Script Part 4

Kernel: kernel is a system software and it is a part of OS. Kernel

is the lowest layer of an OS A kernel is a central component of
an operating system that manages the operations of computers
and hardware. Kernel loads first in memory after OS has been
loaded and remains in memory until OS shutdowns. Kernel
provides services to all other parts of operating system.
Function of kernel: The functions of kernel are Device
management, Memory management and Task management.
Types: Monolithic: A monolithic kernel is an operating system
architecture where the entire operating system is working in
kernel space. –speed Micro Kernel: IT is complete opposite of
monolithic kernel. Hybrid Kernel: A hybrid kernel is an
operating system kernel architecture that attempts to combine
aspects and benefits of microkernel and monolithic kernel
architectures.
File System: A file system is a structure used by an operating
system to organize and manage files on a storage device.
System call interface: A system call is an interface between a
program running in user space and the operating system (OS).
Process scheduler: The process scheduling is the activity of the
process manager that handles the removal of the running
process from the CPU and the selection of another process on
the basis of a particular strategy.
Device Manager: It allows users to view and control the
hardware attached to the computer.
Inter-Process Communication: allowing processes to
collaborate, share data, and synchronize their activities.
Memory management: the process of controlling and
coordinating a computer's main memory.
Synchronization in OS: The task of coordinating the execution
of processes in such a way that no two processes can access the
same shared data and resources.
Comparison by File System: Windows: NTFS, FAT32, exFAT
Compatible with most formats
NTFS (New Technology File System)-FAT32 (File Allocation Table
32) exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table)
MacOS: APFS, HFS+ – Optimized for speed and security
APFS (Apple File System) Advantages- Speed and Performance
Snapshots (backup) Encryption HFS (Hierarchical File System)-
Advantages Compatibility: Compatible with older Mac systems,
making it useful for maintaining legacy systems. Stability
Linux: Ext4, XFS, Btrfs – Flexible, robust file systems. Ext4
(Fourth Extended File System) Advantages: Stability: Highly
reliable and widely used in Linux distributions. Backward
Compatibility: Supports backward compatibility with Ext3 and
Ext2. Journaling: Keeps track of changes, reducing the risk of
file system corruption.
Large File Support: Handles large files and volumes efficiently.
Speed: Good performance for both read and write operations.
XFS (X File System) Advantages: Performance: High
performance, especially for large files and high I/O operations.
Scalability: Scales well with large storage volumes.
Defragmentation: Includes a built-in defragmentation tool.
Metadata Integrity: Ensures strong metadata integrity and
consistency.Data Integrity: Uses delayed logging to improve
data integrity.
Btrfs (B-tree File System) Advantages: Snapshots and Cloning:
Supports snapshots and cloning, allowing for quick backups and
restores. Data Integrity: Offers strong data integrity features
with checksums and self-healing capabilities.
RAID Support: Built-in support for various RAID configurations.
Scalability: Scales well with large storage needs and multiple
devices. Subvolumes: Manages subvolumes efficiently, allowing
for flexible partitioning.
YAFFS (Yet Another Flash File System)Advantages:Robustness:
Designed to handle power failures gracefully, preserving
existing data. Royalty-Free: Completely royalty-free, even for
commercial use. Open Source: Available under the GNU
General Public License (GPL), allowing for customization and
transparency. Fast Booting: Quick boot times, making it
suitable for embedded systems.Active Community: Supported
by an active community, ensuring ongoing development and
support.
F2FS (Flash-Friendly File System) Advantages:Optimized for
Flash: Specifically designed for NAND flash memory, providing
optimal performance.
High Performance: Faster read performance, better sequential
write throughput, and higher IOPS (input/output operations per
second).Scalability: Supports large volumes and files, with a
maximum volume size of 16 TB and a maximum file size of 3.94
TB. Advanced Features: Includes features like transparent
compression, POSIX permissions, and extended attributes.
Widespread Adoption: Used by major manufacturers and
integrated into many Linux distributions.
Security: User Account Control (UAC) is a security feature in
Windows designed to prevent unauthorized changes to your
system. MacOS: Gatekeeper is macOS’s guardian angel,
designed to keep your system safe from malicious software.
XProtect is macOS’s built-in anti-malware tool, providing a first
line of defense against malicious software. SELinux (Security-
Enhanced Linux): is a powerful security architecture integrated
into the Linux kernel. AppArmor (Application Armor): is a Linux
security module that provides mandatory access control (MAC)
to restrict programs. Sandboxing is a security mechanism used
to isolate applications and processes from each other and the
rest of the system. This ensures that if one application is
compromised, the impact is contained.