AWASH VALLEY COLLEGE( AVC)

DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTING AND FINSNCE

Course Title: Basic English Writing Skills
Course code: EnLa 2013
Credit hours: 3

A material Provided for

Accounting and Management 2nd year students
Program: weekend
By: Teketay. T

October 2023
This material is composed of four broad units
Unit one: Sentence
1.1.What is a sentence?
1.2. Parts of a sentence
1.3. Sentence types
Unit two: constructing sentence
2.1. Subject- verb ,and pronoun agreement
2.2. Sentence or fragment
2.3. Run and fused sentences
2.4. Faulty parallelism
2.5. Misplaced modifiers
2.6. Dangling modifiers
Unit three : Paragraph
3.1. What is a paragraph?
3.2. Basis types of paragraph
 3.3. Parts of a paragraph
3.4. features of a good paragraph
Unit four : Paragraph development
4.1.Types of paragraph development
Unit five : Essay
5.1.What is Essay?
5.2. Parts of an essay
5.3. Types of essay
1. SENTENCE
What is a sentence ?
A sentence is a group of words that are arranged in a
logical order and gives a complete thought.
A sentence has two parts : namely subject and
predicates. The predicate can also be divided
into verb and complement (noun phrase, adjective,
object or independent clause)
Example:
My computer crashed. This is a sentence because it
tells us what something (subject – my computer)
does (verb – crashed).
Remember, a sentence can end with a period, question
mark, or exclamation mark.
Grace ran. Did Grace run? Grace ran faster
than Nicole! An exclamation mark expresses
strong emotion or emphasis.

Note: a sentence is not simple for it is short or

uncomplicated sentence rather it is for
having a single clause.
A long sentence may be simple as far as it has
only a single subject verb combination.
TYPES OF SENTENCES
1. The Simple Sentence
When we write, a complete thought is called a sentence. A
sentence must contain a complete subject (person, place, or
thing) and a verb (what the subject is doing) in order to
make sense. A simple sentence must also begin with a capital
letter and end with a period, question mark, or exclamation
mark. Another name for a simple sentence is an
independent clause.
The baby cried. This is a sentence because it tells us what
someone (subject – the baby) does (verb – cried).
Birds fly. This is a sentence because it tells us what something
(subject – birds) does (verb – fly).
My computer. This is not a sentence because it has a subject
(my computer) but no verb.
Crashed. This is a verb, which tells us what happened
(crashed), but there is no subject.
Compound Subjects and Verbs
A simple sentence can have two subjects –
Kate and I.
A sentence can also have a subject
performing two actions (verbs) – We sang
and danced.
A sentence can have a verb phrase
I will go to the bank after work.
A sentence could have both two subjects and
two verbs – Kate and I sang and danced.
My brother and I went to the party in time.
These do not make a sentence compound!
.
A simple sentence contains a subject, complete
verb, capital at the beginning, and punctuation at
the end. It must make sense on its own.
It is also called an independent clause.
2. Compound sentence
A compound sentence follows the same rules as a
simple sentence, except it basically contains TWO
simple sentences with a LINK in the middle.
A compound sentence has two subject verb
combination. There are three ways to link simple
sentences together to form a compound sentence.
Coordinate Conjunctions Join two simple sentences
together with a comma and coordinate
conjunction.
The coordinate conjunction shows the relationship
between two sentences of equal importance.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and,

but, for, or, nor, so, yet .

I love hockey, but I hate cold hockey rinks.

I hate cold hockey rinks, yet I love hockey.
I love cold hockey rinks, so I signed up for hockey.
I don’t like hockey, nor do I like cold hockey rinks.
Semicolon
A semicolon ( ; ) can join two simple
sentences closely related in meaning. It is
like a weak period; it indicates a strong
connection between the two sentences.
Each side of the semicolon must be able to
stand alone as an independent sentence
(also called an independent clause).
I love hockey; I hate cold hockey rinks.
I love hockey; cold rinks I can do without.
Conjunctive Adverb
You can also use conjunctive adverbs to link
together two simple sentences with a semicolon.
Conjunctive adverbs, like coordinate
conjunctions previously described, are words
that show the relationship between two simple
sentences of equal importance. Examples of
conjunctive adverbs are listed below:
Nevertheless, nonetheless, otherwise, similarl
y ,still therefore, thus ,however, indeed, in
fact instead, in stead ,likewise ,accordingly,
afterwards, also ,anyway, besides
consequently, furthermore etc….
 I love hockey; however, I hate cold
hockey rinks.
I hate cold hockey rinks; nonetheless,
I love hockey.
I dislike cold hockey rinks; therefore,
I never play hockey.

Note: The letter after the semicolon

should not be capitalized.
3. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains two simple
sentences (clauses), but one is more
important than the other. Again, as in
some compound sentences, the two
sentences are connected with a joining
word.
The linking word (subordinate conjunction)
makes the clause following it less
important than the other clause. The
linking word also makes the clause
following it dependent upon the rest of
the sentence to make sense.
When using conjunctive adverbs to link
simple sentences, put a semicolon before
and a comma after the adverb. Remember,
both sides of the joining word are complete
sentences and must make sense on their own.
Don’t forget your homework when you go to
school.
When you go to school, don’t forget your
homework.
The main message here is don’t forget your
homework . This is the independent or main clause.
The dependent, or less important clause, is when
you go to school . Notice that when you go to school
contains a subject and complete verb but does not
make sense on its own. It is dependent upon the
rest of the sentence to make sense.
The linking word can go at the beginning of the
sentence or in the middle. If the linking word is at
the beginning of the sentence, you need a comma
after the first clause.
Because I completed all my homework, I am going
out with my friends tonight. or
I am going out with my friends tonight because I
completed all my homework.
TIME SUBORDINATORS
After: He goes to school after he finishes work.
as*: Several overcrowded buses passed as we were
waiting
as soon as : She felt better as soon as she took
themedicine.
before : Before you apply to college, you have to take
entrance .
since : It has been a year since I left home.
Until : We can't leave the room until everyone has
finished test.
when : When you start college, you sometimes have to
take test.
whenever :Whenever I don't sleep well, I feel sick the
next day.
While : Several overcrowded buses passed while they
were waiting
Reason Subordinators
Because: Jack excels at sports because he trains
hard. since :Since she works out daily, Jill is in
great condition. as* As they want to compete in
a marathon, they run every day.

Place Subordinators
where: I can never remember where I put my
house keys.
Wherever
A baby animal follows its mother wherever she
goes.
4. THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
The compound-complex sentence consists of two
or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause.
Examples: (dependent clauses in italics)
1) Although it will be costly at first, expansion into
global markets is necessary and the firm will
investigate this option.
2) Employees will be moved to the fifth floor ,and
they will share workspace because their regular
office is under renovation. The following
paragraph contains the basic types of sentences.
II-Constructing Sentences
A sentence is made up of a group of word which
gives a complete sense or meaning. A sentence has
two parts. The subject and predicates.
How do we distinguish between complete sentences
and sentence fragments, run-ons, and comma
splices?
Complete Sentences
A complete sentence is a group of words that meets
all three of the following criteria:
1. It has a verb (a word or phrase that explains an
action, such as want, run, take, give, or a state of
being, such as am, is, are, was, were, be). Many
sentences have more than one verb. The verbs in the
following sentences are highlighted for you.
. Subject-Verb agreement
A sentence is a group of words that
(a) contains at least one subject and one verb
and (b) expresses a complete thought. You already know
that subjects and verbs agree in number. My sister is
married. (singular) My sisters are married. (plural) My
brother and I are single. (plural)
Subject-verb agreement is sometimes confusing in the
following situations.
1. When a sentence begins with the word there + the verb
be, the subject follows the be verb. Look ahead to see
whether to use a singular or plural verb.
There is a student in the hall. (The verb is is singular to
agree with a student.) There are three students in the
hall. (The verb are is plural to agree with three
students.) There was no reason for his action. There
f hi
2. A prepositional phrase (a group of words
beginning with a preposition such as of, with, in, at,
or on and ending with a noun or pronoun) can come
between a subject and its verb.
Prepositional phrases may come after a subject,
but they are not part of the subject.
You should mentally cross them out when you are
deciding if the verb should be singular or plural.
One of my sisters is a singer. (The subject is one, not
sisters.) The color (of her eyes) changes when she is
angry.
(The subject is color, not eyes.)
Six kinds (of rice) are available in the grocery store.
(The subject is kinds, not rice.)
3. Some words are always singular. One (of my
brothers) is a musician. Neither (of my parents) is
living. Much {of my time) is spent in the library. Each
{of my brothers) wants his own car. Either (of my
sisters) is able to baby-sit for you tonight. Nothing
ever happens in my life. Is anyone home?
4. A few words are always plural.
Both {of my parents) are teachers. Several (of the
teachers) speak my language. Many {of my friends)
work in the library.
5. A few words can be either singular or plural.
In these cases, you must refer to the noun in the
prepositional phrase. Some {of the money) was
missing. (singular) Some (of the students) were
missing. (plural) All {of my time) is spent in the
library. (singular) All {of my brothers) are singers.
( l l) M t { f th i ) lt d ( i l )M t
In each sentence, underline the subject with one line
and write S above it,then cross out the incorrect
verb form.
1. One of my classmates (is/am) from my country,
El Salvador
2. Some of the teachers (speak/speaks) my
language. ·
3. Each of the gifts (was/were) carefully wrapped
in gold paper.
4. One of the words on the test (was/were) misspelled.
5. A lot of my classes (was/were) cancelled last week.
6. A lot of my time (is/are) spent in the library.
7. In my country most of the people (want to
go/wants to go) to college.
8. (Do/Does) anyone know the correct time?
9. There (is/are) several kinds of flowers in the
b t
 2. Pronoun
Agreement
A pronoun is a word that can replace or stand in
for a noun. When using a pronoun, be sure it agrees
with its antecedent (the noun to which it refers) in
number and gender. Agreement in Number
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
number. Use a singular pronoun with a singular
antecedent and a plural pronoun with a plural
antecedent.

The dog saw the squirrel and then chased it up the

tree. Samantha and Kelsey are sure they can make
the Sunday morning game
Words like everyone and no one can cause problems
with agreement in gender because they take a
singular pronoun.
In an effort to avoid gender bias, many people use
they or them as the pronoun reference. Although
this usage is becoming more common, aim to avoid
them in formal writing.
Informal writing: Everyone should do as they are
told.
Formal writing: Everyone should do as he or she is
told. Faulty Pronoun Reference
A pronoun’s reference to an antecedent must be
clear. If the antecedent is vague or missing, the
meaning of the pronoun and the sentence will not
be clear.
 Unclear: Mr. Seminuk greeted students as they arrived
to class. Emma and Joel were loud and disruptive as
they entered the room. He was not pleased. Does he
refer to Mr. Seminuk or to Joel?
Clear: Mr. Seminuk greeted students as they arrived to
class. Emma and Joel were loud and disruptive as they
entered the room. Mr. Seminuk was not pleased.
Unclear: Taunting and bullying are destructive to you
and your friends. You must avoid them. Avoid taunting
and bullying or avoid your friends?
Clear: Taunting and bullying are destructive to you
and your friends. You must avoid these behaviours.
 3. Sentence
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. There
Fragment
are three basic types: missing verb, missing subject,
and dependent clause.
1.Missing Verb (or part of verb)
sentence fragment: Two hundred spectators.
error: This statement does not have a verb indicating
what these people are doing. Add a verb to make the
statement a complet sentence.
corrected sentence: Two hundred spectators
attended the game . sentence fragment: Two
hundred spectators attending the game.
error:
An “ing” form of a verb requires a helper verb to
make sense on its own. corrected sentence: Two
hundred spectators are attending the game.11
2. Missing Subject
sentence fragment: Flew over the fence at great
speed.
error: This statement does not have a subject
indicating who or what did this flying. Add a subject
to make the statement a complete sentence.
corrected sentence: The ball flew over the fence at
great speed.
3. Dependent Clause
Dependent Clause (contains a subject and a verb, but
doesn’t make sense on its own)
sentence fragment:
While I waited for the bus.
error:
This statement has both a subject and a verb, but it
cannot stand alone. It is a dependent clause that
d i d d t l t k it l t
This statement has both a subject and a verb, but
it cannot stand alone.
It is a dependent clause that needs an
independent clause to make it complete.
Add an independent clause with a subject and
verb to make the statement a complete sentence.
When you add an independent clause to the
dependent clause, you are constructing a
complex sentence.

corrected sentence: While I waited for the bus, a

friend came by and picked me up. or A friend
came by and picked me up while I waited for the
bus .
Add an independent clause with a subject and verb
to make the statement a complete sentence. When
you add an independent clause to the dependent
clause, you are constructing a complex sentence.

corrected sentence: While I waited for the bus, a

friend came by and picked me up. or A friend
came by and picked me up while I waited for the
bus .
 Challenge Yourself: Sentence or
Fragment
For each of the following sentences, identify
whether the main subject is missing, the main verb
is missing, or whether the sentence is complete.
1. An old man without any regrets. a. main subject
is missing b. main verb is missing c. complete
sentence
2. The large wooden cabinet, which needs cleaning.
a. main subject is missing b. main verb is missing c.
complete sentence
3. Was waiting for hours. a. main subject is missing
b. main verb is missing c. complete sentence
4. While I was vacationing in Orlando, which is in
Florida, I saw many relatives. a. main subject is
missing b. main verb is missing c. complete sentence
5. He lived in a room with a single bed; stained,
torn curtains; and newspapers covering the
windows. a. main subject is missing b. main verb is
missing c. complete sentence
6. Are ready and able to begin the trek to the
summit. a. main subject is missing b. main verb is
missing c. complete sentence
7. Because everyone agreed that Antonia was a
natural leader, they voted for her. a. main subject
is missing b. main verb is missing c. complete
sentence
8. Was under the stack of papers on the bookshelf
or behind the sofa. a. main subject is missing b.
main verb is missing c. complete sentence
 4. Run–on Sentence
Run-on sentences and comma splices are closely
related punctuation errors that are corrected in
similar ways.
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more
independent clauses are joined without proper
punctuation or joining words.
Run-on: The music was loud my neighbour complained.
Here are three different ways to correct this run-on
sentence.
Correction 1: Separate the run-on into two sentences .
The music was loud. My neighbour complained.
Correction 2: Join the independent clauses (simple
sentences) with a semicolon . The music was loud; my
neighbour complained.
Correction 3: Connect the independent clauses with a
comma and coordinate conjunction The music was
A comma splice occurs when two or more
independent clauses are joined together with only a
comma.
Comma Splice: The music wasn’t even that loud, my
neighbour complained.
Correction 1: Connect run-on sentence with a
semicolon and a conjunctive adverb .
The music wasn’t even that loud; however, my
neighbour complained.
Correction 2: Add a subordinate conjunction to
make one half of the sentence less important (form
a complex sentence) .
Even though the music wasn’t that loud, my
neighbour complained.
 Work sheet: Run–on Sentence
Select the better correction for each of the following
run-on sentences by circling the correct option.
1. The donkey brayed the dog barked. a. The donkey
brayed and barked. b. The donkey brayed whenever
the dog barked.
2. Luckily, I was only visiting I didn’t have to live there
forever. a. Luckily, I was only visiting; I didn’t have to
live there forever. b. Luckily, I was only visiting, I
didn’t have to live there forever.
3. The day was hot I went for a swim. a. The day was
hot, so I went for a swim. b. The day was hot, I went
for a swim.
4. That’s when the trouble began it was hard to know
what to do. a. That’s when the trouble began, it was
h dt k h tt d
b. That’s when the trouble began. It was hard to know
what to do.
5. Some students work during the day, after work,
they attend night classes. a. Some students work
during the day. After work, attend night classes. b.
Some students work during the day; after work, they
attend night classes. 6. Shelley loved travelling in
Italy she felt Rome was too hot. a. Shelley loved
travelling in Italy, but she felt Rome was too hot. b.
Shelley loved travelling in Italy but, she felt Rome
was too hot.
7. Many students work while attending college many
finance their education without help from their
parents. a. Many students work while attending
college, many finance their education without help
from their parents. b. Many students work while
tt di ll fi th i d ti
 5. Parallel Structure
When writing a sentence, the structure of items in the
sentence should be grammatically consistent. All items
in a series should be in parallel form using the same
pattern of words including nouns, verbs, phrases, and
clauses.
With Verbs:
Incorrect: All business students should learn word
processing, accounting, and how to program computers .
Correct: All business students should learn word
processing, accounting, and computer programming .
Incorrect: Jennifer ate, drank, and was dancing.
Correct: Jennifer ate, drank, and danced. With
Adjectives:
Incorrect: Joe thought Sherry was beautiful, smart,
and had a good heart.
C t J th ht Sh b tif l t d
With ing Forms:
Incorrect: It’s important to be good at reading,
writing, and be a good listener.
Correct: It’s important to be good at reading, writing,
and listening.
With Infinitive Forms:
Incorrect: I love to snowboard, go skiing, and to hike.
Correct: I love to snowboard, to ski, and to hike. or I
love to snowboard, ski, and hike.
With Coordinate Conjunctions:
Incorrect: I love to canoe, to fish, and music .
Explanation: The first two items in the list are actions
(canoeing and fishing). The last (music) is not. How
can we change the last one into an action?
Correct: I love to canoe, to fish, and to listen to music.
With Correlative Conjunctions:
Use parallel structure when you connect phrases or
clauses with a correlative conjunction (not only …
but also, either … or, neither … nor, etc.).
Incorrect: My friend not only is good at math, but
also science .
Explanation: There is a verb in the structure of
the first clause, but the verb is missing in the
second clause.
Correct: My friend not only is good at math, but
also she excels in science.
Incorrect: You can hang your coat either in the
closet or the coat rack .
Explanation: The preposition “in” is used in the
first clause, but no preposition is used in the second
clause.
Correct: You can hang your coat either in the
With Quantifiers:
Incorrect: The library had many books, ten computer
terminals, and videos .
Explanation: The first two items on the list have
quantifiers with them that tell the reader how many.
The last item (videos) does not.
Correct: The library had many books, ten computer
terminals, and a few videos. With Phrases Or Clauses:
Phrases or clauses must also be presented in a parallel
form.
Incorrect: When Paul woke up in the morning, he fed
his cat, had a shower, and his breakfast was toast with
peanut butter .
Explanation: This sentence contains three actions
that Paul performed: feeding his cat, having a shower,
and eating breakfast. The first two actions begin with
a verb, but the last begins with a noun (breakfast).
Correct: When Paul woke up in the morning, he fed
his cat, had a shower, and ate toast with peanut butter
for breakfast.
Incorrect: The teacher expected that assignments
would be handed in on time, that the material would
be covered, and there are no spelling mistakes.
Correct: The teacher expected that assignments would
be handed in on time, that the material would be
covered, and that there would be no spelling mistakes.
With Clauses Or Phrases Of Comparison:
Phrases or clauses of comparison, with
words such as like or as, must also be
parallel.
Incorrect: I would rather watch TV than
cards.
Explanation: The first part of the
comparison has a verb in the phrase and
the second part of the comparison doesn’t.
Correct: I would rather watch TV than play
cards.
 6. Misplaced Modifier
A modifier is a word used to describe a person, place,
or thing. It should be placed near the word it is
describing; otherwise, its meaning may get muddled.
Misplaced modifier occurs when a modifier is placed
too far away from the word it is describing, and as a
result, creates a confusing sentence.
To fix a misplaced modifier, move the modifier nearer
to the work or phrase it modifies.
Let’s look at some examples
Incorrect: Suddenly, we came upon a tiny church
wandering through the old part of town.
Explanation: The tiny church is not wandering; we
are.
Correct: Wandering through the old part of town, we
suddenly came upon a tiny church.
Incorrect: Wanted: a piano for a piano teacher with
mahogany legs.
Explanation: The piano teacher doesn’t have
mahogany legs, but the piano does. “Mahogany legs”
should be placed close to piano in the sentence.
Correct: Wanted: a piano with mahogany legs for a
piano teacher. Incorrect: The young girl played with
the guinea pig in a long coat .
Correct: The young girl in a long coat played with the
guinea pig.
Incorrect: I heard that there was a strike on the
evening news .
Correct: I heard on the evening news that there was a
strike.
Incorrect: The child was playing on the slide with
glasses .
C t Th hild ith l l i th lid
Squinting Modifiers
Squinting modifiers are like misplaced modifiers,
except the modifier is placed between words so there
is confusion as to which word the modifier refers.
Words like almost, nearly, only, both, and well can
easily squint or modify two or more words in a
sentence.
Look at the following two sentences . See how moving
one word can change the meaning of the sentence .
In the battle, the commander lost nearly a thousand
men. (maybe 950 or 960?)
In the battle, the commander nearly lost a thousand
men. (no one actually died, but a thousand men
almost died.)
Look at the squinting modifiers and the confusion
they create .
Incorrect: I almost did all my homework.
Explanation: This could mean that I didn’t do any
of it, but almost got started, or that I have come close
to completing my homework.
Incorrect: He nearly worked eight hours.
Explanation: This could mean he didn’t work at all,
but almost got an eight hour shift, or that he worked
a length of time that was just short of eight hours.
Incorrect: His doctor told him frequently to exercise.
Explanation: This could mean his doctor frequently
told him to exercise or his doctor told him to exercise
frequently.
 7. Dangling Modifier
A dangling modifier is much like a misplaced
modifier, except the modifier lacks a word or group
of words to modify. Thus, the modifier is said to be
“dangling.”
Dangling modifiers are typically found near the
beginning of sentences that begin with verb+ing,
verb+ed, or to+verb.
To fix a dangling modifier, you must insert a word or
group of words to be modified. Sometimes fixing a
dangling modifier includes rewriting the sentence.
Incorrect: While eating a cookie, the phone rang.
Explanation: The correct sentence specifies who
was eating a cookie—“he was.” The first sentence
suggests that the phone was eating the cookie.
Correct: While he was eating a cookie, the phone
 Incorrect: Driving through Kamloops yesterday,
tumbleweed blew across the street.
Explanation: The first sentence implies that the
tumbleweed is driving. The correct sentence clarifies
that “I” was driving.
Correct: Driving through Kamloops yesterday, I saw
tumbleweed blow across the street.
Incorrect: Concerned about the state of
unemployment in the province, a special task force
was set up.
Explanation: The first sentence lacks clarity
around who set up the task force. The correct
sentence clarifies this, the premier did.
Correct: Concerned about the state of
unemployment in the province, the premier set up as
special task force.
Punctuation
1.Three Comma Rules
1. Put a comma after a time order signal that comes
Yesterday, I did homework for three hours.
before the subject at the beginning of a sentence.
Finally, I was too tired to think. Then, soon, and now
are
usually not followed At 8:00, I fell asleep on the sofa.
2. Put a comma after the first sentence in a
compound
I was too tired to think, so I decided to take a break
watch
TV for a while.
3. Put a comma between the items in a series of three
or more items. The items may be words, phrases, or
clauses. (Don't use a comma between only two
)
 2.The Semicolon
Identifying items in a series can be confusing if the
items contain commas. To make such sentences clear,
use a semicolon to separate the items. Example, I still
have to write a thank-you note to my grandmother, who
gave me a sweater; Aunt Mary, who gave me a
basketball; and my brother in Des Moines, who gave me
a watch, a CD, and a poster.
Similarly, use a semicolon to separate two main clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction when the clauses
already contain several commas.
Of all my presents, the CD, the poster, and the watch
were great; but I’m afraid the sweater, which was really
gorgeous, was too small.
2. Apostrophes
The apostrophe mark (') has three main uses in English:
• To make contractions
• To make nouns and some pronouns possessive
• To make letters of the alphabet plural
Contractions An apostrophe shows where letters are
missing in a contraction. isn't, she's ,it's ,is not she is OR
she has it is won't they're they'd will not they are they
had OR they would
3.Possessives
Possessive words show ownership. In the phrase Maria's
book, Maria's is a possessive noun showing that Maria is
the owner of the book. In English, we can show
ownership with nouns in two ways. We can use an of the
phrase and say the name of my friend, or we can use
an apostrophe + s and say my friend's name.
the speed of the runner OR the runner's speed
the orders of the doctor OR the doctor's orders
the complaints of my neighbour OR my neighbour's
complaints

In general, we use an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s

more often when the owner is a Jiving being, and we use
the of phrase more often when the owner is a nonliving
thing. We prefer, for example, to say the dog's leg but
the leg of the table. Sometimes you can write a
possessive either way: The bank's president or the
president of the bank.
When the owner's name is given, we don't have a choice.
We must use an apostrophe or apostrophe + s.
Maria's book NOT the book of Maria
the Smiths' house NOT the house of the Smiths
 Besides nouns, we also make indefinite pronouns
possessive. Indefinite pronouns are the words
someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, and one.
someone's jacket anybody's mistake
Rules for Forming Possessives
1.to singular nouns and to child's toy boss's office,
Mr. and Mrs. Smith's house Mr. and Mrs. Jones's
children
2.Plural Nouns children's game, women's dresses
3.Add an apostrophe alone: engineering students'
club actresses' performances the Smiths' house the
Joneses' children
III PARAGRAPH
1, a paragraph is a group of related sentences that
develops one main idea, which is the topic of the
paragraph. In this chapter you will study paragraph
structure in detail.
A paragraph has three parts: a topic sentence, several
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
1.The topic sentence tells what topic the paragraph is
going to discuss.
2. The supporting sentences give details about the topic.
3. The concluding sentence summarizes the main points
or restates the topic sentence in different words.
A paragraph is like a sandwich. The topic sentence and
concluding sentences are the two pieces of "bread"
enclosing the "meat"-the supporting sentences.
 The Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is the most important sentence in a
paragraph. It has two parts: a topic and a controlling
idea. The topic names the subject of the paragraph.
The controlling idea tells what the paragraph will say
about the topic. It is called the controlling idea
because it controls or limits the topic to a very specific
point or points. In our model, the controlling idea is
that weddings in Hawaii are special because of the
mix of cultures.
Here are examples of topic sentences with the same
topic but different controlling ideas:
a. Harar is ancient city.
b. Harar is city.
c. Harar .
1. Which sentence is not a topic sentence?
2. Which sentence is general?
3. Which one is a good topic sentence? Why?
A topic sentence is neither too general nor too specific.
Marriage is an event in a person's life. This is too
general because there is no specific controlling idea.
The reader has no idea what the paragraph will say
about marriage except that it happens.
This is a good topic sentence because it gives the
reader a hint that the paragraph will discuss changes
in the ages when people marry. A good topic sentence
tells something about the contents of the paragraph
but none of the details.

Position of the Topic Sentence

The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a
paragraph.
Experienced writers sometimes put topic sentences at
the end, but the best place is usually right at the
beginning.
A topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph gives
readers an idea of what they will read. This helps them
understand the paragraph more easily.
B. Read the following paragraphs. Then choose the best
topic sentence.
1.---------------· Trail climbing is the easiest.
Climbers just walk along trails to the top of a mountain.
The trails are not very steep, and the mountains are
small. The second type, rock climbing, takes place on
steeper slopes and bigger mountains. Climbers use special
equipment such as climbing shoes, ropes, and metal nails
called pitons. The third type is ice climbing. Ice climbing
takes place only on very high mountains and requires a
lot of special equipment . Indeed, the sport of mountain
climbing can range from an easy uphill walk to a
difficult climb up a frozen waterfall. A .Mountain
climbing requires special skills and equipment. B. The
sport of mountain climbing is practiced worldwide. C.
There are three main types of mountain climbing.
3--------------· Before the 2004 tsunami in the
Indian Ocean, water buffalo stampeded' in Thailand,
and dogs in Sri Lanka refused to go out for their
regular walks. An unusual number of pets ran away
from their homes in the days before the 1989 San
Francisco earthquake. Japanese researchers have
analyzed fishermen's stories about the abnormal
behaviour of fish in the days or hours before
earthquakes in that country. These are just a few
examples of strange animal behaviour just before
earthquakes occur.
a.Dogs, elephants, water buffalo, and fish can predict
earthquakes.
b.Earthquake prediction is an important science.
c. Animals may be able to sense earthquakes before
th h
4--------------· Some people skip breakfast
because they think it will help them lose weight.
Another reason people give is that they simply
don't like breakfast. For others, the reason is
cultural. People in some cultures consume only two
meals each day instead of three, and breakfast
isn't traditionally one of them. The most common
reason people give is lack of time. They like to stay
in bed until the last minute, and then they have to
rush to get to work or to school on time.
5----------· First of all, teachers must know
their subjects very well. At a minimum, they
should take several college courses and pass a
written test in every subject that they teach.
Also, they should take refresher classes every
few years to keep their knowledge up-to-date.
Third, teachers should take education classes in
college to learn how to teach. Fourth, they should
have spent at least one year practice teaching.
Only after a person has met these requirements
should he or she receive a teaching license.
2 .Supporting Sentences
Writing Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences explain the topic by giving more
information about it. Supporting point sentences list
the main points of the paragraph. Certainly,
Hawaiian clothing, music, and other Hawaiian
customs play a big role. Other customs included in the
festivities depend on the ethnic backgrounds of the
couple. Some people skip breakfast because they think
it will help them lose weight. Third, they should have
spent at least one year practice-teaching. Notice the
signal phrases that can introduce examples. At the
beginning of a sentence, use For example or For
instance, followed by a comma. In front of an
example that is just a word or phrase (not an entire
sentence), use the prepositional phrase such as
ith t
Signal Phrases for Examples
Followed by a Comma 1. For example/ For instance,
For example, the bride often wears a long white
holoku (wedding dress), and the groom wears a long
-sleeved white shirt and pants with a red sash
around his waist.
For instance, there may be noisy firecrackers, a
Chinese way of keeping bad spirits away.
With out comma 2 such as/ like
Countries like Ethiopia, Mali and Sudan are port less.
FiII in each blank with one of these signal phrases:
1.For example, For instance, or such as/like. Add
commas where necessary. Use each phrase once.

The city of London has many great tourist attractions.

(1) ______ _ most tourists make a stop at Westminster
Abbey. In this famous church, tourists can see where
English kings and queens are crowned. Westminster
Abbey is the burial place of famous people (2) poet
Geoffrey Chaucer, scientists Isaac Newton and Charles
Darwin, and actor Laurence Olivier. Tourists also like to
catch a glimpse of royal life while in London. (3)
________ __ they can watch the changing of the
guard at Buckingham Palace, or they can tour the
Tower of London, where the British crown jewels are
kept
2. To add a similar idea:
and also
moreover in addition
Today it is possible to get many services without
making human contact. For instance, you can buy
music, rent movies, and order groceries online without
speaking to a salesperson. (a) ________you can buy
almost anything from potato chips to underwear
from vending machines that will accept your money
and return change automatically. (b) _____ _ by
using your cell phone, you can make national and
international calls (c) ______ send text messages
without operator assistance. You can (d) earn college
credits by taking online courses instead of going to
class.
 3. The Concluding Sentence
A concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph
and reminds the reader of the main idea. Here are
three tips to help you write a good concluding sentence:
1.Begin with a conclusion signal.
2.Remind your reader of the main idea by one of the
following
3.NEVER end a paragraph by introducing a new idea!
Most conclusion signals have commas after them; others
do not.
Followed by a Comma
All in all, In summary, In brief, To conclude, These... In
conclusion, To summarize,... Indeed, To sum up, In
short,
To summarize, Japanese food is both beautiful to look
at and delicious to eat.
With out comma:
It is clear that
examples show that
You can see that
eg, It is clear that fad diets don't work and may
even damage a dieter's health.
On the line at the end of each paragraph, write a
concluding sentence. Be sure to begin with a
conclusion
signal
The college cafeteria is an inexpensive place to eat.
For
example, you can get a cheeseburger, french fries,
and a
soda for only $3.00. A slice of pizza is only $1.50,
and a
f ff i l 50¢ Th i d il i lf
2. Watching children's programs on television is a
good way to lean a foreign language. First, the
actors speak slowly and repeat often. Also, the
vocabulary is not difficult. Finally, there is always a
lot of action, so you know what is happening even if
you don't understand the words.
_______________________________________
_____
Read the following sentences and rearrange them to
make a paragraph
Fast Food, Unhealthy Food
a.For example, a 6-inch Pizza Hut Personal Pan
pepperoni pizza has 660 calories, and a McDonald's Big
Mac has 560 calories.
b. In conclusion, a quick meal at a fast-food
restaurant may be delicious and convenient, but it is
definitely not a healthy way to eat. _
c. Second, a lot of the calories from fast food are from
fat.
d. Third, fast-food items such as hamburgers and
french fries contain high amounts of salt. ___
e. Fast food is extremely popular in the United States,
but it is not very good for you. ·
f. First of all, most fast food is very high in calories.
g. A typical meal at McDonald's contains as much
as 1,370 milligrams of sodium.___
h. Finally, add a sugary soft drink to your fast-
food meal, and you pound the last nail into the
heart of any nutritionist.
i For instance, a portion of Nachos Supreme from
Taco Bell contains 26 grams off at, and a Big
Mac contains 30 grams.

1.___ 6_____
2__ 7____
3____ 8.____
4____ 9____
5____
Characteristics of good paragraphs
1. Paragraph Unity
An important element of a good paragraph is unity.
When a paragraph has unity, all the supporting
sentences discuss only one idea. From beginning to
end, each sentence is directly related to the topic.
2.Logical Division of ldeas
Logical division of ideas is a pattern of organization
in which you divide a topic into points and discuss
each point separately. The model paragraph uses this
pattern. You can use logical division to organize many
kinds of topics, not just reasons.
3.Coherence
Descriptive Writing
• Descriptive writing is a style of writing which focuses
on describing a character, an event or a place in
great detail.

• It is sometimes poetic in nature in which the author

is specifying the details of the event rather than just
the information of what happened.

• The author visualizes to you what he sees, hears,

tastes, smells and feels. (5 senses
Expository Writing
Expository writing is a subject-oriented writing
style, in which the main focus of the author is to
tell you about a given topic or subject, and leaves
out their opinions.

This is one of the most common types of writing

styles, which you always see in textbooks and “How
To” articles.

Expository writing is usually in a logical order and

sequence.
Persuasive Writing
Persuasive writing, unlike expository writing,
contains the opinions, biasness and justification of
the author.

Persuasive writing is a type of writing which

contains justifications and reasons to make
someone believe in what the author believes in.

In persuasive writing, the author takes a stand

and asks you to believe their point of view.
A well-written academic essay will exhibit the following
characteristics. It will:
put forward a coherent argument
support that argument with evidence
show the writer’s knowledge of the subject
show evidence of reading
reflect independent thinking
contain quotations
contain references and a bibliography
adopt a formal style
be logical and analytical
be clearly structured.
I thank you
s0 much
for reading!