature is applied if the temperature in the field is more than the
temperature at which the tape/chain was standardised.
This correction (Ct) is given by the following formula :

where,
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion,
Tm = Mean temperature in the field during measurement,
T0 = Standard temperature for the tape, and
L = Measured distance.
Correction for Pull
Correction for pull or tension is applied when during measurement the applied pull is
more than the pull at which the tape was standardised. As far as possible the pull applied
during the field observation should be equal to the standardised pull so that the correction
becomes zero. However, if
different pull is necessary, this correction (CP) is given by :

where,
P = Pull applied during measurements (kg or N),
P0 = Standard pull,
L = Measured length,
A = Cross-sectional area of the tape (cm2 or mm2), and
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2 or N/mm2).
Correction for Sag
Correction for sag is applied when the tape is stretched on supports between two
points, it takes the form of a horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be
less than the distance along the curve. The difference between horizontal distance
and the measured length along catenary is called sag correction and it is always
negative.
This correction (Cs) is given by :

where,
l = The length of the tape (in m) suspended between the supports,
P = Pull applied in kg or N, and
w = Weight of the tape in kg or N per m run.
Random or Accidental Errors
Random or Accidental errors can occur due to lack of perfection of human eye and or
human behaviour. Even the best and efficient surveyor can have fatigue effect after
working for long duration in strenuous environment causing observational errors. The
random errors cannot be eliminated entirely, whatever precautions are undertaken.
These may, however, occur in either direction and hence, tend to compensate and, thus,
are not serious in nature. These normally follow the law of chance and, thus, can be
analysed with the help of probability theory. Using suitable probability distribution
functions, these errors can then be adjusted, distributed among
various measurements and accounted for. Each surveying method or process can be
assigned a reliability factor (or risk factor) for accuracy depending on the analysis of
probability behaviour.