Valentinčič, Koroth, Zeidler - 2024 - Advancements in Surface Finish For Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts A Comprehensive Review

Virtual and Physical Prototyping
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Advancements in surface finish for additive

manufacturing of metal parts: a comprehensive
review of plasma electrolytic polishing (PEP)
Joško Valentinčič, Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth & Henning Zeidler
To cite this article: Joško Valentinčič, Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth & Henning Zeidler (2024)
Advancements in surface finish for additive manufacturing of metal parts: a comprehensive
review of plasma electrolytic polishing (PEP), Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 19:1, e2364222,
DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2024.2364222
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VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
2024, VOL. 19, NO. 1, e2364222 (23 pages)
https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2364222
REVIEW ARTICLE
Advancements in surface finish for additive manufacturing of metal parts:

a comprehensive review of plasma electrolytic polishing (PEP)
a a b
Joško Valentinčič , Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth and Henning Zeidler
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia; bTechnische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg,
Germany
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Additive manufacturing (AM) has become a popular technique for producing metal parts due to its Received 16 March 2024
design flexibility, shorter lead time and lower material consumption. However, the higher surface Accepted 29 May 2024
roughness of printed parts limits their direct industrial use. Over the years, many post-processing
KEYWORDS
techniques have been developed, such as laser polishing, chemical and electrochemical polishing, Additive manufacturing;
mechanical polishing, electro- discharge techniques, conventional machining and so on. Plasma plasma electrolytic polishing;
electrolytic polishing (PEP) is a relatively new and popular method for post-processing AM parts. surface roughness; post-
This comprehensive review highlights the potential of PEP to achieve shiny surfaces in an processing
efficient and environmentally friendly way and to overcome the challenge of surface finishing in
AM. This article examines the research developments in PEP for metal AM parts, materials
studied, impact on material properties, application to unique AM features such as lattice
structures and up-skin/down-skin properties and the challenges and limitations of the process.
In addition, this article discusses the future prospects of PEP, including opportunities for
automation, standardization and numerical modelling to expand and explore the impact of PEP
on AM parts. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the importance of PEP in improving AM
parts in various industries and providing a sustainable solution for better surface quality.
1. Introduction material (MJT), binder jetting (BJT) and sheet lamination

Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing is one of (SHL) processes capable of fabricating wide range of
the fast-growing manufacturing technologies due to materials [2].
its versatility, flexibility and shorter lead time. AM is a AM started as a tool for rapid prototyping, but now
layer-by-layer manufacturing technique that offers emerged to become an important manufacturing
design freedom and enables the easy production of process producing, structural and functional parts for
complex parts directly from computer-aided design extensive list of industries including automotive [3–6],
models, which would be difficult and time-consuming aerospace [3,7–10], medical [11–15], construction [16–
with traditional manufacturing technologies. Increased 18], electronics [19,20], defence [21,22], marine [23–26],
interest in AM from the research community has con fashion [27–30], etc.
tributed to greater industry acceptance of the Materials usable by AM have grown extensively with
technology. advancements in technology and research. Metal
AM technology development initiated with Charles alloys, polymers, composites and ceramics are some
W. Hull introducing Stereolithography (SLA) process for of the broader classes of materials widely being associ
fabricating 3D parts from liquid polymer that hardens ated with AM [2]. AM of metal alloys has become very
upon curing with laser beams [1]. According to standard popular and is one of the main focuses of this study.
ISO ASTM 52900-2022, this technology is denoted as vat PBF and DED are the main AM techniques used to
photopolymerisation (VPP). Over the years, various AM print the metal samples with laser, electron beam and
techniques have evolved to process a wider range of electric arc as energy source [31]. The enormous poten
materials and realise parts of extreme complexity, size tial of AM technology has attracted research in both
and shape, namely powder bed fusion (PBF), direct academia and industry to explore the metal alloys cov
energy deposition (DED), material extrusion (MEX),1 ering high-entropy alloys, magnetic alloys, amorphous
CONTACT Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth [email protected] Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 6, 1000-
Ljubljana, Slovenia
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 J. VALENTINČIČ ET AL.
metals, high strength metals and functionally graded PEP and explore the advancements of PEP in post-pro
materials [31]. cessing AM parts of different materials, methods,
Although AM is an advanced technology, there are functions and applications in various industries due
several factors that keep the printed parts away from to its versatility. In addition, prospects, and new
direct application in industry. Poor surface quality is avenues of research in the field of PEP of AM parts
one of the main reasons for this challenge. Inferior are presented.
surface quality of AM parts is due to balling defect, par
tially melted powder particle sticking to the surface, stair
stepping effect due to geometrical approximation, 2. Existing post-processing techniques and
surface microcracks and surface marks from support their distinctive attributes for AM metallic
structures [32]. These surface quality issues can be parts
tackled to an extend by using a applying post-proces In the field of AM, the improvement of metallic com
sing steps, which have become an integral part of the ponents goes beyond initial production. This section
AM workflow to replace traditionally manufactured com focuses on existing methods for improving these com
ponents from real-world applications. Hence, the pro ponents, each with unique properties that increase
spect of additional functional and economic benefits their overall strength and function.
of AM opened the doors for extensive research in the Laser polishing, along with mechanical polishing, was
field of post-processing. one of the first techniques used to process printed parts.
Over time, various conventional and non-conventional The first attempts to polish AM parts were made using a
post-processing techniques have been developed to robotic arm to selectively laser sintered parts [46]. Laser
polish AM metal parts. Laser polishing, chemical and elec technologies have been researched and used for AM
trochemical polishing, mechanical polishing, conventional parts for decades [47]. Laser polishing techniques have
machining, electro-erosion polishing, PEP and some evolved over time, introducing laser remelting [48–52],
hybrid polishing techniques are already being used to oscillating beam method [53], laser wobbling [54],
improve the surface quality of 3D-printed metal parts. pulsed-laser polishing [55–58], etc. A schematic rep
PEP is a relatively new surface treatment process [33] resentation of the laser remelting process can be
that can produce a glossy surface in a relatively short found in Figure 1. Laser polishing can achieve a good
time. The material removal in the PEP process is surface finish but requires a high level of investment.
achieved by a combination of electrochemical and In addition, manoeuvring the laser head to polish
plasma reactions. PEP process offers higher productivity complex parts is difficult.
and better surface properties compared to normal elec Abrasive polishing techniques have become increas
trochemical techniques using aqueous electrolytes with ingly popular due to their ability to handle complex
a low concentration of neutral salts, which are environ structures, internal cavities, and slits and holes in the
mentally friendly and less expensive [34]. As it is an printed parts. Abrasive flow machining (Figure 2)
immersion-based polishing process, it is very suitable [59–63], abrasive fluidised bed [64], magnetic abrasive
for complex parts [35–38]. Along with all the attractive finishing [65,66], ultrasonic cavitation abrasive finishing
features, PEP also has some challenges, namely the [67,68] and hydrodynamic cavitation abrasive finishing
part size is limited by the available source power, polish [69–71] are some of the abrasive polishing methods
ing time and effectiveness dependent on the initial used in practice. The challenges associated with this
surface qualities, uniform polishing of intricate internal
channels is limited by Faraday cage effect, the material
portfolio in comparatively less explored in terms of AM
metal alloys, etc. Intensive research is being conducted
in this field and researchers are trying to overcome the
challenges and expand the material portfolio of this
innovative post-processing technology.
There have been numerous reviews giving overall
outlook of different surface finishing techniques for
AM metal parts [32,39–45]. PEP being relatively new
technique in the AM field, there is a lack of resources
that extensively address the impact of PEP technology
in AM. This review paper attempts to understand the Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing laser remelting technique
research in the field of polishing AM metal parts with [52].
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 3
is shown in Figure 3. These techniques have become

popular due to their versatility on complex parts com
pared to very traditional machining. However, the
uncontrollability and non-uniformity have meant that
they can only be used as a primary polishing step to
remove all partially molten and loosely adhered particles
on the printed samples.
Conventional polishing techniques such as milling,
turning and grinding were among the first and most
used post-treatment methods as they can achieve a
very fine surface finish [75–77]. However, the parts that
can be polished or machined are limited to the accessi
bility of the tools and, in the case of special alloys, are
prone to higher tool wear.
Electrical discharge machining processes are also
used to improve the surface properties of printed
parts. Figure 4 shows schematic diagram of wire electri
cal discharge polishing process. The studies on the AM
alloys titanium [78–80], aluminium [81] and steel [82]
alloys show promising results (75–90% improvement in
surface roughness). Electric discharge processes are a
more cost-effective solution for machining high hard
ness materials with excellent end results but are also
limited by the accessibility of the electrodes used.
Chemical and electrochemical polishing are exten
Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing an abrasive flow machin sively studied methods for polishing AM samples. In
ing setup [63]. chemical polishing, the material is removed by the chemi
cal reaction on the workpiece surface with a polishing
technique include the entrapment of abrasive particles medium. In electrochemical polishing, the material is
inside the polished part, the blunting of the sharp removed by anodic dissolution [83]. Figure 5 shows the
edges and an extremely long machining time [64]. The results of a comparative study on the effects of chemical
introduction of new methods in abrasive polishing and electrochemical polishing on 3D-printed metal parts
shows the potential and the possibilities to be explored. with different part geometries. Much research has already
Surface treatments such as barrel finishing, shot been done in this field to investigate the possibilities of
peening, ultrasonic-shot peening, ultrasonic impact chemical polishing [84,85] and electrochemical polishing
treatment, surface mechanical abrasion treatment and [86–88] and their combinations [85,89] with different elec
so on [72–74] can also be under mechanical polishing trolytes, materials and processing conditions. Chemical
techniques. Schematic of some mechanical treatments and electrochemical polishing are good tools to achieve
Figure 3. Schematics of (a) barrel finishing, (b) shot peening, (c) ultrasonic-shot peening and (d) ultrasonic impact treatment [72].
removal [84] and electrochemical polishing has its limit

ations due to the difficulty of polishing internal cavities
and complex features of the printed samples.
PEP is a special case of electrochemical polishing.
Although this technique has been used for surface
modification for several decades, PEP has only recently
attracted the attention of the AM industry. Due to the
excellent bright surface finish that can be achieved
with relatively less polishing time and the environmental
benefits, PEP is one of the promising post-treatment
techniques for AM metal parts. These characteristics of
PEP have helped to explore the feasibility of PEP for
parts of different materials, shapes, functions and
properties.
Figure 4. Schematic showing polishing using wire electric.
Table 1 shows the feasibility of different post-proces
sing techniques for parts with different geometric proper
better surface quality. However, the toxic chemicals used ties. The methods are tagged feasible, not feasible and
in this process are harmful. Chemical polishing does not neutral for different geometric features. Neutral stands
provide much control over the uniformity of material for the possibility to polish such features but with great
Figure 5. Images of AM part showing (a) outer surface and (b) internal surface after electrochemical and chemical polishing, (c) elec
trochemical polished internal cavity of a part using counter electrode and (d) electrochemical polished internal surface of AM part [83].
Table 1. Comparative analysis of polishing techniques on workpiece geometry across various attributes.
Technology Small surface Large surface Curved surface Blind hole Through hole Average roughness achieved (µm)
Laser polishing + O o – – Ra = 0.03–2.7 [90]
Abrasive polishing + – + – + Ra = 0.22–4 [32]
Chemical polishing + + + o o Ra = 0.4–5.5 [83]
Electrochemical polishing + o o o o Ra = 0.07–3.3 [83]
Conventional machining + + o + + Ra = 0.3–0.4 µm [75,77]
Electric discharge polishing + o o – o Sa = 0.8–7.6 [32,91]
PEP + + + o o Ra = 0.02–8.5
(+) feasible, (o) neutral, (-) non-feasible.
difficulty or cost or with some limitations. Table 1 also PEP is a combination of classical electrolysis and
shows a range of surface roughness values achieved plasma electrolysis. Classical electrolysis involves anodic
with mentioned post-processing methods from the exist dissolution and oxidation together with a cathodic
ing studies. The values are scattered around a range reduction process. In plasma electrolysis, a distinction is
because they are very subjective to the initial surface made between cataphoresis, plasma chemical reactions,
roughness of the polished sample and duration of polish diffusion and heating [33]. It is the combination of all
ing, etc. The overall picture from Table 1 shows that PEP these interactions that leads to material removal and pro
has good potential for most design features and thus can duces a high-gloss surface.
be a good tool for polishing AM metal parts. A standard setup for PEP is shown in Figure 6. The
workpiece to be polished is anodically polarised and
immersed in a suitable aqueous electrolyte solution. A
3. PEP: mechanism and machinery cathode electrode is used in the form of container
PEP is a special case of anodic dissolution in which both walls of electrolytic bath or inserted inside the electro
chemical and plasma reactions lead to the levelling of lyte. Even if the cathode electrode does not have to cor
the workpiece surface [33]. There are several interpret respond to the geometry of the workpiece, the surface
ations of the mechanisms of material removal that ratio between anode and cathode must be greater
have been explained and illustrated by researchers than 1:10 to ensure the formation of a plasma layer on
over the years and are still controversial [92]. the polishing sample.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of PEP setup [93].

polishing method for metal AM samples for different

alloys.
In this section, a brief outlook on the development of
the PEP process for AM metal samples is given based on
the research contributions. Figure 8 shows a graphical
layout that illustrates the path in this research area
over the years. It can be seen from the chronology
diagram that research interest in this area has increased
in recent years. This is mainly due to the increasing
popularity of AM and its integration into the manufac
turing process chain in many industries. The graphical
representation also shows the main area of research
Figure 7. Vapour gas envelope formation during PEP process and gives aspiring researchers a first impression of the
[93]. possibilities and focus of the research area. Most of the
work has been carried out on stainless steel samples in
The voltage, current density and electrolyte conduc the early stages of introducing PEP technology into
tance differ for each material–electrolyte combination. the AM domain. This may be since the composition of
When the suitable conditions are met, a vapour gas the electrolyte is well known. This also helps in the
layer develops around the workpiece in the electrolyte, initial feasibility study by comparing the results with
as shown in Figure 7, creating a region of the highest other polishing methods as well as with PEP-processed
resistance and forming a plasma layer [93]. Hence, a conventional samples. The field of research has recently
virtual cathode is formed at the interface between the diversified as authors have investigated the influence of
vapour gas layer and the electrolyte, and a rapid PEP on metal parts produced using different techniques,
removal of surface peaks occurs on the anode sample materials, functions, etc. [95]. Efforts have also been
resulting in a smooth surface. made to investigate the feasibility of modified PEP pro
The PEP machine consists of an energy source unit cesses such as jet PEP [96–99] and ultrasonic-assisted
with transformers, rectifier modules, voltage regulators, PEP [100,101] to overcome the challenges and improve
an electrolyte interface with heating unit, circulation the efficiency of the process. Table 2 shows a summary
pump systems and drives for parts handling, as well as of PEP conditions and surface roughness improvement
safety loops and sensors that enable smooth operation for various metal alloys produced using the AM
and control (Figure 6). A 400-litre electrolyte bath technique.
system with an 80-kW power module could be
approximately 2 m × 1.5 m × 2 m in size and cost
around €150k–200k. 4.2 Enhancing surface finish: PEP in metal AM
alloys
Figure 9 shows the summary of surface roughness values
4. PEP for metal parts fabricated using AM represented in roughness average, Ra (arithmetic
PEP, with its ability to create a shiny surface and its average of absolute values of roughness along the
greater flexibility in finishing parts with complex sampling length [ISO 4287:1997]) and in some cases Sa
designs compared to conventional methods, is proving (arithmetic average of absolute values of roughness
to be a good polishing technique for AM parts. This over a surface [ISO 25178]) obtained with PEP and PEP
section provides an overview of the current research in combination with other surface treatment methods
landscape and the impact of PEP on AM parts, as well for AM metal alloys.
as the specifics of the research conducted. Most of the studies were performed on steel alloys,
with a focus on stainless steel. Ti–6Al–4 V, AlSi10Mg,
Co–Cr, Copper and nickel alloys have also been investi
gated by some researchers. The alloy SS316L is one of
4.1 Timeline
the most widely used materials in metal AM as it is
Polishing of AM metal parts using PEP has been used used in general engineering. It is mainly used in corros
initially to process stainless steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2 ive environments and in the medical field. Hence SS316L
(AISI: 316L) samples back in 2013 [94]. Since then, is one of the most studied alloys in terms of its properties
many researchers have studied the possibility of PEP as after different polishing processes.
Figure 8. Sequential arrangement of research contribution in PEP of AM metal parts.

8
Table 2. Summary of PEP processing conditions and result achieved for different AM metal alloys.
Voltage Electrolyte Process
Year Title Technology Materials Electrolyte (V) temp (°C) time Initial Roughness Final Roughness Ref
2013 Comparison of different post-processing PBF-LB/M 316L 96% water and 4% of (NH4)2SO4 300 80 NA Ra =15.03 μm Ra = 8.54 μm (PEP), [94]
technologies for SLM generated 316 l Ra = 0.12 μm
steel parts (Grinding using
P80 & P800 + PEP)
2016 Plasma electrolytic treatment of PBF-LB/M 316L Aqueous solution of Na2CO3 or 130 NA 1 min. NA NA [102]
products after selective laser melting aqueous NaCl solution
J. VALENTINČIČ ET AL.
concentration of 5% by weight
2018 Electrolytic Plasma Surface Polishing of PBF-LB/M 316L 4 wt. % (NH4)2SO4 and 1 wt.% 330 85–90 0.5–4 min. Ra = 5.6 μm Ra = 1.4 μm [35]
Complex Components Produced by disodium
Selective Laser Melting ethylenediaminetetraacetate in
distilled water
2018 Electrolytic-Plasma Treatment of the PBF-LB/M AlSi10Mg 7% solution of NaCl in process 400–500 16–90 30 sec Ra = 1.056 μm Ra = 0.680 μm [103]
Surface of a Part Produced with the water
Use of Additive Technology
2019 Comparison of Selective Laser Melting PBF-LB/M 316L NA NA NA NA Ra = 2.2 μm after Ra = 0.8 μm [104]
Post-Processes based on Amplitude initial pp
and Functional Surface Roughness
parameters
2020 Plasma additive layer manufacture PBF-LB/M 316L NA 350 60–90 10–90 min. Sa = 3 μm Sa = 0.6–0.1 μm [38]
smoothing (PALMS) technology – An
industrial prototype machine
development and a comparative study
on both additive manufactured and
conventional machined AISI 316
stainless steel
2021 Surface conditioning of additively PBF-LB/M Ti-6Al-4V Aqueous (NH4)2SO4 e solution with NA 93 4 min Ra = 22.7 μm Sa = Ra = 0.41 μm & Sa = [105]
manufactured titanium implants and a pH of 6.3 (2–5% of NH3, 95–98% 21.8 μm 0.37 μm after sand
its influence on materials properties of water) blasting +
and in vitro biocompatibility vibratory grinding
+ PEP
2021 Preliminary Investigation on Plasma PBF-LB/M MS1 (0.33 M) (NH4)2SO4 aqueous 350 80 10, 15, 20 1, 2 and 3 were Ra Ra =2.7 ± 0.3 μm, Ra [106]
electrolytic Polishing of Microfluidic solution min. =18.5 ± 0.4 μm, =2.8 ± 0.3 μm and
Platform Produced by Selective Laser Ra =18.2 ± 0.5 μm Ra =2.5 ± 0.3 μm
Melting and Ra =18.6 ± for specimen 1, 2
0.3 μm and 3 respectively
respectively
2021 Efficient Finishing of Laser Beam Melting PBF-LB/M 316L NA 370 NA 2/5/10/40/ Ra = 15–20 μm for Ra = 0.18/0.85 μm [107]
Additive Manufactured Parts 60 min 15° inclination up skin/down skin
2021 Investigation of Post-Processing of PBF-LB/M NITINOL NA 330 NA 2–20 min. NA NA [36]
Additively Manufactured Nitinol Smart
Springs with Plasma-Electrolytic
Polishing
2021 Effect of hydrogen peroxide on Cr oxide PBF-LB/M CoCr 0.3 M (NH4)2SO4 aqueous solution 350 70–80 5 min. NA Ra = 10.3–10.4 nm [108]
formation of additive manufactured
CoCr alloys during plasma electrolytic
polishing
2021 Corrosion behaviour of additive PBF-LB/M CoCr 0.3 M (NH4)2SO4 aqueous solution 450 75–80 8 min. Ra = 13.12 µm Ra = 20 nm [109]
manufactured CoCr parts polished
with plasma electrolytic polishing
2022 Efficient polishing of additive PBF-LB/M Ti-6Al-4V NA 327–337 75–90 PEP- 32 Ra = 15.8 µm <1 µm [110]
manufactured titanium alloys min,
particle
blasting
+ PEP- 24
min.
2022 Plasma-Electrolytic Polishing as a Post- PBF-LB/M Overview NA NA NA NA NA NA [93]
Processing Technology for Additively
Manufactured Parts
2022 Plasma Electrolytic Polishing of Porous PBF-LB/M NITINOL Nitinol-specific weak-salt-water- 330–333 75–86 1–4 min. NA NA [37]
Nitinol Structures based solution with the pH value
of around 4.3
2022 Electrolytic-Plasma Jet Polishing of Inconel 718, An aqueous solution of ammonium 400 80°C in the NA Ra = 100 μm Ra = 1.6 μm [96]
Additively Manufactured Gas Turbine Hastelloy X, sulphate with a concentration of immersion
Engine Components and cobalt- 5–15%. system and
chromium 40°C in the jet
alloy system
2022 Effective polishing of inner surfaces of PBF-LB/M MS1 Electrolyte containing ammonium 330–338 72–90 10 min. Ra = 6.53 μm Ra = 0.53 μm [111]
additive manufactured inserts for sulphate and citric acid.
polymer extrusion using Plasma
Electrolytic Polishing
2022 Recommendations for Electrolytic PBF-LB/M 316L, 304 4 wt. % (NH4)2SO 220–360 80–90 5–10 min. Ra = 6.75 μm (316L) Ra = 0.85 μm (316L), [112]
Plasma Polishing of Chromium and Ra = 3.28 μm Ra = 0.09 μm (304)
Titanium Alloys (304)
2022 Reducing Additive Product Surface PBF-LB/M AlSi10Mg KCl (4%), C2H2O2 (2%), H2O (94%) 250 70–80 2 min Ra = 12.4 µm Ra = 1.6 µm [113]
Roughness by Electrochemical
Processing Methods
2022 Spray electrolyte plasma polishing of PBF-LB/M GH3536 Ammonium sulphate electrolyte 320 70 NA Ra = 13.93 µm Ra = 0.107 µm [97]
GH3536 superalloy manufactured by with a mass fraction of 3%
selective laser melting
*NA = Not Available.
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
9
Figure 9. Overview of surface roughness values reported in studies involving PEP of AM samples.
Löber et al. investigated the influence of PEP on µm compared to the initial value of Ra = 9 µm was
SS316L samples, providing the first major contribution achieved by successively applying several processing
to the PEP of AM samples [94]. The samples were techniques such as glass blasting, vibratory grinding
treated with PEP and in combination with other mech and plasma polishing [104]. Yang et al. introduced
anical polishing methods such as grinding and blasting. plasma additive layer manufacturing smoothing tech
The results showed that the PEP method in combination nology, which is based on the same principle as PEP
with grinding with two different grits gave the highest and provides additional flake filtering and condition
quality surface with a roughness of almost Ra = 0.12 monitoring functions to facilitate the polishing of AM
µm compared to the initial value of Ra = 15.03 µm. parts with high surface roughness [38]. The results
The tests were carried out on flat samples and were show that the initial surface roughness of SS316L
only possible with such a uniform flat surface. PEP of a samples could be reduced by a factor of 5 within 10
complex AISI 316L sample using an electrolyte jet with min of polishing (Figure 10), with no negative impact
a pressure of 0.02–0.05 MPa showed a uniform improve on surface properties. The study also demonstrated the
ment of the inner and outer surface roughness from Ra ability to apply physical vapour deposition coatings to
= 5.6 to 1.4 µm [35]. A final surface roughness of Ra = 0.8 parts polished using above technique. The effect of
Figure 10. SEM images of additively manufactured 316L sample (a) before and (b) after polishing using plasma additive layer man
ufacturing smoothing technology and (c) surface roughness improvement before and after polishing [38].
the PEP process in combination with powder blasting from a maximum of Ra = 6.53 µm to a minimum of Ra
and vibratory grinding to prove that the efficient = 0.53 µm [116].
design of the finishing process chain based on the AlSi10Mg is the most used material for heat trans
material removal mechanism can achieve better fer applications due to its high thermal conductivity
surface quality in less time than the application of separ [117]. It is also used for lightweight applications in
ate machining techniques [107]. The study resulted in a the aerospace and automotive industries [118].
final surface roughness of Sa = 0.18 µm on the top Studies on the effect of PEP on AlSi10Mg samples
surface and Sa = 0.85 µm on the bottom surface for showed an 87% improvement in surface finish from
316L samples built in 15° orientation with an initial Ra = 12.4 µm in as-built condition to Ra = 1.6 µm
roughness of Sa = 17.5 µm. after polishing [113].
Maraging steel is another steel alloy commonly pro AM titanium alloys are mainly used in the aerospace,
duced with AM. Ability to incorporate conformal marine, chemical and medical industries due to their
cooling channels, which in turn reduces cycle time, excellent mechanical properties, good corrosion resist
increases productivity, and shortens lead time, has ance and low specific weight [119,120]. Comparative
brought AM to the attention of the tooling industry studies on the effect of PEP and a combination of
[114]. Maraging steel is widely used, primarily due to powder blasting and PEP on the surface roughness of
its superior strength and high ductility [115]. The inves printed Ti–6AL–4 V samples [110] showed up to 96.7%
tigation of the effect of PEP on laser-printed microfluidic reduction in surface roughness after polishing with PEP
platforms of maraging steel samples with micro features or a combination of powder blasting and PEP (Ra =
aligned along the X, Y and Z directions showed an 15.7 µm to Ra = 0.6 µm). In another study investigating
improvement in surface finish of approximately 85% AM samples of Ti–6Al–4 V polished with various combi
within 10 min of processing [106]. The improvement in nations of sandblasting, vibratory grinding and plasma
surface quality with a very short processing time polishing produced samples with final roughness Ra <
shows the potential of the polishing method. However, 0.5 µm (Figure 11) and wettability suitable for medical
as the results of the PEP process are strongly influenced implants [105].
by the initial surface roughness, the combination of PEP Co–Cr alloys are one of the most popular metallic bio
with some primary finishing techniques could lead to compatible materials due to their good corrosion and
much better results. This needs to be investigated wear properties [121]. Seo et al. [109] investigated the
and quantified in further research. PEP of the inner influence of PEP on Co–Cr alloy sample manufactured
surface of maraging steel inserts for polymer extrusion using AM. The as-built samples with surface roughness
with an additional nozzle to improve the electrolyte Ra = 13.12 µm were blasted to bring the roughness to
flow through the insert gap within the electrolyte 3 µm. These samples were further polished with PEP
bath resulted in a reduction of the surface roughness for 8 min to produce roughness, Ra = 0.015 µm.
Figure 11. SEM images and surface topographies of Titanium alloy at different stages of polishing: (a) As-built, (b) Sand blasted, (c)
Sand Blasted + PEP, (d) Sand blasted + Vibratory Grounded + PEP [105].
Figure 12. Surface profilometer images of (a) as built and (b) blasted Co–Cr alloys and atomic force microscopy images showing the
reduced surface roughness by (c) the mechanically polished and (d) plasma electrolytic polished Co-Cr alloys [109].
Blasted samples were also mechanically polished using Nickel–titanium alloys, also known as nitinol, are
SiC papers of grit size 400–2400 to achieve similar rough shape memory alloys that are difficult to produce con
ness around Ra = 0.02 µm. Even with similar surface ventionally. Nitinol is mainly used in aerospace and
roughness values, mechanically polished samples medical applications due to its shape memory effect,
showed surface morphology with scratches aligned to superelasticity behaviour, low stiffness, biocompatibility
polishing directions and PEP surface produced smooth and excellent corrosion resistance [122]. AM has enabled
surface with numerous microscopic vertically aligned the production of complex nitinol parts and thus
pillars as shown in Figure 12. Authors also noted that expanded the application potential in relevant areas.
PEP-treated samples showed better corrosion resistance PEP studies on AM nitinol springs showed the par
than the mechanically polished samples. tially molten powder particles adhering to the spring
Figure 13. SEM images of nitinol spring lateral surface in (a) as built, (b) after 10 min. PEP and (c) after 20 min. PEP [36].
polishing of large and complex workpieces by focusing

on small areas at a time. The results show that the
surface roughness could be reduced from an initial
value of Ra = 13.93 µm to Ra = 0.107 µm, resulting in a
shiny surface without machining marks.
Copper and its alloys are widely used in industry due
to their excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. The
AM of copper is not as popular as that AM of other metal
alloys due to its high reflectivity of near-infrared radi
ation [123]. However, researchers have developed
various methods to mitigate the problems and are
now catching up with other metal alloys. PEP on AM
copper parts is not yet well researched. Zeidler et al.
investigated the influence of electrolyte flow under
ultrasonic vibrations in cavities of different sizes (0.8–
1.9 mm gap and 10 × 10 mm2 cross-section) prepared
on an AM copper part [124]. The study showed differ
ences in material removal depending on the direction
of electrolyte flow. A longer polishing time (4 min)
under ultrasonic vibrations had a positive effect on the
cavities, and PEP of gaps with a size of 1.3 mm is success
ful when that is sufficient electrolyte exchange.
The use of PEP on AM parts is often combined with
other finishing techniques due to the high surface
Figure 14. Spray electrolyte plasma polishing setup [97]. roughness that is present on AM parts. Therefore, a
post-processing method with higher material removal
rate and subsequent PEP to obtain a bright finish
surface were removed by polishing for 10 min and would be an ideal sequence of post-processing steps
further smoothed by longer polishing (Figure 13) [36]. to improve the surface quality of AM parts [107].
Navickaite et al. performed PEP on porous nitinol struc Extensive research in this area is introducing process
tures like the trabecular bone profiles (Figure 16). The conditions for polishing new materials and new func
study aimed to investigate the depth of polishing, the tional parts that expand the portfolio of polishable
effects on the chemical composition and the influence metals for PEP. This broader applicability is helping PEP
on the transition temperature of 50% porous nitinol to become more widely recognised as a post-processing
cubes of size 20 mm3 [37]. Results showed PEP could solution for additively manufactured metal materials.
only penetrate very little into the part core and is
largely dependent on the free passage for electrolyte
4.3 Influence of PEP on material properties.
flow and formed vapour to escape. No influence on tran
sition temperature or chemical composition of the part Significant number of studies are concentrated on the
was observed. surface quality enhancement capabilities of PEP. As the
Wu et al. used the spray electrolyte plasma polishing parts during polishing are not heated up beyond the
technique to process the AM high-temperature nickel boiling point of electrolyte (which is predominantly
superalloy GH3536, which is used in aircraft engine water) [33,125], the material properties of part being
combustion chambers and other high-temperature polished are expected to be un-altered. Only a few
applications [97]. Figure 14 shows the equipment used studies explore the influence of PEP on some material
for polishing. The spray electrolyte plasma polishing properties of various metal parts fabricated using AM.
system uses a spray head as a cathode, which replaces Yang et al. [38] and Wu et al. [97] studied the
the traditional electrolyte bath in PEP. The spray head influence of PEP on micro hardness of steel and nickel
is connected to a six-joint robot and directs its outlet alloys respectively. Yang et al. observed slight improve
onto the surface of the workpiece. By applying a ment in the surface micro hardness and speculates the
voltage, a strong electric field is generated for localised reason to be due to the presence of enriched chromium
polishing, limiting the current to less than 50 A. Precise contentment observed in XRD analysis on the surface
control of the robot and turntable enables efficient due its lower susceptibility to electro dissolution than
Figure 15. TEM images showing the formation of the oxide film on the CoCr alloy polished with (a) mechanical polishing and (b)
plasma electrolytic polishing [109].
iron. Wu et al. performed Rockwell hardness test with high-quality oxide film formed during the PEP process
150 kgf2 on GH3536 duper alloy and noticed lower was verified based on its stable open circuit potential,
inconsistent values before plasma polishing and higher oxide resistance and charge transfer resistance.
approximately consistent values around 30 HRc after The biocompatibility of parts polished with PEP is
polishing due to smooth and flat surface. investigated to assess their applicability in the medical
Another interesting observation regarding spring rate field. The studies on conventional samples after PEP
after PEP polishing is reported [36]. Nitinol spring show no adverse effects on cell life [126,127]. However,
polished using PEP showed considerable reduction in Bernhardt et al. found cytotoxic effects on AM Ti–6Al–4
spring rate as it is related to the diameter. The spring V samples polished with PEP [105] due to the increased
rate was reduced by 22% in the initial 10 min of polish presence of vanadium on the PEP-treated surface. The
ing and around 40% at the end of 20 min of polishing. authors hypothesise that these potentially cytotoxic
The material removal must be considered in case of elements can be removed by washing steps prior to
such functional parts and the authors propose the application, as the vanadium content in the cell culture
scaling of the part to accommodate this reduction in medium was significantly reduced during prolonged cul
diameter based on the MRR studies conducted. tivation, which is an ultimate prerequisite for application
Fatigue properties of AM Ti–6Al–4 V part was com as customised medical devices.
pared after particle blasting and PEP in combination
with particle blasting [110]. The use of particle blasting
4.4 AM peculiarities addressed in the PEP studies
before PEP reduced the PEP time by 8 min to achieve
the same surface roughness, but at the expense of The metal AM process facilitates the fabrication of com
lower fatigue properties than with only PEP. The ponents characterised by exceptional intricacy, owing to
samples were cyclically loaded with the constant ampli its distinctive manufacturing methodologies. This com
tude of R = 0.1 with peak load of 11.793 kN. The results plexity is often accompanied by difficulties in post-pro
showed an improvement in fatigue resistance of 2.4 cessing or polishing the printed parts. This section
times after PEP and 1.9 times after a combination of summarises various features of an AM part that have
blasting and PEP. been explored using the PEP method.
Corrosion resistance studies on Co–Cr samples manu The surface roughness of a 3D-printed metal part is
factured by AM and polished using PEP showed better cor influenced by many factors, such as the layer thickness,
rosion resistance than the mechanically polished samples powder quality, laser power, scanning speed, build orien
[109]. A comparative study on Co–Cr samples polished tation and shape of the part and so on. The final surface
mechanically and PEP were performed as discussed in roughness of the part is often affected by adjusting par
Section 4.2. TEM images of the sample surface show con ameters to increase productivity and reduce costs. A
tinuous oxide layer formed after PEP (Figure 15) which is well-designed post-processing chain could solve this
beneficial for strengthening the corrosion resistance. The problem and bring the surface quality to the desired level.
Figure 16. AM samples with lattice structures made of (a) AlSi10Mg and (b) Nitinol [37,103].
Ablyaz et al. investigated the influence of PEP on a inside the part. This indicates that PEP can only reach
complex SLM printed part [35]. Both the immersion of the inner regions of lattice structures to a limited
the workpiece in the electrolyte and the spraying of extent when the filling density is very high or the
the electrolyte onto the workpiece were tested. The space between the branches/struts is very narrow
results showed that the immersion-based technique (Figure 17).
only produced a good surface finish on the outer The up-skin and down-skin properties of a printed
surface, while the spraying technique with a pressure pattern are special features that can only be seen in
of 0.02–0.05 MPa provided a stable and uniform polish AM. On the up-skin, heat conduction occurs mainly
of the inner and outer surfaces. A final surface finish of through the previously solidified printed layer, whereas
Ra = 1.4 μm was achieved, compared to the initial on the down-skin it occurs through the powder. This
surface roughness Ra = 5.6 μm. difference in heat conduction is one of the main
The production of parts with lattice structures is one of reasons for the higher surface roughness on the under
the main specialties of AM technology. This enables fabri sides, which leads to an uneven surface quality [128].
cation of parts with a lower weight while maintaining the Investigations on Nitinol springs, in which the surface
required rigidity. Lattice structures are quite complex geo was divided into up-skin, lateral and down-skin areas
metries that cannot be polished using conventional [36], showed that the quality of the polished surface in
methods. The lattice structures of an AlSi10Mg and a the down-skin area is inadequate (Figure 18). It was con
porous Nitinol sample produced using laser powder bed cluded that a clean mechanical removal of the support
fusion technology, as shown in Figure 16, were investi structures before the PEP is necessary for a uniform
gated for the effectiveness of PEP [37,103]. The study on surface quality.
the AlSi10Mg part with a hexagonal lattice region [103] Zeidler et al. studied the influence of post-processing
showed a considerable improvement in surface qualities techniques on the up-skin and down-skin surface qualities
by removing partially melted powder particles and creat of additively manufactured 316L samples. The samples
ing clean, sharp surface profiles, as shown in Figure 16. were fabricated in different orientations from 0° to 90°.
Porous nitinol cubes of size 20 mm × 20 mm × 20 mm Three different processing methods, particle blasting,
with a porosity of 50% and a knot diameter of 300 µm vibratory grinding and PeP were used to find the best
were polished at 330 V and 60–240 s polishing time [37]. combination producing most roughness reduction. A
The results showed that PEP can peripherally polish combination of particle blasting (2 min), vibratory
such samples and has no effect after a certain depth. finishing (180 min) and PEP (10 min) [107] showed the
The polishing depth depends on the orientation of the most significant reduction (Sa < 1μm) of surface rough
part in the electrolytic bath and the electrolyte flow ness on the up-skin and down-skin region of samples
Figure 17. SEM images showing surface of AlSi10Mg part (a, b) before and (c, d) after PEP [103].
printed with 15°, 45° and 90° orientations. However, the in selectively overcoming the challenges and the scope
inherent difference in surface roughness of the up-skin for improvement through further systematic research.
and down-skin properties persisted until the finishing
step and could only achieve a uniform surface finish
4.5 Challenges and limitations of PEP in polishing
with prolonged polishing. Microscopic waviness presents
AM parts
especially on the down-skin surfaces of the propeller
blades polished using the combinations of particle blast PEP is relatively new to the field of AM compared to
ing, vibratory grinding and PeP is shown in Figure 19. other existing surface finishing techniques and therefore
These studies demonstrate the opportunities and chal research is underway to adapt the process to AM parts to
lenges of the PEP process in addressing the unique surface maximise its potential.
and geometry characteristics of parts manufactured with PEP is not sufficient to reduce the higher surface
AM. The results also indicate the potential of the process roughness of AM parts. PEP should be used as the final
Figure 18. SEM images of detailed surface features on the (a) lateral, (b) up- and (c) down-skin of the nitinol spring after10 min of
PEP [36].
Figure 19. Microscopic waviness of propeller blades after processing with combination of particle blasting, vibratory grinding and PEP [107].
process to achieve extremely smooth surfaces. Using Existing PEP investigations for AM metal parts are only
PEP alone would take much more time than combining on the parts manufactured by PBF technique. This is
it with a suitable post-processing technique to reduce mainly because parts produced using DED techniques
the initial high roughness. have a much higher surface waviness [136,137] than
Another factor to consider when using PEP is the size PBF methods. Material removal with PEP is very low and
of the sample. A larger surface area of the sample means is mainly used for finishing. PEP polishing can effectively
that a high-power supply is required to initiate the PEP impart a shiny surface to parts produced by the DED
process. A machine power of 80 kW could process method and leave the waviness behind. PEP can therefore
parts with a surface area of about 2000 cm2 when apply not be used directly after the manufacturing process, as
ing voltage of 400 V. The parts with larger surface area the parts often still need to be machined to give them
polished in several steps, thus avoiding immersing the their exact shape [137–139]. PEP can be used as a sequen
sample completely, but polish the entire surface gradu tial finishing process to achieve the final smooth surface.
ally. Jet PEP systems are another alternative to effectively
increase the size of polishable parts with energy systems
like those used in immersion technology [96–99].
5. Prospects and possibilities in PEP research
However, this system is comparatively much more
complex than the immersion-based system and requires The need for post-processing of AM metal parts is
more study to determine the operating parameters for increasing enormously with the widespread acceptance
different materials to be used robustly. and application of the technology. This growing market
AM parts are often produced with integrating design for AM will support the development of PEP technology
for additive manufacturing features [129]. This helps to as it is an environmentally friendly polishing process that
exploit the full potential of the technology while mini has enormous potential to solve various problems.
mising material consumption and improving functional The industry is always looking to optimise machines
ity. Features such as conformal cooling channels [130– and simplify the manual interactions required to
132], micro- and macro channels [133–135] are being achieve the result. With the advanced technologies at
widely explored for heat transfer and chemical appli our disposal, we can use robotic arms to change the
cations. In the simpler immersion methods, PEP is orientation of a part in the electrolyte bath in a predeter
limited in its ability to reach complicated cavities due mined sequence based on the intricate features of the
to the Faraday cage effects and restrictions in effective workpiece to ensure uniform polishing with minimum
removal of vapour formed [37]. This would mean adap idle time and maximum productivity. In addition, the
tation of modifications like forced electrolyte flow PEP process window is defined with a specific electrolyte
[116] and ultrasonic-assisted PEP [100,101,124]. temperature range that provides the best results [140].
The lack of established electrolyte combinations for PEP is performed in steps of a few seconds or minutes
all AM metal alloys poses a further challenge. Increased to maintain the electrolyte temperature range as the
research interest could potentially improve the material temperature rises during the PEP process. A suitable
portfolio. However, optimisation of process parameters recirculation system for cooling or a reserve tank
would require the polishing window for special alloys system that provides cool electrolytes triggered by the
used for AM to be definitively established. thermocouple readings could extend the polishing
time without having to shorten the polishing steps to simulation-based approach to investigate the influence
cool the electrolyte before the next polishing step. of an external electrolyte motion under different con
The PEP method swiftly imparts glossiness to smooth ditions will help us to explore PEP setups to cope with
surfaces, requiring less than 30 s of polishing. It serves as the structural complexities of the printed samples.
potential alternative for parts currently subjected to There are only a few studies investigating the jet PEP
buffing, electroplating, and deposition techniques for process in AM [96,97]. AM, known for its flexibility in pro
achieving a shiny finish. Depending on power capacity, ducing parts with complex geometries, could be best
multiple parts can undergo processing simultaneously, combined with the jet PEP process, which offers more
provided the total surface area remains within pre control over local polishing and increases the machinable
scribed limits. Alternatively, the part-handling system surface area of the part. The level of automation of such
may be enhanced to accommodate multiple parts suc systems is higher as the simultaneous movement of the
cessively, eliminating the need for reloading after each parts and the polishing head could overcome the limit
piece is polished. This helps in scaling up the processing ations that exist with immersion-based PEP processes.
capacity of PEP and improve the overall productivity. PEP is not yet as popular as similar surface treatment
When the initial surface conditions vary, the uniform methods for AM metal parts. This is because the field is
ity of surface roughness after PEP depends on the dur comparatively new as a potential alternative. There are
ation of polishing. In these cases, prolonged polishing very few research institutions around the world actively
will result in excessive material removal and a significant contributing to the field of PEP for AM parts. Active col
change in the dimensions of the workpiece or feature. laboration with industry could provide the opportunity
Experimental data on the material removal and final to introduce the true potential of PEP to a wider audi
surface quality achieved under different polishing con ence and generate more research interest in this topic.
ditions can be used to standardise the rescaling factor More research into interesting material alloys that are
for part features for specific materials. This helps in mod widely used in the additive industry and how to over
ifying the CAD model to achieve the desired surface come the unique challenges of AM metal parts could
quality after PEP without violating dimensional toler potentially accelerate the progress of PEP in this field.
ance constraints.
As explained in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, the difference in
6. Conclusion
surface quality of the upper and lower skin is an impor
tant factor for PEP. Since this polishing method is PEP as a post-processing technique for metals and alloys
affected by the bubble formation and its movement has already been established for several decades.
along the surface of the workpiece, investigating the However, the application of PEP for the polishing of AM
influence of the orientation of the printed samples to metal parts is a relatively new field of research, and the
overcome this challenge by utilising the inherent intensive research in this area can be seen from the con
phenomenon in the electrolysis bath would save a lot siderable increase in publications in recent years. As AM is
of design time to avoid the uneven surface roughness mainly used to produce parts with complex shapes and
of the polishing samples. features to maximise the flexibility of the process, there
There is a lack of simulation models to predict the are challenges in terms of surface quality after finishing
behaviour of polished samples under different polishing due to the nature of the process mechanisms. The PEP
conditions. Developing an analytical model that mimics process is an environmentally friendly solution to
the polishing process could help in predicting the effects achieve a fine glossy surface and is considered one of
of different polishing conditions and fine-tuning before the best alternatives to current practices in this field.
validation with the experimental results. The available studies highlight experimental and theoreti
During the PEP process, the bubbles that form near cal opportunities to explore the process to improve the
the surface of the workpiece migrate upwards and material portfolio and the ability to overcome the
merge into larger bubbles. As a result, the vapour gas various challenges faced by complex parts produced
envelope remains thinnest in the lower area, which using metal AM techniques. Given the increasing popular
leads to a higher removal rate. This affects the uniform ity and use of AM components, conducting additional
polishing along the surface. Ultrasonic-assisted PEP research and investigation into the effects of PEP on the
showed possible improvement in narrow channels by post-processing properties of printed parts can play a
facilitating sufficient electrolyte exchange [124]. Similar critical role in addressing current challenges. Further
forced electrolyte flow across the polishing sample more, such studies can open new opportunities for the
could influence the quick removal of bubbles formed integration of metal AM parts into a wider range of indus
and achieve a more uniform polishing throughout. A tries and applications.
Notes [6] Veeman D, Mahesh VS, Madabushi SS, et al. Additive

manufacturing and its need, role, applications in the
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The authors acknowledge the support of the European Research facturing technologies and applications in the aero
Executive Agency under the Horizon Europe: Widening partici space industry. Addit Manuf Aerospace Ind. 2019.
pation and spreading excellence (SEAMAC, 101079481) and the https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115292453.
Slovenian Research Agency in the frame of Research program [9] Liu R, Wang Z, Sparks T, et al. Aerospace applications of
Innovative production systems and processes, Grant P2-0248. laser additive manufacturing. 2017. https://api.semant
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Disclosure statement 2017.09.003
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). [12] Lakkala P, Munnangi SR, Bandari S, et al. Additive man
ufacturing technologies with emphasis on stereolitho
graphy 3D printing in pharmaceutical and medical
Funding applications: a review. Int J Pharm. 2023;5. https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255566499
This work was supported by HORIZON EUROPE Widening par [13] Youssef A, Hollister SJ, Dalton PD. Additive manufactur
ticipation and spreading excellence: [Grant Number ing of polymer melts for implantable medical devices
101079481]; Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS: and scaffolds. Biofabrication. 2017;9. https://api.seman
[Grant Number P2-0248]. ticscholar.org/CorpusID:52835412
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ORCID Manuf. 2019. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
164598350
Joško Valentinčič http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4911-1196
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Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2573-
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Henning Zeidler http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0800-9678
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Advancements in surface finish for additive

Joško Valentinčič, Jithinraj Edaklavan Koroth & Henning Zeidler

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Advancements in surface finish for additive manufacturing of metal parts:

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

1. Introduction material (MJT), binder jetting (BJT) and sheet lamination

is shown in Figure 3. These techniques have become

removal [84] and electrochemical polishing has its limit­

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of PEP setup [93].

polishing method for metal AM samples for different

Figure 8. Sequential arrangement of research contribution in PEP of AM metal parts.

polishing of large and complex workpieces by focusing

Notes [6] Veeman D, Mahesh VS, Madabushi SS, et al. Additive

single-phase powders. J Mater Sci. 2002;37:3093–3100. finishing. Wear. 2017;378–379:90–95. doi:10.1016/j.wear.

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removal [84] and electrochemical polishing has its limit