Dr.Mahesh S.

Bannur, KLS VDIT, Haliyal ENGINEERING PHYSICS: MODULE-4

MODULE 3

LASER
The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Laser is a device that produces a highly coherent,
monochromatic, intense beam of light with very small divergence.
The first laser was built by T.H.Maiman in 1960 and since then extensive
research has been carried out on the development of lasers due to their wide
ranging applications.
Coherence: Two waves are said to coherent if the phase difference between
them remains constant.
Einstein’s explanation of interaction of radiation with matter (or)
Explaination of Induced absorption, Spontaneous emission & Stimulated
emission.
Consider a system of energy density E𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Let N1 & N2 be the population

of the energy states E1 & E2 respectively so that (E2 − E1) = hν

& E2 >E1
According to Einstein radiation interacts with matter in 3 ways namely:

1) Induced absorption:
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Induced absorption is the phenomenon in which an atom(A) in the lower

energy state E1 absorb the incident photon of energy ‘hν’ & excite to the

higher energy state E2

If (E2 −E1) = hν .
Mathematically it (induced absorption) is represented as

hν +A →𝑨∗ or photon + atom→𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚∗

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Also, Rate of induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1E𝜈,
where E𝜈 = E𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 of radiations &
𝐵12 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 coefficient for 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

2. Spontaneous emission:

Spontaneous emission is the phenomenon in which an atom (A) in the

excited state of energy E2 de-excite to the lower energy state E1 without any

external influence by emitting a photon of energy hν =(E2 −E1).

Mathematically, it is represented as 𝑨∗ → A + hν

Also, Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴21 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 for 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.

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3. Stimulated emission:

Stimulated emission is the phenomenon in which an atom (𝑨∗) in the excited

state of energy E2 de-excite to the lower energy state E1 under the influence

of an external photon (hν) by emitting an identical photon of energy hν =(E 2

−E1).

Mathematically,𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒉𝝂+𝑨∗ → A + hν + hν

Also, Rate of Stimulated emission= 𝐵21 𝑁2 E𝜈,

where 𝑈𝜈=𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 &
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𝐵21 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 for 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Important the terms :

Active medium;
Pumping mechanism ;
Population Inversion ;
Meta stable state and
Laser Cavity( Resonant cavity)
Explanation of the requisites of a laser system.
Requisites of a laser system:

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Requisites of a laser system as discussed above, for the production of laser
beam stimulated emission is essential requirement which is a non-thermal
equilibrium condition. Therefore, to begin stimulated emission, some
requisites are required which is mentioned as below:
1. Active medium is a Solid/Liquid/Gas medium in which pumping
mechanism, lasing, population inversion and stimulated emission of the
radiations takes place.
2. Pumping mechanism is the process in which atoms in the lower states in
order to excite them to higher states with the help of external energy. The
methods of pumping are Optical pumping, Electrical pumping; Forward bias
pumping, chemical pumping, Elastic one-one collisions.
The energy input may be in the form of light energy. This kind of pumping is
called optical pumping and is made use of in the construction of Ruby laser.
If the pumping is achieved by electrical energy input then it is called electrical
pumping.
3. Lasing: The process which leads the emission of stimulates photons after
establishing a population inversion is called lasing action.

4. Population Inversion is condition of system in which the population of

atoms or molecules in higher energy (excited) states exceeds the population
of atoms or molecules in lower (ground) states. N2 > N1
When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population
ratio is governed by the Boltzmann factor according to the following equation:
𝐸2− 𝐸
𝑁1 ( 𝑘𝑇 1 ) hν
According to Boltzmann’s law, = 𝑒 = 𝑒 KT
𝑁2
It means that the population E2 will be far smaller than the population
N1 at the level E1. The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower

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energy level and relatively lesser number of atoms in the higher energy level
is called normal state or equilibrium state.
Thus under thermal equilibrium condition. N1 > N2

For achievement of laser light stimulated emission should dominate over

absorption. For the stimulated emission to dominate; population of the upper
energy level N2 must exceed the population of the lower energy level N 1, this
is called as population inversion. Population inversion is the condition of the
material in which population of the upper energy level N2 far exceeds the
population of the lower energy level N1.
N2 > N1
This is a non-equilibrium state and exists only for a short time.
Population inversion is obtained by employing pumping technique, which
transfer large number of atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level.
5. Meta stable state is an intermediate state in which the average life of the
atoms is of the order of 10−2s to 10−3s or milli second.
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it.
Normally excited atoms have short lifetimes and release their energy in a
matter of nanoseconds (10-8 to 10-9 s) through spontaneous emission. It
means that atoms do not stay long enough at the excited state to be
stimulated. As a result, even though the pumping agent continuously raises
the atoms to the excited level, they undergo spontaneous transition and
rapidly return to the lower energy level. Population inversion cannot be
established under such circumstances. In order to establish the condition of
population inversion, the excited atoms are required to “wait” at the upper
energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at that level. Such an
opportunity would be provided by metastable states, which is of the order of

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10 to 10 s. This is 10 to 10 times the lifetimes of the ordinary excited
-6 -3 3 6

energy levels.
6. Laser Cavity (Resonant Cavity):
It consists of two opposing plane mirrors, with active material placed in
between them. One of the mirrors is partially reflecting while the other is fully
reflecting (100 %). The mirrors reflect the photons to and fro through the
active medium. The mirrors are placed normal to the optic axis of the material.
The spontaneously emitted photons moving along the optic axis will only
stimulate the other atoms from the excited state in the active medium and the
other photons travelling in the other directions will be lost. So the two mirrors
along with the active medium form the laser cavity. Now a photon moving in
a particular direction represents a light wave moving in the same direction.
Inside the cavity two types of waves exist; one type comprises of waves moving
to the right, and the other one, to the left. Two waves interfere constructively
if there is no phase difference between the two; but their interference becomes
destructive if the phase difference is For constructive interference the distance
“L” between the two mirrors should be such that the cavity should support
an integral multiple of half wavelength

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One mirror is highly silvered and the other partially silvered. The distance
nλ
between the two reflected mirrors is given by L = ,
2
where λ = wavelength of incident radiations and
n = number of stationary waves produced.

Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of

the probability of absorption or emission of light by an atom or molecule.
Thermodynamic equilibrium is a state in which the energy exchanges due to
emission and absorption processes occur such that the population of each
state remains unaltered.

Derivation of an expression for energy density of radiations in terms of

Einstein’s coefficients (or) Derive the relation between Einstein’s
coefficients.

Consider a system of energy density E𝜈 in thermal equilibrium.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms (E2 > E1).

Let there be N1 atoms with energy E1

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& N2 be the number density of the energy states E1 & E2 respectively,
where
Number density means number of atoms or molecules available per unit
volume of the quantum system.
WKT,
Rate of induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1E𝜈,

where 𝐵12 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .

Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴21 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Rate of Stimulated emission= 𝐵21 𝑁2E𝜈 ,
where 𝐵21 =𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 .
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of induced absorption = {𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛} + {𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 }
ie: 𝐵12 𝑁1E𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 E𝜈

∴ E𝜈( 𝐵12 𝑁1− 𝐵21 𝑁2) = 𝐴21 𝑁2

𝑖𝑒: E𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 (𝐵12 𝑁1− 𝐵21 𝑁2)
Dividing both Nr & Dr by 𝐵21 𝑁2, we get

𝐴21 1
E𝜈 = [𝐵12 𝑁1 ] …….. ……….(1)
𝐵21 −1
𝐵21 𝑁2
𝐸2− 𝐸
𝑁1 ( 𝑘𝑇 1 ) hν
According to Boltzmann’s law, = 𝑒 = 𝑒 KT …….(2)
𝑁2
From eqns 1 &2 , we get.

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𝐴21 1
E𝜈 =
𝐵21
[𝐵 hν ] ……….……..(3)
12 𝑒KT −1
𝐵21

But .the energy density of black body radiation is given by Planck’s law is

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
E𝜈 =
𝑐3
[ hν ] ……….……..(4)
𝑒KT −1
𝐵12
Comparing eqns 3 & 4, we get = 1 or 𝑩𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐𝟏
𝐵21

Thus coefficient of Induced absorption = coefficient of stimulated

emission.

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 𝐴21
And =
𝑐3 𝐵21

𝐴21 1
Thus, energy density E𝝂 = [ hν ]
𝐵21
𝑒 KT −1
This is the expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s
coefficients or relation between Einstein’s coefficients.

Explanation of the fundamental mode of vibration in CO 2 molecule.

CO2 laser is a four level molecular laser. CO2 is a linear molecule consists
of two oxygen atoms and one carbon atom in between them. CO 2 laser was
one of the earliest gas lasers invented by Chandra Kumar Naran Bhai Patel
(C.K.N. Patel) of Bells lab in 1964. CO2 laser are the highest power
continuous wave lasers. They are quite efficient; the ratio of output power to
pump power can be as large as 20%. CO 2 laser produces a beam of infrared

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light with the principal wavelength bands centering around 9.6 and 10.6
micrometers.
Vibrational Modes in CO2 laser: CO2 molecules undergo 3 different
types of vibrational oscillations. These vibrational configurations are called
vibrational modes. These vibrational modes are quantized. 3 modes of
vibration in CO2 molecule.
In CO2 molecule there are three fundamental modes of vibrations, namely
1. Symmetric mode :

(i) Symmetric mode is the mode in which both the oxygen atoms
oscillate simultaneously to & fro about the stationary carbon atom
along the molecular axis.
In this mode the oxygen atoms oscillate along the molecular
axis approaching, towards or departing from the carbon atom. The
Carbon atom remains stationary. In this state, the CO 2 molecule
has an energy that is intermediate as compared to the other two
modes of vibration. This state is referred to as (100) state.

2. Asymmetric mode:

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Asymmetric Stretching mode is the mode in which both the
oxygen atoms move in one direction and the carbon atom move in the
opposite direction along the molecular axis.
During the vibration in this mode, all the three atoms oscillate
along the molecular axis. But the two oxygen atoms move in one
direction while the carbon atom move in opposite direction. This state is
referred to as (001) state. In this state CO2 molecule possess the highest
energy.

3. Bending mode:

Bending mode is the mode in which both oxygen atoms and

carbon atom move in opposite directions perpendicular to the
molecular axis.
In bending mode all the 3 atoms oscillate normal to the
molecular axis. While vibrating the two oxygen atoms pull together
in one direction as the carbon atom is displaced in the opposite
direction. This state is referred to as (010) state. The energy of the
molecule is the least among the 3 states of vibrations. (010) is the
lower excited state of bending mode. Next excited state is (020). The
(020) state is also involved in the laser transition.
The internal vibrations of CO2 molecule are the combination
of the above three modes.

CARBON DIOXIDE LASER: CO2 Laser

The carbon dioxide laser (CO2 laser) was one of the earliest gas
lasers to be developed. It was invented by Indian scientist Chandra
Kumar NaranBhai Patel (CKN Patel) of Bell Labs in 1964, and is still one
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of the most useful types of laser. Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-
power continuous wave lasers that are currently available. They are also
quite efficient: the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large
as 20%. The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the
principal wavelength bands centering on 9.6 and
10.6 micrometers (μm).

A medical CO2 laser

Explain the principal, construction and working of C𝑶𝟐 laser.

Construction of CO2 laser:

It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter. This

discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO 2 (active medium), helium
and nitrogen with suitable partial pressures. Water vapours are added as an
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additive. The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power
supply. The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows
so that the laser light generated will be polarized. Two concave mirrors one
fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical resonator. The active
centers are CO2 molecules and lasing takes place on the transitions between
the vibrational levels of the electronic ground state.
Construction:
1) The schematic diagram CO2 Laser is as shown in the diagram invented
by CKN Patel an Indian engineer.
2) It consists of a (glass) discharge tube of length 5 m & diameter 2.5 cm
filled with a mixture of gases CO2 ,N2 ,He in the ratio 1:2:3
3) High DC voltage can be applied to the gas between the electrodes A&C.
4) Ends of the tube is fitted with ( NaCl ) Brewster windows to get polarized
laser beam.
5) Two con-focal silicon mirrors coated with aluminum are provided at the
ends of the tube which act as optical resonators.
6) Cold water is circulated through a tube surrounding the discharge tube

Working of CO2 laser

1. When a suitable voltage is applied across the two electrodes, a glow
discharge of the gases is initiated in the tube. During discharge many
electrons are rendered free from the gas atoms; these free electrons
begin colliding with the N2 and O2 molecules in their path. These
accelerated electrons collide with N2 molecules and excite them to higher
energy levels. This process is represented by the equation

Energy level diagram:

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Principle: CO2 laser works on the principle of stimulated emission.

Working:
1) CO2 Laser is a four level molecular gas laser which produce
Continuous or pulsed laser beam.
2) It works on the principle of stimulated emission between the
Rotational sublevels of an upper & lower vibrational levels of CO 2
molecules.
3) Ionisation takes place due to electric discharge when high DC
voltage is applied between electrodes producing electrons.
4) The accelerated electrons excite both N2 & CO2 atoms to their higher
energy levels ‘ 𝓥 =1 & C5 from their ground states 0 & C1 due to
collision as follows:
e+𝑵𝟐→ 𝑵𝟐∗+e’ and

e+𝑪𝑶𝟐→ 𝑪𝑶𝟐∗+ e’
where e& e ’are the energies of electron before and after collision.
5) 𝑵𝟐∗molecule in excited level collide with CO2 molecules in their
ground state C1 & excite it to metastable state C5 by resonant energy
transfer as level C5 of CO2 is same as level 𝓥=1 of 𝑁2 given by
𝑵𝟐∗+𝑪𝑶𝟐→ 𝑪𝑶𝟐∗+ 𝑵𝟐
6) As this process continues due to electric discharge pumping ,

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population inversion takes place betweenC5 & C4 and C5 & C3.
7) The transitions/de-excitations takes place as follows:
C5 → C4 producing laser 10.6𝜇𝑚 (IR region)
C5 → C3 producing laser 9.6𝜇𝑚 (IR region)
C4 → C2
C3 → C2 Radiation less transitions
C2 → C1
8) Due to high thermal conductivity of He, it removes heat from
mixture and de-populate the lower states C3 & C2 quickly.
9) Laser beam is amplified by using optical resonators.

9) The laser output is 100kW for continuous mode and 10 kW in

pulsed mode.

Advantages
➢ The construction of CO2 laser is simple.
➢ The output of this laser is continuous.
➢ It has high efficiency.
➢ It has very high output power.
➢ The output power can be increased by extending the length of the
gas tube.

Semiconductor Diode laser:

Principle, construction and working of Semiconductor Diode laser.

Construction: Metallic contacts are provided to the P and N types in a heavily

doped P-N junction diode. Two opposite faces which are perpendicular to the
plane of the junction are polished and made parallel to each other. These
parallel faces constitute the resonant cavity and laser is obtained through
these faces as shown in Figure. The remaining two faces are roughened to
prevent lasing action in that direction.
1. The schematic diagram of Ga-As semiconductor device is as shown in the
diagram.

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2. It consists of heavily doped n-region of Ga-As doped with tellurium and p-
region of Ga-As doped with zinc.
3. The dopants are added in the concentration of the order 10 17 to 1019
number of dopants per cm3.
4. The upper and lower surfaces are metalized so that pn-junction is forward
biased.
5. Two surfaces perpendicular to the junction are polished so that they act
as optical resonators and the other two surfaces roughened to prevent
lasing in that direction.

Principle: Semiconductor diode laser works on the principle of stimulated

emission.

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Working:
1. Semi-conductor laser are made up of highly de-generate semi-conductors
having direct band gap like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
2. When GaAS diode is forward biased with voltage nearly equal to the
energy gap voltage, electrons from n-region & holes from p-region flow
across the junction creating population inversion in the active jn region.
3. As the voltage is gradually increased due to forward biasing population
inversion is achieved between the valence band and conduction band
which in turn result in stimulated emission.
4. Photons produced are amplified between polished optical resonator
surfaces producing laser beam.
5. GaAs laser produce laser beam of wavelength 8870Å in IR region , GaAsP

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produce laser beam of 6500Å in visible region etc.
Spontaneously emitted photon may trigger stimulated emissions over a
large number of recombinations leading to build of laser radiation of high
power. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV, the wavelength of emitted light
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=𝐸 = 8400A0
𝑔
Since energy gap is a function of temperature, the wavelength of laser
can be tuned anywhere between 8400A0 to 9000A0 .
Advantages of semiconductor laser:
❖ Semiconductor lasers are the smallest and least expensive of all the
lasers available.
❖ The semiconductor lasers find important use in optical
communications since they provide light beams of wavelengths which have
low absorption loss in the optical fibers.

Mention the characteristics of laser beam.

The laser beam characteristics are:
1. They are highly monochromatic.
2. They are highly coherent.
3. They are highly directional.
4. They are highly focusable.
5. They are least divergent.
Applications of lasers:
By the virtue of their high intensity, high degree of
monochromaticity, and coherence, lasers find remarkable applications
in a diverse of fields such as medicine, material processing,
communications, energy resources, 3-D photography etc. They also find
immense applications in defense. Some applications are discussed
below:
Application of laser in Defence as range finder
High intensity, High coherence and High directionality of laser is made
use of in Defense range finder.

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The schematic diagram of range finder is as shown in the diagram.

Range finder works on the principle that, Distance = Velocity X time. Laser
beam is transmitted towards the target and the reflected laser beam from the
target is received. The time (t)elapsed between the transmitting laser and
receiving the beam is measured. If ‘S’ be the distance of the target, then the
𝑉𝑡
range of the target is given by S =
2
In practice computer aided calibrated devices are used to display the
distance and direction on the monitor screen directly and accurately.

Tankers, Fighter planes, Guided missiles are equipped with range

finders to destroy the enemy targets without bringing to the pre-notice of
enemy.

Use of laser in data storage in CDs( Compact Discs) and DVDs( Digital
Varsatile Discs) :

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1. High intensity, High focussability of laser is made use of for storing data
in CDs and DVDs.
2. CD and DVDs are made up of three layers as shown in the diagram.
3. CDs and DVDs are thin circular discs of about 12 cm diameter metal disc
usually aluminium on which digital information such as computer files,
audio and video data etc are recorded. The data is stored as minute ‘Bits’
(0’s) and ‘Lands’(1s) binary language in spiral track on the surface of the
disc. The data is read with low power laser device focused on the tracks.
4. The bottom layer is made of polycarbonate which is tough and brittle.
Above this is aluminium layer coated with plastic and Lacquer(synthetic
substance which dries to form a hard protecting coating).
5. To store data laser beam burn and create tiny bumps of space in the
track called “Pits” which denote ‘0’ and un burnt space in the track
called “Lands’ which denote ’1’along the spiral track. Thus data is stored
in binary language as 0s and 1s.
6. Data can be reproduced by scanning the pits and lands along the spiral
track using a low power laser .An electronic circuit generate 0s and 1s
and decoder convert these binary numbers in to original data.
7. Storage capacity of CD is 700 MB and that of DVDs is about 4.7 GB. Blu-
ray Disc Xtra Large(BDXL) can store data more than 50GB.

Chapter at a Glance
Chapter at a Glance

➢ The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation.
➢ If the phase difference between two points along any ray remains constant, the
coherence is called temporal coherence.
➢ If the phase difference between two points in a plane normal to the ray direction
remains constant the coherence is called spatial or lateral coherence.
➢ Metastable states : These are excited states of an atom with relatively larger life
times of the order of 10– 3 s . As these energy states are neither as stable as ground
state nor as unstable as the other excited states, they are known as metastable
states.
➢ Spontaneous emission of radiation : When an atom in its excited energy state E2
makes a transition to the ground state E1 on its own, without any external
stimulus, it emits a photon of energy E2 – E1 . This is known as spontaneous
emission of radiation.
➢ Stimulated emission of radiation : If a photon having energy E2 – E1 interacts
with an atom in the energy state E2 , the photon forces the atom to undergo
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transition to the ground state E1 giving rise to another photon of the same energy
E2 – E1. This is known as stimulated emission of radiation.
➢ The light produced by stimulated emission is coherent.
➢ The rate of absorption of photons is proportional to the number density N1 of the
atoms in ground state and the energy density Ev in the frequency range ν to ν +dν
in incident radiation,i.e,
Rate of absorption = B12 N1 Eν
Where B12 is a constant known as Einstein's coefficient of induced absorption.
➢ Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
where A21 is a constant known as Einstein's coefficient of spontaneous emission
and N2 is the number of atoms in the excited state.
➢ Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2E_
where B21 is a constant known as Einstein's coefficient of stimulated emission.
➢ The state, in which there is a larger number of atoms in the higher energy state
than the lower, is called population inversion. Population inversion ensures
amplification of light.
➢ The process of raising the atoms from a lower energy state to higher, to create
population inversion, is called pumping.
➢ Cavities can be constructed using different types of mirrors such that the light
rays return to their original location and orientation after travelling through the
cavity for a certain number of times. Such cavities are known as
resonant cavities.

➢ The carbon dioxide laser makes use of transitions in the molecular vibrational and
rotational energy levels. Carbon dioxide is the active gas having metastable states.
➢ In a semiconductor laser, the large forward bias applied to the junction is the
pumping mechanism which produces population inversion.
➢ Characteristics of laser : Laser is monochromatic, coherent, unidirectional, bright
and can be focussed easily.
➢ Lasers are used for welding, cutting, drilling, measuring atmospheric pollutants,
surgeries, telecommunication, holography, Laser rangefinder in defense and laser
used in compact disc.

MODULE III

OPTICAL FIBERS

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What is an Optical Fiber?

Optical Fiber is a transparent di-electric material (like glass/plastic)
which guides/ carry) light along it based on the principle of total reflection of
light.
Optical fiber consists of a cylindrical transparent di-electric material of
high refractive index called core. It is surrounded by another di-electric
transparent material of low refractive index called cladding. Cladding in turn
is surrounded by cylindrical insulator called Sheath, which gives mechanical
strength & protect the fiber from absorption, scattering etc.

Optical fiber is a plastic or transparent fiber that is used to propagate

light. The working principle of this is the total internal reflection from
completely different walls. So light can be transmitted for long distances
because the flexibility of fiber optics is sufficient. So this is used in
microscopes which are in micro size, data communication, in fine endoscopes
design, etc. An optical fiber cable includes three layers like core, cladding,
and jacket. A core layer is enclosed through a cladding.

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Here cladding layer is normally designed with plastic or silica. The main
function of the core within the optical fiber is to transmit an optical signal
while the cladding directs the light in the core. As the optical signal is guided
throughout the fiber, then it is called an optical waveguide. This article
discusses an overview of the numerical aperture of optical fiber.

Total Internal Reflection:

When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away
from the normal. As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium,
the angle of refraction also increases. For a particular angle of incidence called
the “critical angle”, the refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media
or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the same medium.
This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident
ray is reflected back.
XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium
of refractive index n2, n1 > n2.
AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of
incidence and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1.
For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the refracted ray which
grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is
totally reflected back along OC1.

From Snell’s law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
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For total internal reflection,
θ1= θc and θ2 = 90°
n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)
θc= sin-¹(n2/n1)
In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.
The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total
internal reflection.
Optical Fibers: They are used in optical communication which on the
principle of total internal reflection (TIR).

Optical fiber is made from transparent dielectrics. It is cylindrical in

shape. The inner cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n 1. The
outer part is called as cladding of refractive index n2, n1 > n2. There is
continuity between core and cladding. Cladding is enclosed inside a
polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

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The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the
core and cladding with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes
total internal reflection. After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges
out of the core. Thus the optical fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be
taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber because at sharp bends, the light
ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

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What is the Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber?

Definition: The measurement of an optical fiber ability to collect the

occurrence light ray in it is known as the numerical aperture. The short form
of this is NA that illustrates the efficiency with the light which is collected
within the fiber to get propagated. We know that when the light is
propagated through an optical fiber during total internal reflection. So
multiple total internal reflections take place within the fiber to transmit from
one end to another.

Once the light ray is produced from the source of an optical fiber, then
the optical fiber should be very efficient to get the maximum emitted radiation
in it. So we can say that the efficiency of a light which is getting from the
optical fiber is the main character once transmitting a signal throughout an
optical fiber.

The numerical aperture is connected to the acceptance angle because

the acceptance angle is the maximum angle during light travels through the
fiber. Therefore the NA & acceptance angle is associated with each other.

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Derive an expression for acceptance angle or Numerical aperture of an
optical fiber.

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let
‘θ1’ be the angle of refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at
a critical angle (900- θ1) at B grazes the interface between core and cladding
along BC.
If the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes total
internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and sinθ0
is called the numerical aperture.
Acceptance angle is the maximum angle submitted by the ray with the
axis of the fiber so that light can be accepted and guided along the fiber.
Let 𝑛1, 𝑛2 & 𝑛𝑜 be the RI of core, cladding and launch medium respectively.
Also OA incident ray, AB refracted ray, BC totally reflected ray, 𝜃𝑖 & 𝜃𝑟 be the
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angles of incidence, refraction at A & 𝜃 & 𝜃𝑟 be the angle of incidence and
angle of refraction at B respectively.

By Snell’s law at position “O”,

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding
respectively.
From Snell’s law,
nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 → (1)
From Snell’s law,
At ‘B’ the angle of incidence is (900 – θ1)
n1sin(900 – θ1) = n2 sin900
n1cosθ1 = n2
𝑛2
cosθ1 = → (2)
𝑛1
From equation (1), we have
Rearrange the equation (1)
𝑛1
sinθ0 = sinθ1
𝑛0
𝑛1
sinθ0 = √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 )
1 ……. (3) (sinθ1 = √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃1))
𝑛0

Using eqn. (2) in (3)

Put the value of cos θ1 in equn(3) from equn(2)
𝑛1 𝑛22
sinθ0 = √(1 − )
𝑛0 𝑛12
𝑛1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sinθ0 = √ 𝑛2
𝑛0 1
𝑛1 1
sinθ0 = x √𝑛21 − 𝑛22
𝑛0 𝑛1

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sinθ0 = ……… (4)
𝑛0
If the surrounding medium is air 𝑛0 = 1, then
sinθ0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Where Sinθo is called numerical aperture (N.A).

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N.A = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Therefore, for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ 0,
the incident ray is able to propagate.
θi < θ0
sinθi < sinθ0
sin θi < √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin θi < 𝑁. 𝐴 is the condition for propagation.
Light will be transmitted through the fiber with multiple TIR, when the above
condition is satisfied.

Note: Acceptance angle (θ0) is the maximum angle of incidence on the core
for which TIR takes place inside the core.
Numerical aperture (NA) is the most important parameter of an optical fiber.
It measures how much light signals can be collected by an optical fiber. Based
on the refractive indices of core and cladding, we can measure the value of
NA.
If 𝜃𝑖 =𝜃0 is the maximum angle of incidence for which total internal
reflection takes place, then 𝜃0 is called the acceptance angle.
Fractional Index Change:
“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and
cladding to the refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.
𝑛1  𝑛 2 𝑛 1 − 𝑛2
Δ= = n1 > n 2
𝑛1 𝑛1
Relation between N.A and Δ:
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
Consider Δ=
𝑛1
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 = 𝛥𝑛1 ……(1)
We have
Expression for numerical aperture
N.A = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

N.A. = √ (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) ….. (2)

Using equation (1), we have

N.A. = √ (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) 𝛥𝑛1 …… (3)

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Usually R.I. of core (n1) is nearly equal to R.I. of cladding (n2)i.e. n1 n2
Hence, we can write n1 + n2 = 2n1
By making this substitution equation 3 becomes
N.A. = √2𝑛1 . ∆𝑛1
N.A. = √2𝑛12 ∆
N.A. = n1√2∆ ……. (4)
Thus, the numerical aperture can be increased by increasing the fractional
index change.
It appears from the above that an increase in the value of Δ increases the
numerical aperture and thus enhances the light gathering capacity of the
fiber. But we cannot increase Δ to a very large value, since it leads to what is
known as “intermodal dispersion” which causes signal distortion. This
dispersion causes distortion in the signal.

V-number:
“The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined
by
a parameter called V-number”.
If the surrounding medium is air, then
𝜋𝑑
𝑉= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆
Where, ‘d’ is the core diameter,
n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively,
‘λ’ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
πd
V= (𝑁𝐴)
𝜆
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,
πd √𝑛21 − 𝑛22
V=
𝜆 𝑛0
For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by,
𝑉2
Number of modes = 2
Modes of propagation:

The paths along which the light is guided in the fiber are called modes
𝑉2
of propagation and the number of modes of the fiber is given by N= 2 .
Types of optical fibers:
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In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the
refractive index of core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such
that the refractive index decreases from the axis radialy.
Refractive index profile:
The curve which represents tha variation of R.I. w.r.t. the radial distance from
the axis of the fiber is called refractive index profile.

Following are the different types of fibers:

1. Single mode fiber
2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
This classification is done depending on the refractive index profile and
the number of modes that the fiber can guide.

1. Single mode fiber:

A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform R.I. value. The cladding is
also of uniform R.I. But the R.I. of cladding is less than that of the core. This
results in a sudden increase in the value of R.I. from cladding to core.
Thus its R.I. profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the core
is about 8 to 10μm and external diameter of cladding is 60 to 70μm. Because
of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in figure.
Refractive index of core and cladding has uniform value; there is an increase
in refractive index from cladding to core.
Applications: They are used in submarine. It is used in long hand
communication due to higher bandwidth. They transmit transformation to
longer distance due to negligible dispersion.

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2. Step index multimode fiber: It is similar to single mode fiber but core
has large diameter. The diameter value of the core is about 50 to 200μm and
external diameter of cladding is 100 to 250μm. But the core is comparatively
larger in diameter. It can propagate large number of modes as shown in figure.
Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It has an application in data links.

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Applications: They are used in submarine. It is used in short distance
communication due to lower bandwidth. They transmit transformation to
shorter distance due to negligible dispersion.

3. Graded index multimode fiber: It is also called GRIN. The geometry of

the GRIN multimode fiber is similar to that of step index multimode fiber. Its
core material has a special feature that its R.I. value decreases in the radially
outwards direction from the axis and becomes equal to that of the cladding at
the interface. But the R.I. of the cladding remains uniform. The refractive
index profile is shown in figure. The incident rays bends and takes a periodic
path along the axis. The rays have different paths with same period. Laser or
LED is used as a source of light. It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone
trunk between central offices.

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Applications: They are used in the telephone trunk between central offices.
It is used in short distance communication due to lower bandwidth. They
transmit transformation to shorter distance.

Signal distortion in optical fibers:

The propagation of a signal through the optical fiber involves total
internal reflection of light rays many times. Further, the rays are reflected at
various angles. The rays reflected at higher angles travel greater distances
than the rays reflected at lower angles. As a result, all the rays do not arrive
at the end of the fiber simultaneously and the light pulse broadens as it
travels through the fiber. Since the output pulse does not match with the
input pulse, the signal is said to be distorted.
If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, another kind of
distortion occurs. Since radiation of different wavelengths has different
velocities, they do not arrive at the output simultaneously. This distortion is
called chromatic dispersion.
The signal distortion is quite considerable in multimode step index
fibers. In graded index fibers, the light travels with different velocities in
different parts of the core as the refractive index varies radially along the core.
The rays travel faster near the interface. Hence all the rays arrive at the output
almost at the same time and the signal distortion is reduced. In a single mode
step index fiber the distortion is less than that in multimode step index fibers.
Signal attenuation in optical fibers:
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber.
The power loss of optical signal when they propagated through optical
fiber is known as attenuation (PL).
The power loss PL in decibel (dB) is given by
𝑃
PL = −10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) ……..(1)
𝑖𝑛
Pin is the input power and Pout is the output power of signal.
The attenuation constant(𝛼) for optical fibers is defined as the power loss
per unit length and is expressed in dB/km.
It is expressed in decibel/kilometre [dB/km].
10 𝑃
𝛼= − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) …….. (2)
𝐿 𝑖𝑛
Where, L be the length of fiber & is measured in Km.

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Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
Type of Attenuation in an Optical fiber:
1. Absorption losses:-
Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron,
chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms.
The atoms are excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different
characteristics. Hence it is a loss of energy. The other impurity such as
hydroxyl ions (OH) causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of
photons by fiber material itself is called intrinsic absorption.
2. Scattering losses:
When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of the
particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non-uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering.
This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
3. Radiation losses:
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic
bends.
a. Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of
curvature provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that
specification of radius of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding
interface will not satisfy the condition of TIR. This causes loss of optical power.
b. Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-
uniformity of the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due to
manufacturing defects and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. The
defect due to nonuniformity (microbendings) can be overcome by introducing
optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Application of optical fiber: (Point to point communication in OF)

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A fiber optic communication system is very much similar to a traditional

communication system and has three major components. A transmitter
converts electrical signals to light signals, an optical fibre transmits the
signals and a receiver captures the signals at the other end of the fiber and
converts them to electrical signals.
The transmitter consists of a light source supported by necessary drive
circuits. First voice is converted into electrical signals using a transducer. It
is digitized (converted to binary electrical signals) using a coder. The digitized
signal, which carries the voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter.
The light source in optical transmitter (LED or laser diode) emits modulated
light, which is transmitted through optical fiber. The light emitted by the
source is in the IR range with a wavelength of 850nm, 1300nm or 1550nm.
On the other end the modulated light signal is detected by a photo
detector is amplified and is decoded using a decoder. The output is fed to a
suitable transducers to convert it into an audio or video form.
1. Information receiver-receives, convert input AVS in to AES & fed to coder.
2. Coder- receives, convert AES in to BES and fed in to optical transmitter
after modulating it with carrier signal.
3. Optical transmitter-receives, convert BES in to OS and fed in to carrier
optical fiber.
4. Carrier optical fiber-receive OS and guide it along the fiber. Weakened OS
is fed in to repeater.
4. Repeater( Receiver cum transmitter)-receives the Weakened OS, restore
to original strength and fed back in to carrier optical fiber again, which in
turn guide OS and fed in to optical receiver.
5. Optical receiver- receive ,convert OS in to BES & fed in to de-coder.

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6. De-coder-receive, de-modulate & convert BES in to AES & fed in to
information transmitter.
7. Information transmitter-finally receive, convert AES in to AVS as output.
Advantages of optical communication system:
1) It carries very large amount of information in either digital or analog form
due to its large bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are dielectric nature. So, it
doesn’t produces or receives any electromagnetic and R-F interferences.
3) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and
lightweight.
4) It is easily compatible with electronic system.
5) It can be operated in high temperature range.
6) It does not pick up any conducted noise.
7) Not affected by corrosion and moisture.
8) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
9) No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.

Advantages of Optical Fiber communication system(OFCS):

Merits of point to point Optical Fiber communication system are:
1. Wide bandwidth-the bandwidth of OFCS is very large about 105 GHz
compared to cable communication band width 500MHz.
2. Electrical isolation- OFCS cables are electrically isolated as the optical
fibers are made of insulating glass and plastics.
3. No cross talk- OFCS works on the principle of total internal reflection as
there is no leakage of signal.
4. Economical ,light weight, strong, flexible & small size- optical fibers
used in OFCS are cheap, light weight and small size compared to conventional
system.
5. Immune to electro-magnetic interference- Electrically neutral light
signals in OFCS are unaffected by external electromagnetic waves due to
current/magnetic field/lightning/electrical sparks.
6. High signal security- In OFCS the signals transmitted are highly secured
as the leakage can be easily detectable.
7. Low attenuation / transmission loss-In OFCS the transmission loss of
the signal is about 0.2dB/km.

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 40 | P a g e