Physics Laboratory

Vp241

Exercise 3

Solar Cells: I–V Characteristics

This lab manual is based on materials provided by the Department of Physics, Shanghai Jiaotong University.

Edited by: Qin Tian, Han Xugen, Zheng Huan, Chen Yujie, Mateusz Krzyzosiak rev. 5
1 Pre-lab Reading
Additional resources available on Canvas; also Chapter 3 in: Applied Photovoltaics,
S.R. Wenham et al. (Earthscan, 2007)

2 Objectives
The objective of this exercise is to get familiar with the working principle of a solar
cell and study its current–voltage (I–V ) characteristics.

3 Theoretical Background
Solar cells are devices which are able to directly transform solar radiation into electrical
energy. They have many advantages such as no consumption of energy, silent operation,
no moving parts, and a long lifetime. Moreover, solar cells are easy to maintain and
they do not contribute to air pollution. Therefore, solar cells are regarded as a promising
energy source in the 21st century and it is estimated that by the mid-21st century solar cells
will produce 15–20% of the total electrical energy generated in the world, and therefore
become one of the leading energy sources.

3.1 Solar Cell Structure

As an example, the structure of a crystalline silicon solar cell is shown in Figure 1. It
consists of n/p homo-junctions, a 10 cm × 10 cm p–type silicon plate of thickness 500 µm,
covered with a heavily doped n-type layer with thickness 0.3 µm. The metallic bars on
the n-type layer serve as one electrode, with a metallic film at the bottom playing the role
of another one. In order to reduce the loss of energy due to reflection, an anti-reflective
film is often applied to cover the surface exposed to sunlight.

3.2 Photovoltaic Effect

When the light enters the p-n junction near the solar cell surface, and the energy of
incident photons is greater than the forbidden bandwidth (energy gap) Eg , the incident
photons are absorbed and excite electron-hole pairs. Minority charge carriers in the n- or
p-type area diffuse due to their density gradient. Some of them are able to diffuse to the
region of the p-n junction where a built-in electric field exists. This field is directed from
the n-type to the p-type area. The minority carriers diffusing to the p-n junction zone
between the n-type area and the p-type area are drawn by this electric field to the p-type
area (in case of the holes), or to the n-type area (in case of the electrons). This results in
an increase of positive charge accumulated in the p-type area and negative charge in the
n-type area. Consequently, a photoelectric potential difference is generated.
The phenomenon described above is known as the photovoltaic effect.

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 Figure 1. Structure of a crystalline silicon solar cell.

3.3 Solar Cell Parameters

Relying on the photovoltaic effect, solar cells can generate an electric current Iph from
the n–type area to the p-area when there is light incident on the solar cell.
At the same time, in the device there exists a forward diode current ID from the p-type
to the n-type area, opposite to Iph . Eventually, the net current is
   
qVD
I = Iph − ID = Iph − I0 exp −1 , (1)
nkB T
where VD is the junction voltage, I0 is the diode inverse saturation current, Iph is the
photocurrent determined by the structure and material characteristics of the solar cell.
The coefficient n is a theoretical coefficient, with its values ranging from 1 to 2, that
characterizes the p-n junction. Furthermore, q denotes the electron’s charge, kB is the
Boltzmann’s constant, and T is the temperature in the absolute (Kelvin) scale. Ignoring
the internal series resistance Rs , the voltage VD equals the terminal voltage V and Eq.
(1) can be rewritten as    
qV
I = Iph − I0 exp −1 .
nkB T
When the output is short, i.e. V = 0, the short-circuit current is

Isc = Iph ,

whereas when the output is open, i.e. I = 0, the open-circuit voltage is

 
nkB T Isc
Voc = ln +1 .
q I0

When there is a load resistance R (with the value of R ranging from zero to infinity),
the corresponding I–V characteristics curve is shown in Figure 2. If for a certain load

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resistance R = Rm the maximum output power Pm is generated, then the value of Pm is

Pm = Im Vm ,

where Im is the optimal operating current, and Vm is the optimal operating voltage. Then,
Pm Vm Im
FF = = .
Voc Isc Voc Isc
The quantity FF is an important parameter of solar cells called the fill factor. The greater
the fill factor is, the greater the output power. The fill factor is determined by a number
of parameters, such as the incident light intensity, the forbidden bandwidth, the value of
the theoretical coefficient n, and the series/parallel resistance.
The solar cell energy conversion efficiency η is defined as
Pm
η= × 100%,
Pin
where Pin denotes the total radiant power incident on the solar cell.

Figure 2. T he current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell.

3.4 Solar Cell Equivalent Circuit

As shown in Figure 3, a solar cell can be thought of as composed of a p-n junction
diode D and a constant current source Iph . Along with a series resistance Rs due to
the electrodes in the solar cell and a parallel resistance Rsh , all elements form a circuit
equivalent to a p-n junction leak–circuit. For the equivalent circuit one can find the
following relationship between the current and the voltage
   
q(V + Rs I) V + Rs I
I = Iph − I0 exp −1 − .
nkB T Rsh

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In order to provide a greater output power, the value of Rs should be decreased, while
Rsh — increased.

Figure 3. Solar cell equivalent circuit.

4 Measurement Setup and Procedure

4.1 Measurement Setup
The setup consists of a photovoltaic device (5 W), a 300 W tungsten–halogen lamp
serving as a radiation source, two digital multimeters, two adjustable resistors, a solar
power meter, a wiring board and a measuring tape.

4.2 Measurement Procedure and Data Presentation

1. Turn on both the light and the fan. Wait for at least five minutes, in order to let
the light reach its working intensity.

2. Design a measuring circuit with the photovoltaic device, multimeters set in an ap-
propriate range, and the resistance. Connect the elements into a circuit using the
provided wiring board.

3. Work in pairs. Adjust the distance between the light source and the photovoltaic
device until the Voc and Isc of the two devices are about the same. Measure the
solar power by the provided solar power meter.
In order to collect the data to draw the I–V characteristics curve, change the resis-
tance and measure the relevant current and voltage. Keep the distance between the
light source and the photovoltaic device and do not move around the workstation
during the measurement, to ensure the same light intensity is maintained during
the whole process.
Measure the I–V characteristics curves and the values of Voc and Isc under each of
the following conditions:

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 (a) Two devices in series;
(b) Two devices in parallel;
(c) A single device

4. Change the distance between the light source and the photovoltaic device and mea-
sure the I–V characteristics curves and the values of Voc and Isc in a single-device
configuration. The new distance should be about 80% or 120% of the original one.
Measure the solar power at this distance.

5. Plot (use a computer)

(a) the I–V characteristics curves;

(b) the graph of the output power vs. the voltage. Determine the values of
Isc , Voc , Pm , Im , Vm , Rm , F F , and η. Compile the data in the form of a table.

5 Safety Notice
I The temperature of the light source is very high, do not touch the cover.

I The power supply voltage of the light source is 220 V, beware of electric shock.

6 Preview Questions
I Describe the photovoltaic effect.

I In order to provide more power, the values of Rs and Rsh should be decreased or
increased? Why?

I Discuss the I–V characteristics of a diode.

I What is the energy gap in a semiconductor?

I What is the fill factor (FF ) of a solar cell? What parameters does the fill factor
depend on?