INHERITANCE

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 CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a process by which a parent cell divides to give rise to
two or more daughter cells.
One cell divides into two, two into four, four into eight and so on.
Cell division does not necessarily mean halving the cell and its contents
but forming new components to form daughter cells.
Cell division involves two types
i. Mitotic cell division (mitosis)
ii. Meiotic cell division (meiosis)

Cell division involves nuclear division followed by cytoplasm division

immediately (cytokinesis) both of which comprise a cell cycle
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 MITOSIS
This is the type of cell division in
which the parent cell divides into two
daughter cells each having the same
number of chromosomes as the parent
cell.

The daughter cells are diploid (2n)

i.e. They have 2 sets of chromosomes.

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In man, mitosis occurs in;
• The bone marrow.
• The epidermal cells of the gut.
• The Malpighian cells of the skin epidermis, etc.

In plants, it occurs in the apical meristems of the stem, root tip and the
cambium.

Mitosis occurs in the somatic cells.

This type of division involves four stages Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase. And a main growth and resting phase Interphase.
The whole process of cell division can take an hour or two roughly
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 Interphase (replication)
- Chromosomes not visible (are
thread like)
- Chromatins present
- Centrioles replicate
- Replication of DNA (double)
- Production of ATP (energy)
- Formation of new organelles
(mitochondria, ribosome,
chloroplast), duplication

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 Prophase (thickening)
- Chromatin threads condense to form
distinct chromosomes (chromosomes
formed from the chromatids are joined
at the centromere)
- Centrioles at opposite sides of the
nucleus
- Spindle fibres start to form
- Nucleolus disappears
- Nuclear membrane breaks down

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 Metaphase (arrangement)
- Chromosomes arrange
themselves on equator of
spindle
- Homologous chromosomes
do not associate
- Chromatids draw apart at the
centromere towards opposite
poles
- Chromosomes migrate at the
equator

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 Anaphase (migration)
- Spindle fibres contract and
shorten
- Sister Chromatids part
company and migrate to
opposite poles of the cell with
the centromeres leading
- Chromosomes reach their
destination
- Spindle fibres begin to break
down.

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 Telophase (cell constrict)
- Cell membrane starts to
constrict across the middle
- Nuclear membrane reforms
- Nucleolus reform
- Spindle apparatus degenerates
- Cytoplasm divides into two
new daughter cells with exact
number of chromosomes as the
parent cell
- Chromosomes uncoil, become
thread like
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 Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
The cell cytoplasm is then
divided equally to form two
daughter cells.

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There are two features in mitosis that ensure that the chromosome
constitution is preserved
Replication of chromosomes before cell division
Arrangement of the chromosome on the spindle

Roles of mitosis
Growth of an organisms e.g. development of fertilized egg into adult
Asexual reproduction e.g. protest with binary fission
Genetic stability (no variation)
Cell replacement e.g. skin cells
Regeneration e.g. legs in crustacean and arms in star fish
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Note:
Species in which there are two sets of chromosomes are
referred to as diploid (2n) animals.
Those with one set of chromosomes are referred to as
haploid (n).
Some plants are polyploid (3n, 4n, etc.)

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 MEIOSIS
This is the type of cell division in which
diploid parent cell divides into four
daughter cells each having half the number
of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Meiosis takes place in the testes and the

ovaries of animals.
In plants, it occurs in the anthers and
ovaries.
NB: MEIOSIS is also known as
Reductional division.
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Contrary to mitosis,
MEIOSIS consists of two successive divisions 1st meiotic division
were the parent divides into two and the 2nd meiotic division were
the products divide to produce four daughter cells.

The process involves the four stages Prophase, Metaphase,

Anaphase and Telophase but distinguish by I or II for the first and
second meiotic division respectively

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 Interphase
- Chromosomes not visible
are thread like
- Chromatins present
- Replication of DNA
- Production of ATP
- Formation of new
organelles

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 Prophase I
- Nucleolus disappears
- Centrioles arranged on
opposite sides of nucleus
- Spindles form
- Chromosomes condense
- Homologous chromosomes
come together (synapsis)
forming a bivalent

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 Metaphase I
- Homologous
chromosomes move to
the equator of the
spindle together
(behaves as a unit)

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 Anaphase I
- Homologous chromosomes
part company move towards
opposite poles of the spindle

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 Telophase I
- The chromosomes have reached their
destination and the cell constricts
across the middle as in mitosis

NB:
The first meiotic division results into
separation of homologous 2ND meiotic division aims at
chromosomes. separating Chromatids
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 Prophase II
- Two daughter cells prepare
for the 2nd division
- Centrioles replicated
- New spindles are formed

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 Metaphase II
- Chromosomes arrange
themselves on the spindle in
the usual way

X2
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 Anaphase II
- Chromatids part company
and arrange to opposite poles
of the cell

X2
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 Telophase II
- Cells constrict across the middle
- The nuclear membrane and
nuclei reform

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 Significance of meiosis
- Sexual reproduction which involves production of
Gametes

- Genetic variation: provides opportunity for new

combinations of genes to occur in the gametes the is through
Crossing over and Independent assortment

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 1. Independent assortment
Orientation of bivalents at the equator of the spindle in metaphase I is
random.
The bivalents line up independently and therefore the chromosomes in each
bivalent separate (assort) independently of these in other bivalents during
anaphase I

2. Crossing over
As a result of chiasmata, crossover of segments of Chromatids occurs
between homologous chromosomes during prophase I leading to the
formation of new combinations of genes on the chromosomes of the
gametes.
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 PROCESS OF CROSSING OVER
Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes join at certain points
called chiasmata (singular-chiasma) to form a bivalent, a process called
Synapsis and exchange portions in a process called crossing over. Several
chiasmata may be formed.

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 Role of meiosis in maintaining chromosome
number in cells of organisms

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Before meiosis in humans, each of the gametes producing cell has 46
chromosomes,
Just before meiosis I begins (during interphase), each chromosome
replicates and thus appears as two sister chromatids joined at the centromere
( a chromatid is actually a full chromosome)
At this point, a cell has 92 chromosomes (if you count chromatids).
Meiosis I divides the 92 chromosomes into two cells each with 46
chromosomes.
Meiosis II divides each of these into two other cells (gametes) with 23
chromosomes (Haploid) in each.
When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the formed Zygote will have 46
chromosomes just like in the parents

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 ASSIGNMENT
Compare the process of Mitosis and Meiosis i.e. give
the similarities and differences between the two
processes.

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 Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
- Both begin with diploid nucleus
- Both have single duplication
- Have similar stages
- In both there is spindle formation
- In both chromosome arrange at the equator

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

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 Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells. Occurs in reproductive cells.
Involves a single division of chromosomesInvolves two divisions of chromosomes
and cytoplasm and cytoplasm
Does not involve the process of synapsis It involves synapsis
Crossing over does not occur It involves crossing over between
homologous chromatids
Formation of bivalents does not occur. There is formation of bivalents.
Diploid cells are formed. Haploid cells are formed.
Daughter cells formed have the same Daughter cells formed have half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell number of chromosomes compared to the
parent cell
Two daughter cells are produced. Four daughter cells are formed.
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 TERMS USED
Chromosome: These are thread-like structures bearing genes and located in
the nucleus.
Chromatid: This is half of a chromosome split longitudinally.
Bivalent: This is a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Gene: This is a unit of the hereditable material found on the chromosome
and responsible for controlling a particular trait/character.
Allele: This is the alternative form of the same gene. Most genes are made
up of two alleles. Alleles of the same gene are represented by the same letter
but the dominant allele is represented by a capital letter and the recessive
allele by a small letter in the case of dominant-recessive characters.

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Diploid: This is a description of a cell, which has a whole set of
chromosomes.
Haploid: This refers to a cell with half the set of chromosomes.
Genotype: This refers to the genetic composition of an organism.
Phenotype: This is the physical appearance or the outward expression of an
individual.
Dominant gene/dominant allele: This is a description of a gene /allele
whose effect is seen in the phenotype of the heterozygous individual. The effect
of the dominant gene/allele is seen in the phenotype even in the presence of
another gene/allele.
Recessive gene/ allele: This is a description of a gene whose effect is not
phenotypically expressed in the heterozygous state. The effect of a recessive
gene/allele is not seen in the presence of another (dominant) gene/allele.
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Homozygous: This refers to a gene with two identical alleles for example if
T represents the gene for height where tallness is dominant to shortness then
the allele for tallness is T and that for shortness is t.
An individual with TT is said to be homozygous tall and tt is said to be
homozygous short.
Homozygous dominant: This is where both alleles of a gene determine a
dominant character.
Homozygous recessive: This is where both alleles of a gene determine a
recessive character.
Heterozygous: This refers to a gene with two different alleles for example if
T represents the allele for tallness and t for shortness then Tt is the
heterozygous state of this gene.
Hybrid: This is an offspring produced by parents of two different pure lines.
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Incomplete dominance: This is a condition where neither of the genes is
dominant over the other.
Gametes: These are reproductive cells.
Fertilization: This is the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a
zygote.
Monohybrid inheritance: This is a type of inheritance, which involves
studying a single pair of contrasting characteristics.
Dihybrid inheritance: This is a type of inheritance, which involves
studying two pairs of contrasting characteristics at ago.
Test cross: This is a type of back cross which involves crossing an offspring
having a dominant character with its recessive parent in order to determine the
test of that offspring.
Back cross: This is the mating of an offspring with one of its parents.
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G. Mendel
Father
Of
Genetics

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 Mendel’s experiment
For his experiment he collected one of the varieties of garden peas (Pisum
sativum) with contrasting features such as one variety was producing tall
plants when stems are about 200cm and another short plant with stems of
25cm.
He crossed these plants for his experiments.
He crossed pure tall pea plants with pure short pea plants and all the off
springs were tall (F1 generation) Tallness was the dominant character and
shortness the recessive character.
The dominant character is represented using a capital letter while the
recessive character is represented using a small letter.

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Let T represent allele for tallness
Let t represent allele for shortness

Offspring phenotype: All tall

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Mendel then selfed the plants of the F1 generation and obtained an F2
generation with tall and short plants in a ratio of 3:1

Genotypic ratio; TT: Tt: tt = 1:2:1

Phenotypic ratio; 3 tall: 1 short
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Conclusions from Mendel’s’ crosses.
1. A character can be transmitted from parent to offspring independent
of other characters.
2. Genes occur as a pair of alleles.
3. Only one allele of the same gene is carried in a single gamete.

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 Mendel’s laws of inheritance

From his observations, Mendel put up two laws of inheritance.

First law: The law of segregation.

This law states that the character of an organism is determined by a pair
of alleles. Only one allele of such a pair is carried in a gamete.

Second law: The law of independent assortment.

This states that each of the alleles in a pair may combine with another
allele from another pair randomly.

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 Monohybrid inheritance
Inheritance is the passing over of characteristics of the parents to their off
springs.
Monohybrid inheritance involves the study of how one character is inherited from the
parents to the off springs.
Mendel carried out several experiments on peas to study monohybrid inheritance.
Mendel chose garden peas for his experiments because of the following reasons:
1. They grow very fast and produce results in a very short period of time.
2. They are relatively small and can be grown on a small plot for study purposes.
3. Some of their characters are controlled by single genes, which makes it easy to
study them.
4. They have characteristics, which show clear-cut differences without intermediates
like tall and short, green and yellow cotyledons, etc.
He therefore concluded that their reproduction can be manipulated by Pollination.
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 Examples:
In Angopet village, black fur color is dominant over brown fur color. John has a
pure fur black cow while Samuel has a pure fur brown bull, the bull mounted the
cow during the time of grazing. Predict the nature of the offsprings John’s cow
would give birth too.
Take B for black and b for brown.
Let B represent the allele for black fur.
Let b represent the allele for brown fur.
Note.
1. It is one gene controlling a character, which is fur Color. For this reason, we use
the same letter
2. Black Color is dominant that is why we use (B) and brown is recessive (b)
3. The term pure-breeding is used to mean homozygous for that particular gene.
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Offspring genotype: all Bb (heterozygous)
Offspring phenotype: all black.
They are all black because black is dominant to brown and it shows up in the
heterozygous state.
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Consider Selfing of F1 (crossing two offsprings of F1
above).

F2 phenotypic ratio: 3 black: 1 brown, 3:1

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 EXERCISE 1
The fruit fly (drosophila melangaster) usually has wings twice as long as its
abdomen but some drosophilae have very short or vestigial wings. A long-
winged drosophila (male) was crossed with a vestigial winged female
drosophila and all the F1 off springs were long winged. The long winged F1
generation were then mated.
i) How can the cross be represented diagrammatically
ii) State the phenotypes of the off springs in the F2 generation and state their
genotypic ratio.
iii) What is the percentage of the vestigial winged drosophila flies in the F2
generation?
iv) A drosophila is normally used in experiments on heredity, why do you
think it is suitable for such experiments
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 Solution:
Let L represent the allele for long wing and l represent the allele for vestigial
wing

F1 phenotype: All long winged.

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Genotypic ratio; 1:2:1
Genotypic ratio; 1:2:1
One of the off springs will be homozygous long winged
Two of them will be heterozygous long winged
One of them will be homozygous short winged or vestigial winged
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 iii) ¼ x100 = 25%

iv) It’s because they:

• Have contrasting characters
• Have short life span
• Show clear cut differences.

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 EXERCISE 2
In cattle, the gene for hornless
condition is dominant over one for
horns. Jonathan’s pure hornless cow
was mated with Abraham’s horned
bull.
Using genetic symbols, show the
possible phenotype and genotype of
the F1 offsprings resulting from the
mating of the two cattle.

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 Solution:
Let h represent the allele for horned condition.
Let H represent the allele for hornless condition

F1 Phenotype: All were horned cows.

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 Exercise 3 (continuation of exercise2)
David decided to remove horns from
bull and mated it with a horned cow in
a view that he will get only hornless
offsprings which have a high market
price value in his village. Help David
predict the nature of the expected
offsprings, Show the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 off
springs and Give a reason for your
answer.
David’s bull with removed horns

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 Solution:
Let h represent the allele for horned condition.
Let H represent the allele for hornless condition

F1 Phenotype: All are horned

Note: cutting the horns doesn’t change the genetic make-up (genotype) of the
horned bull. Genetic composition of an organism is permanent and can’t be
manipulated.
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 Assignment:
In peas, yellow seed Color is dominant over green seed Color.
Rachel decided to transfer pollen from the flowers of true
breeding yellow-seeded plant to green-seeded plants. Predict
the results of Rachel’s activity in her garden.

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 Monohybrid inheritance in human beings
1. Albinism
This is a condition in human beings where the individual fail to produce
skin pigments called melanin.
Albinos have;
✓ Light skin
✓ White hair
✓ Pink eyes
✓ They are sensitive to bright light
Albinism is caused by a recessive gene.
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 Example
Daniel, a 27 year old male from Kanapa village, Kumi district with normal
skin color, admired and married Doreen who is an albino. Daniel believes all
his children will be albinos. Help Daniel accept the fact that non of his
children will be albinos.
Let A represent the allele for normal skin Color
Let a represent the allele for no skin Color.
Genotype Phenotype
AA Normal skin color
Aa Normal skin color but a carrier
aa Albino
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All the off springs will be carriers of albinism, who will have normal skin
color.

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 Exercise
Mr. and Mrs. Ojilong had been expecting a baby. However, after birth the
child emerged to have an abnormally light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Mrs.
Ojilong was shocked and couldn’t understand the cause of her child’s
appearance since both her and the husband look healthy and normal. So the
couple was referred to a doctor who upon diagnosis, explained to them that the
baby’s condition was due to a genetically inherited disease.
Task
(a) Identify the genetic disease and show how it was genetically passed to the
baby.
(b) Suggest how the family can manage their baby’s condition.

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 Sex determination in human beings
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell of the human body.
One pair determines the sex of the individual and they are called sex
chromosomes.
There are two sexes, i.e. male and female.
The gene controlling sex is carried in the reproductive cells on the sex
chromosomes.
There are two sex chromosomes the X chromosome and the Y chromosome.
These chromosomes occur in a pair to determine the sex of an individual.
Each gamete carries one of the sex chromosomes.
In males some of the sperms contain the X chromosome while some contain the
Y chromosome.
Y only occurs in males.
In females all the eggs contain the X chromosome.
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At fertilization, a sperm fuses with the egg.
If the X sperm fuses with an egg (X), the resulting offspring is XX and is a
female.
If a Y sperm fuses with an egg (X), the resulting individual is XY and is a
male.
Therefore, the male determines the sex of the offspring.
This is because the male produces two different sperms (X and Y) while the
female produces only eggs with X chromosomes.

Note:
The Y sperms are more active and persistent than the X sperms. This
increases the chances of an ovum to be fertilized by a Y sperm. So, to every
100 girls, 120 boys are born but more boys than girls die at the time of birth.
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 Illustration:

Phenotypic ratio; 2 boys: 2 girls

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 Sex linked traits/characters in Humans
These are traits or genes associated with the sex of the individual.
These characters are carried on the sex chromosomes and are controlled
or determined by the genes on those chromosomes.
Such characters appear in a recessive form hence are very common in
males than in females.
Such characters include;
✓ Color blindness
✓ Haemophilia (bleeder disease)

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 Inheritance of Color blindness
Color blindness is a defect of the eyes where eyes have a reduced ability to distinguish
between certain Colors caused by a recessive gene on the X chromosome.
Example
Let B represent the allele for normal Color vision
Let b represent the allele for Color blindness
Genotype Phenotype

XᴮXᴮ Normal female

XᴮXᵇ Normal female but a carrier

XᵇXᵇ Color blind female

XᴮY Normal male

XᵇY Colorblind male

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 Question:
Joan, a carrier for color blindness got married to Emma who has normal
color vision and the two expect a baby soon. Help the couple predict the
possible nature of their children in regards to color vision. Write the
genotypic ratio of the off springs and make a comment of their
condition.
Solution:
Let B represent the allele for normal Color vision
Let b represent the allele for Color blindness.

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Genotypic ratio; 2:1:1
2 will be normal girls (females)
1 will be normal boy (male)
1 will be carrier girl (female)
1 will be Color blind boy (male)

Assignment: Red - green color blindness is a defect caused by a recessive gene

carried on the X chromosome. What would be the phenotype of the offspring when a
Jean, of normal color marries Stephen, a blind man? Show your working.
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 Inheritance of haemophilia (bleeder disease)
It is a disease in which blood takes a long time to clot at a wound.
It is also known as the bleeder’s disease.
This disease is caused by a recessive gene which is carried on the X chromosome.
Let H represent the allele for normal blood clotting
Let h represent the allele for haemophilia
Genotype Phenotype

XᴴXᴴ Normal female

XᴴXͪ Normal female but a carrier

XͪXͪ Haemophilic female

XᴴY Normal male

XͪY Haemophilic male

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 Exercise
Susan and David are a happily married couple with four children two boys and two girls.
Micheal, their last born has a strange condition in which every time he gets a minor
injury, his bleeds for a longer time as compared to his sisters and his other brother.
David believes that Susan may have cheated on him to conceive their last born since
none of them has such a condition.

Task
(a)Identify the condition that is likely to be affecting Micheal
(b)Explain to the couple the possibility of having a child like Micheal.
(c)Advise the couple onto how Micheal’s health condition can be managed

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 Sex limited traits
These are characteristics that only show in one sex e.g. secondary sexual
characteristics, hairy pinna, etc.

Exceptions to mendelian inheritance

The following do not conform to the process of inheritance as illustrated by
Mendel.
1. Linkage
2. Incomplete dominance.
3. Co-dominance
4. Multiple alleles.
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 Co-dominance
This is a condition where genes determining a particular character all show up
such that the phenotype of the offspring is a mixture of that of the parents.
All the characters of either parent appear in the offspring, e.g. black and white
gives white and black spots in the offspring.
It mainly occurs in animals.
Co-dominance is where in the heterozygous state neither allele is completely
dominant over the other i.e. the 2 alleles are co-dominant.
This results in the phenotype intermediate between the parent’s appearances.
The alleles for each trait are represented with different capital letters.

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 Incomplete dominance
This is a condition in the heterozygous where neither of the alleles is
dominant over the other and the phenotype of the offspring is an
intermediate between that of the parents.
An intermediate of the parents’ phenotype results, e.g. black and white
gives grey.
It mainly occurs in plants.

For example, consider petal Color in flowers: when a red flowered plant
is crossed with a white flowered plant, the offsprings produced are all
pink Colored petal flowers.

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 Multiple alleles
This is where one character is determined by more than two alleles.
This implies that a single gene contains more than two alleles.
An example is blood group inheritance.
The gene controlling blood groups is made up of three different alleles
(multiple alleles). These alleles are A, B and O.
The inheritance of blood groups is also an example of co-dominance. There
are 4 blood groups that is group A, B, AB and O.
An individual inherits two of these alleles one from each parent.
The table below shows the possible blood groups that can arise from the
different genotypes.

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 Exercise 1
In a mixed day school, Angela got pregnant and she is of blood
group B, Kapere a fellow student was accused to be
responsible for her condition, which he denied.
Angela gave birth to bouncing baby boy of blood group O.
As an investigation was done Kapere was un cooperative and
his blood group would not be discovered, but both his parents
were of blood group A.
Work out to find whether Kapere would be the likely father of
the baby.

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 Exercise 2
A woman of blood group A claims that a man of blood group
AB is the father of her child.
A blood test reveals that the child’s blood group is O.
is it possible that the woman’s claim is correct? Could the
father have been of blood group B?
Explain your reasoning.

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 Application of genetics
• The study of genetics encourages breeding of animals with
good characteristics to improve livestock.
• To eliminate or reduce harmful characteristics through the
study of genetics.
• Through genetic counseling and advice individuals may be
advised on the possibility of their off springs.
• In prediction of offspring from two mating individuals and
solves problems like fraternal uncertainty.

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 VARIATION & SELECTION
Variation is any difference between individual organisms of
any species caused either by genetic differences or by the
effect of environmental factors on the expression of genetic
potentials.

It allows some individuals within a population to adapt to the

changing environment.

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There are two types of genetic variations.
1. Continuous variations.
These are variations that show a gradual change in individuals without a
clear-cut difference between the two extremes.
It results into formation of intermediates.
Such variations include height, intelligence, skin Color, yield in plants,
etc.
In such variations, organisms are usually very many around the mean/average
point.

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Graphic illustration of continuous variations

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 2. Discontinuous variation.
This is a variation, which shows a clear-cut difference between the two
extremes without intermediates.
This results into expression of only two phenotypes.
Examples of discontinuous variations include, tongue rolling, blood
groups, sex, Ear lobe attachment in humans, flower color in
peas etc.

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 Causes of variation
Some variations are inherited and are called inherited variations while
others are occupied as a result of the environment hence called
environmental variations.

Examples of inherited variations are; blood groups, eye Color, albinism,

hair, height, sex in plants and animals etc.

Examples of environmental variations are knowledge, body size due to

diet of individuals, disease, etc.

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 Environmental factors that cause variations
✓ Diet
✓ Pathogens
✓ Altitude
✓ Light
Factors that cause inherited variations
✓ Mutation
✓ Crossing over
✓ Fertilization

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 Mutation
This is a sudden/spontaneous change in the structure and composition of a
gene or chromosome.

Types of mutation
i) Chromosome mutation: this is a sudden change in the number or
structure of a chromosome.
ii) Gene mutation: This is a sudden change in the chemical nature of a
gene.
Examples of gene mutation/genetic disorders are albinism and sickle cell
anemia.
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 Effects of mutations
Mutations can be neutral, beneficial or harmful depending on the
variations they cause to an individual.

(a) Neutral mutations

These are mutations that are neither beneficial nor harmful to the
survival and reproduction of an organism.

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 (b) Beneficial mutations
These have a positive effect on an organism. These include;
1. Resistance to diseases for example the mutant gene for sickle cell
anaemia confers resistance to malaria to sickle cell victims.
2. Resistance to harsh climatic conditions in plants
3. Rapid growth and production of high yields among plants
4. Cause variations that enable an organism to adapt to changes in the
environment e.g. antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
5. May lead to formation of new species (evolution)

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 (c) Harmful variations
These are mutations that negatively impact an organism’s ability to survive and
reproduce .
Harmful effects may include;
1. Development of cancerous cells
2. Cause genetic disorders e.g. albinism, sickle cell anaemia, down’s syndrome

GENETIC DISORDERS
This is an inherited condition that develops when a mutation affects an individual’s
genes.
There are no medical treatment for such conditions since they are genetically
determined.

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 Albinism
CAUSE: Albinism is caused by a mutation in one of several genes involved
in production or distribution of a pigment called Melanin.
The defect may result in the absence or reduced amount of Melanin
production. The defective gene passes down from both parents to the child
leading to albinism.
SYMPTOMS:
✓Absence of Color in the hair
✓Skin or eyes lighter than normal Coloring of the hair, skin or eyes
✓Patches of skin that have an absence of Color
✓Vision problems
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 Treatment
No known medical cure.
Care:
✓1.Wearing protective clothing i.e. long sleeves, wide-brimmed hats
✓2. Wearing UV-protective sunglasses, shielding the eyes and skin from
sun exposure
✓3.Regular visits to the dermatologist for skin checks to detect any skins
of skin damage
✓4. Ensuring that students with albinism are seated in well-lit areas but
away from direct sunlight.
✓5. Joining support groups can help albinos connect with others who
share similar experiences
✓6. Educating community about Albinism can reduce stigma and
promote understanding and acceptance.
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 Sickle cell anaemia
Causes: Its an inherited recessive condition that results from a mutation in a
gene responsible for production of normal Haemoglobin, the defective gene
results into production of abnormal haemoglobin which makes Red Blood Cells
sickle shaped.
SYMPTOMS:
Anaemia: sickle cells break apart easily and die leaving one with few red blood
cells
Episodes of pain: pain develops when sickle-shaped RBCs block blood flow
through tiny blood vessels to the chest, abdomen and joints
Swelling of hands and feet: swelling occurs when sickle-shaped cells block
blood flow to hands and feet.
Vision problems, delayed growth at puberty, frequent infections.
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 Care for the individual with sickle cell
1. Blood transfusion.
2. Frequent and rapid rehydration of the baby.
3. Regular checkup and medication.
4. Timely treating of any infection.
5. Preventing and treating stroke.
6. Proper nutrition.

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 Examples of chromosome mutation in man
i) Turner’s syndrome:
the individual has one X chromosome. This gives rise to a sterile
abnormal short female and it is due to loss of one sex chromosome.

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Down’s syndrome (mongolism):
this is due to the increase in the number of chromosomes. The
individual is mentally retarded with weak muscles, a big or large head, a
broad chest, stunted growth and dropped eyes.

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 klinefelter’s syndrome:
this is due to an additional X chromosome in an individual. This results in a
sterile male who may be mentally retarded.

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 Causes of mutations.
Mutations are caused by substances generally referred to as mutagens.
These include;
i) High temperatures.
ii) Chemicals such as mustard gas, colchine and caffeine.
iii) High-energy particles such as alpha and beta particles.
iv) High-energy radiations such as x-rays, gamma rays and ultra violet
radiations.
Note; most mutations are disadvantageous and recessive. They are rare
but persistent in the population.

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 Evolution
Evolution is the process by which more complex forms of organisms
arise from simpler forms over a long period of time.
This is a gradual process by which organisms change from simple to
complex forms over a period of time.

(read about the different theories of Evolution)

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 Natural selection( how natural selection leads to
evolution)
This is the process by which organisms that are better adapted to the
environment survive to reproduce while those less adapted fail to do
so and become extinct.
This is a process by which nature selects for the best adapted
organisms and selects against the less adapted ones.
When the environment changes, it affects organisms and those, which
possess characters that enable them to survive in the changing
environment and pass their genes to the next generation while those
less adapted, die over a long period of time.

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This occurs because organisms possess variations (differences between
them).
The survival of the best adapted and removal of the less adapted is known
as survival for the fittest.

This theory was stated by Charles Darwin.

Darwin suggested that there must be a struggle for existence where by the
fit individuals (better adapted) survive and the unfit ones die (survival for
the fittest).
Over a very long period of time these organisms can change into a
different species. (Evolution)

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Charles Darwin

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 Artificial selection
This is sometimes called selective breeding which is the process by which
humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop
particular traits (characteristics).
This is done by choosing which individual animal or plant (males and females)
with the most desirable features to sexually reproduce and bear offsprings
Examples:
Dog breeding
Breeding of bulls
Development of fleshy vegetables
Creation of high yielding crops
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 Advantages of artificial selection
1. Accelerates the breeding process and produce offsprings with
specific offsprings
2. Allows for development of crops with improved yields, animals with
desirable traits e.g. docility or high milk production
3. Leads to creation of breeds suited for particular purposes e.g.
working or companionship
4. Provides a controlled environment for breeding, enabling targeted
genetic modifications to meet human needs in agriculture and
animal husbandry

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 Disadvantages of artificial selection
1. Potential reduction in genetic diversity within populations, which
can make organisms more susceptible to diseases and environmental
changes
2. Over emphasis on specific traits may lead to unintended
consequences e.g. increased vulnerability to new threats
3. Results into neglect of other important but non-selected traits,
leading to loss of overall fitness in the organisms
4. May result into potential unintended consequences and long term
effects on the ecosystems

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.
.
END
BIOLOGY IS LIFE
SLIDES PREPARED
BY TR. PETER L OKION
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