Daa Ropers Ne we on COLT eT TT AND er oa ae iPrescribed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board as a textbook for classes nine-ten from the academic year-2013 Physics Classes Nine-Ten Reviewed and Modified for making the contents easy and accessible by Dr. Muhammad Jafar Iqbal Dr. Mohammad Kaikubad Written by Dr. Shahjahan Tapan Dr, Rana Chowdhury Dr. Ekram Ali Sheikh Dr. Rama Bijoy Sarker Editor Dr. Ali Asgar Translated by Dr. Rama Bijoy Sarker Sudeb Chandra Paul Md. Khairul Alam Re-translated by Dr. Rama Bijoy Sarker Sudeb Chandra Paul Swapan Chandra Barman Md. Akter Hossain National Curriculum and Textbook Board, BangladeshPublished by National Curriculum and Textbook Board 69-70, Motijheel commercial Area, Dhaka. [All rights reserved by the Publisher] First Publication Revised Edition Revised Edition Cover Illustrations Photography September, 2012 November, 2014 November, 2017 Nasreen Sultana Mitu Mchedi Haque, Nasreen Sultana Mitu & Romel Barua SUST SUPA & Colleted Design National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh For free distribution by the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh Printed by :Preface The aim of secondary education is to make the leamers fit for entry into higher education by flourishing their latent talents and prospects with a view to building the nation with the spirit of the Language Movement and the Liberation War. To make the learners skilled and competent citizens of the country based on the economic, social, cultural and environmental settings is also an important issue of secondary education. The textbooks of secondary level have been written and compiled according to the revised curriculum 2012 in accordance with the aims and objectives of National Education Policy-2010.Contents and presentations of the textbooks have been bselected according to the moral and humanistic values of Bengali tradition and culture and the spirit of Liberation War 1971 ensuring equal dignity for all irrespective of caste and creed of different religions and sex. The present government is committed to ensure the successful implementation of Vision 2021. Honorable Prime Minister, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina expressed her firm determination to make the country free from illiteracy and instructed the concerned authority to give free textbooks to every student of the country. National Curriculum and Textbook Board started to distribute textbooks free of cost since 2010 according to her instruction. Physics is inextricably related to the development of technology from the very beginning of civilization. Tools and techniques of physics are widely used in the field of engineering, astronomy, oceanography, biology, psychology etc. The study of physics is necessary for those who are interested in the above mention subjects. Four color illustrations have been used to make content attractive and visible to the learner. So it is expected that the leamer will be inspired to study this subject for future. Considering the challenges and commitments of 218 century and following the revised curriculum the textbook has been written. The textbook has been revised and re-edited by a prominent educationist to make it learner friendly in 2017. I thank sincerely all for their intellectual labor who were involved in the process of revision, writing, editing, art and design of the textbook. Prof. Narayan Chandra Saha ‘Chairman National Curriculum and Textbook Board,BangladeshCONTENTS Chapter Subject Page One Physical Quantities and Their Measurements | 1-30 Two Motion 31-60 Three Force 61-96 Four Work, Power and Energy 97-126 Five State of Matter and Pressure 127-159 Six Effect of Heat on Matter 160-186 Seven Waves and Sound 187-210 Eight Reflection of Light 211-241 Nine Refraction of light 242-277 Ten Static Electricity 278-306 Eleven Current Electricity 307-337 Twelve Magnetic Effects of Current 338-354 Thirteen Modern Physics and Electronics 355-388 Fourteen Physics to Save Life 389-408Chapter One Physical Quantities and Their Measurements Figure: An Atomic clock made for measuring time very accurately When you think about science the image of different instruments, inventions, research laboratories etc appear in your mind. But the instrument, research or laboratory are not the subject matter of science rather the actual subject matter of science is its scientific view .The greatest contribution of this civilization has come from science and the scientific view of the human beings of the world. To explore the mysteries of science sometimes they explained logically, sometimes examined in laboratories and some other times they are scrutinized intensively in nature. From ancient times to modem times the scientists are relentlessly advancing the science. A continuous description of the gradual development of physics has been described in this chapter. Forms-1, Physies, Class 9-102 Physics If we read the history of physics we will see that it is developed by the combined effort of theoretical and experimental scientists. In order to do research in the laboratory, we need to measure different quantities accurately. How the units are built up, how they can be measured and what type of instruments will be used to measure them will also be discussed in this chapter. ® By the end of this chapter we will be able to- Explain the scope and gradual development of physics. Describe the objectives of physics. Explain the physical quantities [with units and magnitude] as the origin of physics. Explain the measurement and necessity of units. Explain the difference between fundamental and derived quantities. Explain the international system of units. Calculate the dimensions of quantities. Calculate the transformation of prefixes of multiple and sub-multiple units. Express the concepts of physics and its theories by using scientific names, symbols and notations. Measure the physical quantities by using different apparatuses. Explain the mechanism of exactness and accuracy of measurement. Determine the area and volume of uniform objects by using simple instruments. Determine the length, mass, area and volume of uniform objects used in our daily lives. 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 1.1 Physi Physics is the most ancient branch of science. It is because scientists started studying and practicing astronomy, the most important branch of physics, before the flourishment of other branches of science. Besides being the oldest branch, physics can be said to be the most fundamental branch. Chemistry flourished on the basis of physics Biology flourished on the basis of Chemistry, and again many other subjects flourished on the basis of Biology. Generally we can say that the branch of science which tries to understand matter and energy and the interaction between them is called physics. You must have realized that here physics is not only the visible things around us but also the things such as molecules-atoms, electrons, protons, neutrons, quarks or string etc. Again energy may be strong and weak nuclear energy apart from our known potential energy, kinetic energy, gravitational energy or electromagnetic energy. 1.2 Scope of physics Since physics is the oldest and the most fundamental branch and other branches somehow flourished on the basis of physics, it is very natural that the area of physics is very wide, Not only that different technologies have flourished using different laws of physics and we are using this in our daily lives (there are examples of some instruments used in medical science in the last chapter). At present the greatest contribution behind civilization is of electronics and physics has the greatest contribution behind this technology also. Besides daily activities, from destruction of war to space exploration the contribution of physics is present. Not only that by the combination of other branches of science and physics newer branches have developed, for example astrophysics consists of astronomy and physics. In order to explain organic processes, biophysics has been built up by the combination of biology and physics, chemical physics was born by the combination of chemistry and physics. Use of physics in Geology has led to Geophysics. Medical physics has flourished using physics. Therefore the area of physics is very large and deep as well. For the advantage of teaching-learning we divide physics into two principal parts, These are:4 Physics Classical Physics: This contains mechanics, sound, heat and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism and optics. Modern Physics: Modern Physics that built up using Quantum Mechanics and Theory of Relativity. These are molecular and atomic physics, nuclear physics, solid state physics and particle physics. We have mentioned earlier that many kinds of technologies have been developed in the world using physics or other branches of science. Using these technologies we have made our lives simple and meaningful. The invention of some terrible technology has not only endangered our lives but also the existence of our earth. Sometimes unjustified and unnecessary technology has spoiled the resources of our earth along with creating pollution. So remember that technology is not always good, as there are good technologis in the world, also there are bad technologis. Using your good sense/rationality, you have to understand which technology is good or bad. Physics was not built in a single day, it has taken hundreds of years to develop. The physicists tried to explain, with the help of laws the mysterious world around them. Sometimes performing experiments those laws were accepted, changed and sometimes give up. Thus we are able to explain microscopic particle of matter to shape of largest universe and we are learning continuously. Perhaps this learning is not complete still now- scientists are trying to make it complete, it will be possible to explain everything of apparently different subject with the help of a few laws one day. ®@ Do Yourself Technology may be good or bad but knowledge can never be bad, in the of invention of physics give logical arguments in favour of thi 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements Group Work Arrange a debate on good technology and bad technology that have been developed using the laws of physics. 1.3 Development of physics Modern civilization is the contribution of science. This advancement of science has not been done in a day, the modern science reached its present state gradually due to tireless labour of innumerable scientists and researchers. It has to be remembered that the exchange of information was not so easy, it was very difficult to convey the results of research to one another, books were prepared in hand written form and the number of these books were very few. Courage was necessary to express views against conventional faiths. There are examples of imprisonment or even scientists being burnt to death. But the search of knowledge was not stopped and exploring the mysteries of nature, the scientists have given us this modern science as a gift. We can describe the history of physics by dividing it into different stages. 1.3.1 Initial Stage (Greek, Indian subcontinent, China and the Contribution of Muslim Civilization) ‘Now-a- days, what we understand by physics was started in the ancient times, by the combination of astronomy, optics, dynamics geometry, and an important branch of mathematics. The name of the Greek scientist Thales (624-586 BC) can be mentioned specially, because he was the first who deny explanation whice is onle based on religion, myth and extrasensory perception but without logic. Thales predicted about the solar eclipse and knew the magnetic property of loadstone. Pythagoras (527 BC) was remarkable among the mathematicians and scientists at that time. He had fundamental works on vibrating wire along with geometry. Greek philosopher Democritus (460 BC) presented the first idea that matter has indivisible unit, called atom (This name is used by modern physics). It was not acceptable to all since there was no chance to prove his idea by the scientific process. The theory that everything was made of soil, water, air and fire by the greatest philosopher and scientist Aristotle was much more & acceptable. Aristarchus (310 BC) first gave the idea of solar centered solar6 Physics system. His follower Seleucus proved that with arguments, although these arguments have been lost with time, Greek science and mathematics had reached its highest peak at the time of Archimedes (287 BC), the greatest scientist of all times. The upward thrust of liquids is still in the content of science books. He assisted, during the war, by setting enemy ships on fire by converging the solar light using a spherical mirror. There was an another scientist of Greek era named Eratosthenes (276 BC), he found out the radius of the earth accurately at that time. Figure 1.01: Archimedes and Al Khorgimi After that the development of science remained stopped for almost one thousand and five hundred years. Only the civilizations of the Indians, Muslims and Chinese survived. In the Indian subcontinent Aryabhatta (476), Brahmagupta and Vaskar have done a lot of valuable work on mathematics and astronomy. Zero was effectively used in the Indian subcontinent (Aryabhatta). The name of Al Khorgimi (783 BC) has to be specially mentioned among the muslim mathematicians and scientists. The present name algebra has come from the book Al Zaber written by him. Ibne Al Hayum (965 BC) is considered as the architect of optics. Al Masudi wrote an encyclopedia of thirty parts regarding the history of nature. Everyone knows the name of Omar Khayam as a poet. But he was a highly famous mathematician, astronomer and philosopher. Chinese mathematicians and scientists have done a lot of work in physics. Among them the name of Shen Kuor can be mentioned (1031), he has done studies with magnets and mentioned the issue of fixing direction by using a compass during travel. 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 1.3.2 Developing Stage of Science In the sixteenth and seventeenth century, a surprising revolution started in the realm of physics, the time was the era of European renaissance. In 1543 Copernicus gave the explanation of the solar centric solar system in a book. (the publisher of the book became afraid of the priest and wrote that it is not a real explanation, only a mathematical solution!) The theory was not made available to the people for a long time, Galileo (1564- 1642) brought it to the fore front. He introduced the mathematical formulation. After that he introduced the scientific process to prove the law doing experiments, Sometimes Galileo is called the father of modern science. He was in curse of church due to be the founder of solar centric solar system. He had to pass his last days in captivity. In 1687 Newton published the three laws of mechanics and the law of gravitational force, which forms the basis of force and dynamics. Scientist Newton along with Leibniz invented a new branch of mathematics called calculus with optics and other works. Figure 1.02: Copernicus , Galileo and Newton Before the eighteenth century heat was considered a mass less liquid. In 1768 Count Rumford showed that heat is a kind of energy and mechanical energy can be converted into heat energy. Lord Kelvin in 1850 introduced two important laws of thermodynamics on the basis of the research work of many other scientists. An extensive research was started on electricity and magnets at this time. In 1778 Coulomb invented the law of force between the charges. Many kinds of .. Tescarch were started after the invention of the electric battery by Volta in 1800. & In 1820 Oersted showed that magnets can be made by the flow of electricity. In8 Physics 1831 Faraday invented the exact opposite process give by Oersted. They showed that electricity can be produced by varying a magnetic field. In 1864 Maxwell (Figure 1.03) expressed the varying electric and magnetic fields with a single law, the famous Maxwell equation. Here, he also showed that actually light is an electromagnetic wave. Electricity and magnets are not different, In fact they are the two forms of the same energy, This invention was well-timed because in 1801 Young proved the wave nature of light experimentally. 1.3.3. Introduction to Modern Physics From the very beginning of 19th century scientists discovered that many things could not be explained with the help of existing physics. Dalton introduced atomic theory in 1803, Thomson invented an electron within the atom, In 1911 Rutherford showed that at the center of the atom there is the smallest nucleus and there are positive charges in it. But it was found that the revolving electron model around the nucleus could not be explained because according to electromagnetic theory an electron should radiate its energy and fall into the nucleus, but practically it never happens. In 1900 Max Plank invented the quantum theory and the explanation of the stability of an atom became possible. Professor Satyendranath Basu gave an appropriate mathematical explanation of the Quantum — theory of radiation. In recognition of his contributions to physics one kind of elementary particle was named the Boson. During the period of 1900-1930 many famous scientists together established the quantum theory. Figure 1.03: Maxwell, Rutherford and Mari Curie ‘An imaginary medium called ether was considered as the carrier of the electromagnetic wave. In 1887 Michelson and Morley, while trying to prove the existence of ether, showed that actually there is no ether and the velocity of light is equal in both stationary and moving mediums. We get this explanation = 8Physical Quantities and Their Measurements v from Einstein’s theory of relativity in 1905. (Fig-1.04) The most wonderful equation E = mc? is derived from the theory of relativity in which it is shown that the mass of object can be converted into energy. In 1931 Dirac predicted the existence of an anti particle by the combination of quantum theory and the theory of relativity and it was discovered the following year. Figure 1.04: Albert Einstein and Satyendranath Basu In 1895 Roentgen invented X-rays. In 1896 Becqurel showed that radioactive radiation is emitted from the centre of an atom. In 1899 Pierre Curie and Marie Curie (Fig:1.03) invented radium and the scientists understood that actually the atoms are not imperishable, on disintegrating these atoms may emit radioactive radiation . 1.3.4 Contemporary Physics Due to the invention of electronics and modern technology it is possible to make powerful particle accelerators. Accelerating the particle with high energy, new particles are being discovered. It is possible to arrange these particles systematically using the Theoretical Standard Model. It is possible to explain the structure of all the particles using a few elementary particles (and their antiparticles) though apparently we think there are an infinite numbers of new particles. It is not possible to explain the mass of the particles using the Standard Model, so to explain the mass, the existence of a new particle called the Higgs Forma-2, Physics, Class 9-1010 Physics Boson was predicted. The identification of the Higgs Boson particle in the laboratory in 2013 is treated as a great success of theoretical physics. In 1924 Hubble showed that all galaxies of the universe are moving away from one another, which indicates that the universe is expanding slowly. This means that once upon a time the whole universe was concentrated at a point. Scientists showed that fourteen billion years ago through a massive explosion called the Big Bang the universe was created and it has continued to expand. Very recently scientists showed that this expansion will never stop and every part of the universe will keep moving away from one another. Besides, the physicist have shown that they can explain only 4% of visible planets, stars, and galaxies of the universe, the concept of the mysterious dark matter and dark energy has to be accepted to explain the rest of the universe. The scientists are continuing their research in this field. Semiconductors are created from the research of solid state physics resulting in present electronics which is the foundation of modern cit 1.4 Objective of Physics Already you know that physics is that branch of science which explains the change of position of an object with time in the presence of energy and force. Like any other science the main objective of physics is to learn, the arena of knowing in physics is very large. The objectives of physics is to unfold the mysteries of both small atoms and the vast universe, For understanding easily we can divide the objective of physics into three parts: 1.4.1 Unfold the Mystery of Nature In ancient times in China, a piece of lodestone was seen to attract another by an invisible force. This special property of this special type of matter was called magnetism, Similarly in ancient Greece when a substance called amber was rubbed with wool, they attracted each other with an invisible force. This special type of property is called electricity. Many researches were conducted on it in the eighteenth century and the scientists discovered that, this is actually two different forms of the same force and this force is called an electromagnetic force. After the invention of radioactivity while explaining a special radiation called beta ray, a new type of force called weak nuclear force was discovered. Later on the physicists showed that electrometric force and weak nuclear force are different forms of the same force. Their combination is called the electro 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements M weak force. The physicists think that two other forces in nature called gravitational force and nuclear force will be brought under the same law in the future. Physics is unveiling the mystery of nature one after another. Similarly we can say that an object consists of molecules, later on we see that the molecules consist of atoms of elements. Despite the atoms being charge neutral, there is a positive charged nucleus at the center and surrounding it electrons are revolving. Though an electron is an elementary particle, it is seen that the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It is there seen that neutrons and protons also consist of elementary particles called quarks. At present the research topic is whether electrons and quarks are made of strings. 1.4.2 To Know the Laws of Nature From time immemorial we know that if something is released from above, it falls down and seeing this we can guess that the earth attracts everything towards its center. If physics stops after pronouncing only the existence of gravitation, this is not enough at all. The knowledge will not be appropriate until accurately we know the force by which an object of a definite mass attracts another object of another definite mass and how the force varies with the distance between them. Newton explained this law of nature properly with the help of the law of gravitation. The laws of nature can be used in many other places. So, the motion of a falling body is explained with the help of gravitation, similarly the rotation of the earth about the sun can also be explained. To know the laws of nature properly the scientists analyzed them with argumentative discussions, while also conducting experiments in the laboratory. Behind the wonderful success of physics, both theoretical and experimental researches have been conducted. The main objectives of physics is to find out the laws of nature by doing research in these two different fields. 1.4.3 Development of Technology Using the Laws of Nature From the theory of relativity Einstein deduced the law E = mc? and showed that mass can be converted into energy. In 1938, by breaking a nucleus Otto Hann and Fritz Strassmann showed that the amount of mass reduced, is converted into energy. Using this formula the nuclear bomb was made and dropped on Hiroshima and12 Physics Nagasaki in the Second World War and millions of people were killed within a second. Not only deadly weapons can be made but also it is possible to use for the good of mankind. Using this formula, nuclear power plants are made and also in Rooppur of our country a nuclear power is being made. Solid state physics is a branch of physics where semiconductors are studied, Mixing some special elements with semiconductors, transistors are made. With the help of this technology great development of electronics has occurred and this has made a major contribution to the present civilization. In this way we can show that physics has a small or large contribution in every field of technology. Contributions of physics in medical science are discussed in the last chapter of this book. Group Work Prepare a poster on how the development of physics takes plac @) Do Youself Consider a particular distance as a particular time on a straight line, put the important works that different scientists have done from the ancient period to the present time on the straight line and show that there is a dark period in the history of human civilization. Search out anyone reason, why there is a dark period? 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 13 1.5 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements Every one of us knows that water becomes ice when it is cooled; it becomes vapor when it is heated. Peoples have been observing it from the very ancient times. This knowledge cannot be science completely, unless we can say at what condition and at what temperature water becomes ice after freezing or raising the temperature at what condition and at what temperature does it start to boil and become vapors. This means to be science, everything has to be measured. The most important point of science is to be able to explain everything accurately after measuring them. Table 1.01: Seven physical quantities in SI unit Quantity Unit Symbol Length meter m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Electric current ampere A Temperature kelvin K Amount of substance mole mol Luminous intensity candela ed In this universe anything we can measure is called a quantity. In this physical world there are innumerable quantities which can be measured. For example, we can say, length, breadth, volume, weight, temperature, colour, rigidity, position, velocity, internal material, electrical conductivity, non-conductivity, elasticity, heat conductivity, non-conductivity, density, specific heat, pressure, melting point, etc, we cannot finish this list. In brief, in the physical world the quantities are endless. You may think that to measure these infinite number of quantities, we have to prepare the definitions and units of these infinite number of quantities! Actually that is not true, you will be surprised hearing that (and definitely be happy) if we can fix seven units of seven quantities, then we will be able to find everything using these seven units. These seven quantities are called fundamental quantities. When we express other an quantity using these14 Physics fundamental quantities that is called a derived quantity. The fundamental quantities are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity. Internationally recognized these seven units of seven fundamental quantities are called SI units, (SI came from the France language term ‘Systeme International d’Units) and these are shown in Table 1.01. ‘Table 1.02: Very large to very small distance Table 1.03: Very large to very small mass Distance m Mass kg Nearest galaxy 6x 101 Our galaxy 2x 104 Nearest star 4x 106 Sun 2x 10% Radius of solar system] 6 x 107 Earth 6x 10% Radius of Earth 6 x 10° Ship 7x 107 Height of Everest 9x 10? Elephant 5 x 108 Length of virus 1x 10-8 Man 6 x 104 Radius of hydrogen) 5 4g-a1 Dust 7x 107 atom Radius of proton 1x 10-8 Electron 9x 10-34 1.5.1 Units of Measurement The measurement of these units is stated very clearly. For example: the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 second is called Im. 1 kilogram unit is still considered as the definite amount of mass, which is the mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium of height and diameter 3.9 cm kept in a certain building in France. (The scientists will explain this mass otherwise within few days so that nobody has to depend on a definite mass of a definite country.) The time required to complete 9,192,631,770 vibrations by a Cesium-133 (Cs!) atom is called one second. The temperature which we get when the triple point temperature of water is divided by 273.16 is called one Kelvin. More or less the definition of ampere is complex- When electric current flows through two wires in the same direction they attract one another. The amount of current that flows through two parallel wires separated by 1 m and if they attract one another with 2x10" N force per meter, that amount of current is 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 15 called one ampere. Here it is considered that the wires are of infinite length, circular cross section, and the cross section is so small that it is negligible! (You will be happy to know that plans are being made to explain this more clearly!) One mole is defined as the amount of substance that is contained in a definite number of fundamental particles (molecule, atom or ion) which is equal to the number of atoms contained in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 atom. Table 1.04: Very large to very small time Time s Time of big bang 4x 107 Destruction of dinosaur 2x10%* Birth of human 8 x 107? Single day 9x 10+ Heart beat of human 1 Lifetime of meuon 2x 10-6 Time period: green light 2x 10715 Time period:1 MeV gamma ray 4x 10771 One candela unit is perhaps the most complex to understand: one candela is defined as the amount of luminous intensity of a source of light which is emitted in one steredian solid angle of luminous intensity of 1/683 part of 1 watt. But any source of light cannot be used for this, that source must be a source of light with vibrations of 54010" cycle per second. The quantities distance, mass and time can be very small to very large. To give an idea about these quantities, some examples are given for distance, mass and time (table 1.02, 1.03, 1.04). Observe the tables minutely and try to feel them! The seven units have been introduced to you formally; nobody can hope to remember them! You need not memorize them if sometimes you want to know, you can find it look up in a book or browsing the internet. You should have a practical idea about what is meant by one meter distance, what amount of mass is one kg, what time is one second, how hot is one Kelvin temperature, what amount of electric current is one ampere, what is meant by one mole substance or what amount of light one candela is! Now let us try to give you that realistic16 Physics idea, Not only do you have to know it, but also you have to feel it. In general it can be said that: The distance from the feet to the stomach of a person of normal height is nearly one meter. The water contained in one liter bottle or water of four glasses have a mass of nearly one kg. The time required to say three words ‘one thousand one’ is approximately one second. If three mobile phones are charging at the same time, one ampere electric current is used. (a mobile is charged at nearly 5 V. So, current consumption will be Swatt. If lights, fans, refrigerators of a residence run at 220 V and one ampere current is used then power consumption will be 220 watt!) If we can feel the fever of anyone by touching with hand, then it can be said that his temperature has increased by one Kelvin. It is difficult to realize a mole, we can say a water filled large spoon contains one mole of water molecules. In one cup water, there are ten moles. Light from a single candle can be said one candela. You see that none of them are perfect measurements, but easy to realize. If you are habituated with this measurement, when in future you will calculate anything, then you will have a sense of proportion about it. 1.5.2 Prefix To study science or physics we have to measure different things. Sometimes we need to measure the length of a galaxy (610% m), or sometimes we have to measure the radius of the nucleus (1*10-'S m). To measure this huge difference in the distance it is not wise to use the same type of numbers, so internationally some SI prefixes have been made. Due to this multiplier we will be able to express a large or small number by a small prefix. These prefixes are shown in Table 1.05. In our daily lives we always use these prefixes. To express distance we say 1 kilometer instead of 1000 meter. We say 1 megabyte instead of ten lac bytes to express the size of photographs of a camera. 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 7 Table 1.05: The multiples and sub-multiples used in the SI unit deca da 10° deci d 107 hecto h 10° centi c 10? kilo k 10° milli m 10° mega M 10° micro 10° giga G 10” nano n 10? tera T 10? pico Pp 10% peta P 10" femto f£ 10 exa E 10% atto a 1078 1.5.3 Dimension We already know that though there are an infinite number of quantities around us, we can measure them with the help of seven units only. We have to know, in which units a quantity can be expressed. Often we need to know also how this quantity is formed with which fundamental quantities (length L, time T, mass M etc.). The power of different fundamental quantities in a quantity is called its dimension. For example, we will see next that force is the product of mass and acceleration. Again, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. And velocity is the rate of change of position with time. Therefore, oe a ti dimensions of velocity: distance distance _ dimensions of acceleration: =S=LT? time? 72 In this book, when we will speak about a new quantity, we will try to tell the dimension of it at the same time, You will see that, this always will help you to understand the quantity, in a different way. To indicate the dimensions of a quantity in this book, it will be shown within third bracket. For example, force F is, [FF MLT?, Forma-3, Physics, Class 9-1018 Physics 1.5.4 Scientific symbols and notations The following methods are followed to write the symbol of units: 1. To express the value of a quantity, first we write a number and keep a space after it and then write the symbol of the unit. For example, 2.21 kg, 7.3 x 10? m? or 22 K. The percentage (%) sign also follows the same rule. However no space is kept after a number to write degrees (°) minutes (’) and seconds ("). 2. Derived unit produced by multiplication is written using a space between two units, e.g. 2.35 Nm 3. Derived unit produced by division is expressed as negative power or ‘”. (e.g. ms“! or m/s) 4, No punctuation mark or full stop is used with the symbols, as they are mathematical expressions but not the abbreviated form of anything. 5. The symbol of unit is written in straight font, for example, m for metre, s for second etc. But the symbol of quantities are written in italic or curved font, for example, m for mass, v for velocity etc. 6. The symbols of units are written in small letters, for example, cm, s, mol etc. But capital letters are used for those which are taken from the name of scientists (N for Newton). If there are many letters in the unit then the first letter will be capital only (the unit from the name of Pascal is Pa). 7. The prefix (k, G, M) of unit will be attached with the unit (m, W, Hz) with no space. For example, km, GW, MHz. 8. Prefixes more than kilo (10%) will be in capital letters (M, G, T). 9. The symbols of unit will never be plural (e.g. not 25 kgs, always 25 kg). 10. We have to try to write any number or compound unit in a single line. A line break can be given between a number and a unit if it is very necessary. 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 19 1.6 Measuring Instruments Once it was very difficult to measure different quantities of physics very accurately. The work has become much easier due to instruments based on electronics. For the physics that we will try to learn in this book, knowing how to measure distance, mass, time, temperature, electric current and voltage will be enough. Let us discuss what type of instruments we will use to measure these: 1.6.1 Scale ‘A Meter scale is used to measure small lengths and definitely you may have seen it, Since this is 100 cm or 1m long, it is called a meter scale. Since in many places still now inch-foot is familiar (USA is an example!), so inch is marked very often on the other side of a meter scale. One inch equals 2.54 cm. We can measure up to the smallest division on a scale, Meter scale is generally divided up to millimeter, so using a meter scale we can measure the length of anything up to millimeter. Therefore, if we say the length of anything is 0.364 m, this means the length of this is 36 centimeter and 4 millimeter. Using a meter scale it is not possible to measure lengths smaller than this — that is, generally we can never say the length of a body is 0.3643 m. But from time to time, for microscopic purposes we have to measure the smallest length of objects of this type, this can be performed by using an interesting scale called a vernier scale. Vernier scale Let us consider that the length of an object comes in between 4 and 5 millimeter marking i.e. the length of the object is greater than 4 mm and less than 5 mm, We can use the veriner scale to find how much fraction is greater than 4 mm. This scale is attached to the main scale and can be moved forwards and backwards (Figure 1.05). In the example shown in the figure the length of 9 mm of main scale is divided into 10 divisions on the vernier scale. Therefore every division of the vernier scale equals 2 mm, i.e. less than a millimeter by = millimeter. If the initial mark of the vernier scale coincides with any mark of the millimeter scale, then the next mark of the vernier scale will keep a separation of 3 im from the actual millimeter mark, and the next will keep a separation of 2 mm, third one will keep a separation of 2 mm and so on.20 Physics Therefore no mark of the vernier scale will coincide with the millimeter mark of the main scale, finally the 10 mark again will coincide with the ninth millimeter mark of the main scale. ‘Vernier scale ™ TTT TTT 0 1 cm 2. al Figure 1.05: Main scale and movable vernier scale If we keep the vernier scale in such a way that its starting is not from a millimeter mark rather it starts with a slight (e.g. > mm) displacement (Figure 1.06), then the number of = mm displacements by which it has moved will be the number mark of the vernier scale coinciding with the millimeter mark of the main scale! Therefore, it is very easy to measure a length using a vernier scale. First of all, we have to know the difference between one division of vernier scale and one division of the main scale- this is called the vernier constant-- in brief VC. This can be calculated if we divide the length of the smallest division (1 mm) of the main scale by the total number of divisions of the vernier scale (in the figure 1.05 and 1.06 it is 10). In our example, the value of this : ve = = = 0.1mm = 0.0001m To measure a length, we have to look at the vernier scale after measuring up to the last millimeter mark. Which mark of the vernier scale coincides exactly with any millimeter mark of the main scale is then found, and then that number is multiplied by the vernier constant. We will get the actual length by adding this amount with the length measured by the main scale. According to our procedure the length that is shown on the last scale of Figure 1.06 is 1.03 cm or 0.013 m, 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 21 siti TTT TT TPT i 0 1_scm 2 Fern mil n i 0 He 2 ritit rp TT i 0 1_cm 2 Figure 1.06: Vernier scale displaced by one, two, three divisions Instead of the vernier scale we can use a special type of scale called a screw gauge to measure lengths. In a screw gauge when the screw (Figure 1.07) rotates the scale moves forwards or backwards, the threads of the screw are kept very fine. After a complete rotation of the screw, the screw with the attached scale perhaps advances by an amount of 1mm. This displacement of the screw is called the pitch of the screw. The circular part of the instrument, by the rotation of which the screw moves forwards or backwards is divided into 100 equal parts. For the rotation of only one division of the circular scale, the screw advances by an amount of a of pitch. Therefore, with this scale up to = mm = 0.01 mm length measurement is possible. This is called the least count of the screw gauge. Figure 1.07: A slide calipers with vernier scale and a screw gauge are shown ze Now-a-days instead of the vernier scale, attached dials or digital slide calipers § are available by which lengths can be measured accurately.22 Physics 1.6.2 Balance Mass cannot be measured directly, so measuring the weight the mass is generally determined. When we say the weight of an object is 1 gm or 1 kg, then actually we mean that the mass of the object is 1 gm or 1 kg. In earlier times to measure the mass of an object, a balance was used, there the mass of the object was compared with the definite mass of a known weight. Now-a-days the use of electronic balance (figure 1.08) has increased a lot. If we keep the body on the Figure 1.08: Digital weigh balance then the sensors of the balance can = machine determine the weight very precisely. 1.6.3 Stop Watch Stop watches are used to measure time interval (figure 1.09). Once accurate stop watches were very precious things, now-a-days very accurate stop watches are available in the mobile phone at low prices due to the advancement of electronics. In a stop watch, time measurement is started at any instant of time, and by stopping the measurement of time after a definite interval, the elapsed time can be determined. An interesting matter is that the stop watch can measure the time very accurately, but we can never start or stop it with our hands with the same accuracy. ®) Do Yourself There is less probability for all of you to possess slide calipers to all of you but if you want, you can make a slide calipers to carry on your work. Make a photocopy of figure 1.10, Cut the part of the main scale and the vernier scale and then put it together after folding as it is shown in the figure following the Figure 1.09: Stop watch steps (1, 2, 3, ...... accordingly), Now you can measure any length accurately. The slide calipers is also graduated in inch, so to get the length in centimeter we need to multiply it with 2.54. 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements @ Folding along this line, take let part behind or #) @ Folding along this line, /_ take upper part behind. [Peppy 0 1 Inch 2 3 a @ Folding along this line, |/__ take lower part behind. @ Folding along this line, ‘ake the entire folded ] left part behind, Folding along this 7 CF @ Foting pp fi a SI then lower part, cover behind. . the main scale. Vernier scale A | es <—© Folding along this tine, keep upper part vertically. +—(@ Now keep the main scale here. Figure 1.10 : Making slide calipers with paper 810224 Physics Q) Investigation 1.01 Objective: To find out the volume of a match box or any other object by measuring the length, breadth and height by a slide calipers. If you have no slide calipers with you then you can make a slide calipers as shown in figure 1.10. 1. To measure the length of an object by slide calipers we need to place it between the jaws of the slide calipers. The jaws need to touch the object from both the sides. 2. Now observe carefully the zero marking of vernier scale has just crossed which mark of the main scale. That will be the main scale reading M. Notice that, the mark which is very closed to the main scale, is not the reading of main scale, the mark that has just crossed the main scale fully is the main scale reading. 3. At this position find out which mark of the vernier scale coincides with any mark of the main scale, this is the vernier coincidence. Measure the length of object several times and put it in the table. In the same way measure the breadth and height of the match box. Observation: Determination of vernier constant: Value of one smallest division of main scale, S Total number divisions of vernier scale, n = Vernier constant , VC = s/n= .. ‘Table 1.06: Table of finding length, breadth and height of a rectangular object: Object’s | _No.of |Mainscale| Vernier | Vernier | Reading =| Average lobservations ireading M coincidence |constant |M + V x VC| reading v ve Length L Width Ww 2018Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 25 1,7 Error and Accuracy Error is a negative word and if the word “error in measurement” is said we think that the person who is doing the measurement is not performing his duties properly and an error has occurred! But this is not the case. Sometimes error may ‘occur due to the person who is doing the measurement for his negligence, but we have to know that the instrument with which we measure is not error free. Therefore, there is a limit of how much accurately we can measure, i.e. it is very natural to have errors in measurement. But how much accurate the measurement is, also needs a measurement. The reliability of a result will be increased if we can inform how much accurate the result is when we publish the result of an experiment after doing it. You can give a measurement of the accuracy of your experiment if you know some conventional rules for finding the accuracy of an experiment. Suppose, you are measuring the length of an object by a scale. How much accurately you will be able to measure the length of the object depends on how fine your scale is graduated. If the scale is graduated in 1 cm intervals then you will express your result for length in some definite number of cm. But the real length of the object is not exactly equal to this mentioned number of cm but perhaps very close to it, so there is a possibility of uncertainty in your measured length. That is why, we add that amount uncertainty with the measured result. Therefore, if we see the length is near to 4 cm, then we will say the length of the object is: 4.0405 cm Therefore the length of the object may have any value within 3.5 cm to 4.5 om. Onn Question: What is the length of the object shown in Figure 1.11? Answer: The length of the object is 740.5 mm. That is, the length of the object willbe |Q cm of any value from 6.5 mm to 7.5 mm. Figure 1.11 ; the length of the object beside the scale is nearly 7 mm Forma-4, Physics, Class 9-1026 Physics Now we can discuss how accuracy can be measured, The measurement of accuracy is the absolute error. Observing the name we understand that this is the difference of the measured value with respect to the actual value. You can definitely understand that when we measure anything we don’t know the actual value. So, instead of absolute error we use the most probable error. Therefore in our previous example the absolute error is |£0.5 mm| = 0.5 mm We can see consider the relative error after the absolute error. Let us consider that to measure any length an error of 0.5 mm has occurred. If the length of the object is 1 mm then this error is very serious, but if the length is 1 m then the measurement is accurate enough. The concept of relative error has been introduced to give a better understanding. Therefore, Absolute error Relative error = 7 So in our previous example: Relative error: 0.5 mm/ 7 mm = 0.071 In percentage this is: 0.071 x 100= 7.1% Question: Suppose you have got 10 cm by measuring the length of a square shaped book. Suppose the relative error in the measurement is 10%. What is the relative error in its area? Answer: Measured area of the object =10 cmx10 cm=100 cm? Since the relative error of the object is 10%, hence if its length is measured, the minimum length will be 9 cm and maximum length will be 11 cm. + The minimum area = 9 cm x 9 cm = 81 cm? and the maximum area = 11cm x 11. cm = 121 cm* Therefore the absolute error: [100 cm? — 81 cm?| = 19 cm’? or, [121 cm? — 100 cm?| = 21 ¢ Since the values are not equal, we consider the larger one i.e. the absolute error is 21 cm? 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements Therefore, the relative error = 21 cm? /100 cm = 0.21 In percentage, 0.21 x 100 = 21% If the error in the measurement of the length is 10%, then in the case of area it will be approximately doubled. Similarly you can show that in the case of volume measurements the error will be three times! Question: You have measured a box by a ruler which is graduated only in cm. You have got the length, breadth and height of the box as 10 cm, 5 cm and 4 cm respectively. What is the percentage of error in your measurements? Answer: Since your ruler is graduated only in cm, so your error is + 0.5 cm. Therefore the error in your measurements: Length: 10 + 0.5 cm Breadth: 5 + 0.5 em Height: 4+ 0.5 cm Your measured volume: 10 cm x 5 cm x 4.cm = 200 cm? Probable smallest volume: (10 - 0.5) cm x (5 — 0.5) cm x (4 — 0.5) cm = 149.625 cm? Probable largest volume: (10 + 0.5) cm x (5 + 0.5) cm x (4 + 0.5) cm = 259.875 cm? Therefore the volume, 149,625 cm? < V < 259.875 cm? Absolute error: From 149.625 cm? to 200 cm? is 200 cm? — 149.625 cm? = 50.375 cm? From 200 cm? to 259.875 cm? is 259.875 cm? — 200 cm? = 59.875 cm? Considering the largest value we have the absolute error 59.875 cm? Relative error: 59,875 cm?/200 cm? x 100 = 29.9375% = 30%28 Physics @) Exercise © General questions . Write a report on why we should study physics. Wonderful advancement took place in the twentieth century- put the logic with examples in favour of this. . a) What do you mean by a quantity? b) Write down the difference between fundamental and derived quantities. a) In SI unit which quantities are considered as fundamental quantities? b) Write down the names of the units of these quantities. ‘What do you mean by dimension? Arguments, experimentation and observation- among these three methods which one would you prefer as the most important for science research. Among the seven SI units, one is little bit different from the others, Can you say which one and why? If you and everything around you suddenly becomes half in size, will you be able to understand? ‘Will you be able to measure the radius of the earth? pr we > ay 7” cd 9. Mathematical questions 1. Express the number given below using the prefixes of Table 1.05 (2) 10" Flops (b) 10° bytes (c)10™? gm (4) 10™* m 2. In one year how many seconds are there? (for fun express in terms of 1 ) 3. How many meters are in a light year? 4, When measuring the length of a bar with a vernier scale it appears as in the figure 1.12. What is the | i_cm__|2 length of the bar? Figure 1.12: Reading of a vernier scale 5. The dimension of energy is ML’T™, in SI units what is its unit? 20182018 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements 29 CX) Multiple choice questions Put the tick (¥/) mark on the correct answer 1. Who has given the quantum theory? a) Planck b) Einstein ©) Rutherford d) Heisenberg 2. The name ‘boson’ came from whose name? a) Jagadish Chandra Basu b) Subhash Chandra Basu c) Satyendranath Basu d) Sharat Chandra Basu 3. Which one of below is not a fundamental quantity ? a) Mass b) Heat c) Electric current —_d) Quantity of substance 4, When a rod is placed between the jaws of a slide calipers, the main scale reading is found to be 4 cm, vernier super-imposition is 7 and if the vernier constant is 0.1 mm, what is the length of the rod? a) 4.07 om b) 4.7em c) 4.07 mm 44.7 mm From the figure below answer the questions no. 5 and 6. 5. What is the volume of figure (b) tart 4a a) ar b) tar ¢) 3 mr? d) ar3 6. The ratio of volume of figure (@) and figure (b): a) 1:0,673 —_b) 1:0,0673s c)1:0.763 — d) 1:0.637 Figure (b)30 Physics Creative questions 1. Rashed with his newly purchased scale measured the length of his pencil and the length came to 11.73 cm. His friend Sujon said that this measurement may not be correct. Rashed said that he obtained the same result measuring by the scale several times. When they went to the teacher, he instructed them to use a vernier scale of constant 0.005 cm. Rashed measured the correct length by the vernier scale. (a) Whatis the vernier constant ? (b) Why units are required to express the amount of a quantity? (c) Find how many divisions of vernier scale is equal to what number of divisions of main scale, (d@) _ First measurement of length measured by Rashed was irrelevant to accurate measurement, explain with logic. 2. Mr Rashid, a science teacher has given a ruler and a box to the students in the physics class and told them to determine the volume of the box. The students observed that the ruler can be used to measure up to cm only. They determined the length, breadth, and height of the box as 20 cm, 15 cm and 10 cm respectively. (a) What is its dimension? (b) Why weight and mass are not the same type of quantity? (©) _ Determine the percentage of relative error in the measurement of volume of the box? (d) _ This ruler is appropriate for measuring the area of the book but not suitable for measuring the area of the house- analyze the statement. 20182018 Chapter Two Motion There are many kinds of motion around us. When a person rides a cycle, it’s a kind of motion. When a car moves, that is another kind of motion. When a plane flies, it is also motion. When the earth revolves around the sun, it is also a motion. When a hanging bulb oscillates, it is a kind of motion. When a bullet ejects from a rifle, it’s a motion also. Apparently it seems that all these several types of motion are of different types. But you will be surprised and happy to know that all these motions can be explained by a few number of quantities. In this chapter those quantities, their units, dimensions and the relationship among them will be discussed.32 Physics ® By the end of this chapter we will be able to- Explain rest and motion. Find out the differences among the different types of motion. Explain scalar and vector quantities. Analyze the relations among the quantities regarding motion. Explain the motion of freely falling bodies. Analyze the relations among the quantities regarding motion with the help of graphs. Realize the effects of motion in our lives. 2018Motion 33 2.1 Rest and Motion We don’t have any problems in understanding which object is at rest or in motion around us. We observe by our eyes in such a way that when anything moves slightly, we can recognize it very quickly. So, we can realize very amazingly what the terms rest and motion mean. But in physics, it is not sufficient only to realize rather it has to be well defined. To define it, we can say briefly, when an object does not change its position with respect to time, then it is at rest. And when an object changes it position with time, then it is in motion. Now we need to explain the term ‘position’ properly. In our daily conversation we use the word ‘position’ in different ways, but in physics the word ‘position’ has a definite meaning. If you are asked, where is the position of your school and if your answer is ‘Jhiltuli’, your answer is correct but the position of your school remains unknown. If you reply, your school is 1 kilometer far from the gate of your residence; the position of your school is still unknown. Though the position of the gate of your residence is known to us, yet we cannot tell exactly in which direction the school is situated at a distance of | kilometer from the gate. But if you say the school is situated 1 kilometer east from the gate of your residence, only then we will know the exact position of your school. That is to know the position of the school; we have to know both the distance and the direction definitely. Not only this, this distance and direction has to be specified from the position of a reference point. In the case of your school, the gate of your residence was the reference point or origin. Instead of your residence gate, the reference point might be a bus stop or a shopping mall. Then definitely both the position and the direction would have different values, but we can specify certainly the position with respect to the new reference point. That is, to specify the position of any object, it has to be mentioned with respect to a reference point. This reference point is not an absolute one; we can conveniently choose any point as reference point or origin. Now the question is, to specify the position of an object, is it necessary for the reference point or origin to be a still point? Let us think, in front of you a person is sitting still on a chair. If we consider the chair as the reference point or origin, then we can firmly say, the position of your friend is not changing. If it happens that actually you are sitting in a moving train, what will it then be? Forma-5, Physics, Class 9-1034 Physics A man outside of the train standing on the station will say, you and your friend are both in motion, nobody is at rest. Then whose statement is true? Your statement or of the man standing in the station. In fact, both are correct! The reason is- if the reference point or the origin moves at a uniform velocity, then we cannot tell firmly whether the reference point is moving at a uniform velocity or actually it is at rest and all other things are moving at uniform velocity in the opposite direction. Therefore we can say, if an object changes its position with respect to an origin, then the object is in motion with respect to that origin. It is not our headache whether the origin is at rest or moving at uniform velocity. This is not important since every motion is relative. Not only this, if we want to search out an absolute rest reference point, we will be in trouble. If we consider anything on the surface of the earth as origin one can object, earth is not stationary rather it is rotating about its own axis, so everything on its surface is also rotating. Alternatively we can say, the center of the earth is the origin. Then someone else can come up with the objection that the centre of the earth is not stationary, it revolves around the sun. Then we can say more intelligently, the centre of the sun must be the origin! Then another person can confidently say that the sun is also not stationary it is also revolving around the centre of our galaxy. Surely you are feeling that no one can dare to say, the centre of our galaxy is the origin! Who can say that the galaxy and the universe are stationary? Not only this, if the centre of the galaxy is considered as the origin to describe any position on the surface, do you realize the extent of complexities that may arise? In fact, we don’t need such type of complexities, for our purpose we can consider any point as the origin, which seems stationary to us. In this case we have to mention all the measurements are done with respect to this origin. In this way scientists have done all the measurements starting from the nucleus of an atom to the satellites launched in space, with no problems what so ever! 2.2 Different Types of Motion We sce various types of motions around us, vibrations, rotations and separations ~ all these are the examples of different kinds of motions. Probable motions are unlimited, but if we wish, we can talk about some important types of motion separately. Linear motion Itis an example of the easiest type of motion. If anything moves along a straight line then its motion is a called linear motion. If an object is pushed off on a 2018s 8 Motion 35 plane surface then it moves along a straight line. If a ball is allowed to fall from a height, it will fall straight downwards, so it is also a linear motion. Circular Motion When a body rotates about a particular point or a line, keeping the distance of the particles of the body unchanged, it is called circular motion. Though the motion of electric fans, hands of clocks etc are the examples of circular motion, a wonderful example of circular motion is the moon in the sky. Moon is not tied by to the earth although it is revolving around the earth, neither is it falling on to the earth’s surface. ‘Translational motion If an object moves in such a way that all the particles of the object travel the same distance, at the same time, in the same direction then its motion is called translational motion. Sometimes we sce many examples of this type in our surroundings. When something moves in a straight path then its example is very common. If we do not consider the circular motion of the wheel of a car then straight advancement of the car is an example of translational motion. At this time every point of the car will travel the same distance, in equal time, in the same direction. x > > hr 4 4 sr Not translational motion } ) ‘Translational motion Figure 2.01: Example of translational motion There is no obligation that the translational motion will be straight. But the example of translational motion is not easily available in the case of a curved path. Figure 2.01 shows how a plane has to move for every point of the plane travelling equal distances in the same direction. The figure also shows why the example of translational motion on a curved path is so rare. Periodic Motion If the motion of a moving object is such that it passes repeatedly through a definite point in the same direction in the same manner in a definite interval of36 Physics time, then this motion is called a periodic motion. The vibrational motion of our heart is periodic, since it vibrates in the same direction in the same manner after a definite interval of time. The periodic motion may be circular (motion of the blades of a fan), hyperbolic (orbit of Haley’s Comet around the sun) or linear (oscillatory motion of an object hanging from a spring). Circular motion is a special type of periodic motion. Figure 2.02 : Example of simple harmonic motion Simple Harmonic Motion Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic motion. In case of oscillatory motion the object oscillates on both sides of a definite point. Starting from its complete rest position, the objects starts moving slowly. When the object comes to the centre it has the maximum velocity, then its velocity starts to decrease until it comes to rest. Then it changes its path of motion and moves in the opposite direction. In the opposite direction when maximum velocity is attained, then its velocity decreases again. It stops its motion completely, and starts to repeat its motion slowly again in the previous direction. It continues its motion in this fashion. There are so many examples of oscillatory motion around us. The motion of an object hang from a spring is an example of oscillatory motion. The oscillatory baby on a swing (Figure 2.02) or the pendulum of a clock are the examples of oscillatory motion, When we speak then the air molecules carry the sound forward by this type of motion. So far we have discussed some special types of motion but the causes of these motions have not been mentioned anywhere. The major success of physics is that not only can it find the causes of the different types of motion of objects but it can also explain the motion very clearly. Can you guess the cause of the motion? 2018= 201 Motion 37 2.3 Scalar and Vector quantities In the world we know anything that can be measured is called a quantity. Joy and sorrow are not quantities but temperature is a quantity. Because joy and sorrow cannot be assigned a value by measuring them but temperature can A X be given a value by measurement. The temperature of your body is 37°C or 98.4°F. To express temperature a single number is sufficient, but there are many quantities which cannot be expressed by a single number completely, with its magnitude its direction has to be mentioned or more than one magnitude Figure 2.03: Vector A and vector has to be mentioned so that they altogether can B are equal in all respect although express definitely the magnitude and direction i different position, vector C is of the quantity. Position is a quantity of this ‘iferent from A and B, because type, to express this only the distance is not ‘Mi? magnitude is same but sufficient; its direction has also to be ‘tection is different, Vector D is . a . different from C, because mentioned. The quantity which can be ‘i-cci9. ic same but. their expressed only by a single number is called a sacnitude is not same. scalar quantity, on the other hand the quantities for which direction has to be mentioned in addition to its magnitude are called vector quantities. Besides temperature examples of scalar are time, length and mass. Because they can be expressed by a single number only. Besides position you will find the other examples of vectors are velocity and force. You will be introduced with velocity and force in the next chapter, Because to express these quantities, direction is to be mentioned along with its magnitude. To differentiate vector quantities from scalar quantities they are written in bold font (e.g. x, y or A, B). In books or in computer printing it is easy to write anything in bold form. But when anyone writes on a paper then to express anything as vector, a small arrow is used over it (%,¥ or A,B). In this book the physics you will be taught will not involve application of vectors. At best you will be reminded which one is scalar and which one is a vector.38 Physics 2.4 Distance and Displacement We are very familiar with the word ‘distance’ but we do not use the word ‘displacement’ in our daily lives. We want to understand the relation between the two words, distance and displacement, with the help of an example. A curved path is shown in figure 2.04. The distance travelled with respect to the point A is denoted by the number 1, 2, 3 in kilometer. Let us consider you are at point A (i.e. your position is point A). Now you have reached the point B by 4 km way by riding a bicycle along the curved path. We can say the distance between point A and point B is 4 km. Distance is a scalar quantity, so to express the distance between the points A and B we need not mention any direction. We determined the ‘distance’ of the point B along this path with respect to the point A. Now if we desire we can determine the ‘displacement’ of the point B with respect to the point A. By displacement the position of point B with respect to the point A is meant. In the figure the displacement is shown by a straight line from point A to point B with an arrowhead. In this figure the magnitude of the displacement is 3 km and the direction of the arrow is in the direction of the displacement. Therefore displacement is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction. If going two kilometers more by a cycle you cross a six kilometer path total and reach the point C, then your displacement will be the straight line AC with an arrow, whose magnitude is 1.5 kilometer and the direction of the arrow is along your displacement. Though you covered more distance along the curved path but your displacement is still small. Therefore the more distance you cover, the more will be the displacement is not true. The difference between the initial and final position is the displacement. Starting from the point A, the distance towards the point B is 4 km along the curved path, similarly the distance between the point B and point A is 4 km i.e. both are equal. But notice that the displacement from A to B and the Figure 2.04 : Curved path trakelled by a cycle from point A. 20182018 Motion 39 displacement from B to A are not equal. One is negative of the other. In vector form we can write, AB = —BA Distance or displacement, both have the dimensions of length. [Displacement] = L (vector) [Distance]= L (scalar) 2.5 Speed and Velocity Roughly we know what is meant by velocity. The measurement of how fast a body is moving is called the velocity. In terms of physics, velocity has a definite meaning and in addition to velocity we use another quantity named speed. If we have understood the two terms distance and displacement properly, then we will be able to understand two terms speed and velocity very easily. Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time. Therefore, if you have covered 100 m distance in 20 second, your speed will be; The dimension of speed [»] = 17-1 Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. Therefore, if the change of your position along a certain direction is 50 m in 20 second, then magnitude of your velocity will be; As velocity is a vector quantity, we will have to fix its direction. The dimension of velocity [v] = LT Here, one thing has to be noticed. If we consider only linear motion, then there is no difference between velocity and speed, the magnitude of velocity is the40 Physics speed. In this book, we shall consider only the linear motion, so we will not find any difference between speed and velocity. So to understand the internal relationship between speed and velocity, some examples beyond linear motion is discussed: To explain distance and displacement we considered a curved path in figure 2.04 and showed different positions there. To have an understanding about speed and velocity, we can consider the same example, But now we have to tell how much time you have taken for going from one position to another position. Suppose you have taken 20 minutes for coming from position Ato B by cycle. Then your average speed will be: Average speed = distance travelled/time Therefore, 4km _ 4x 1000m 20 minutes 20x 60s Notice that, we have used the word average speed instead of using the word speed. Because, while you are riding the cycle, sometimes you rode fast and sometimes you rode slow. So we cannot talk about the ‘instantaneous’ speed, rather we can talk about the average speed in the time interval. = 3.33 m/s Let us try to determine velocity now. Like speed, we cannot calculate instantaneous velocity. In this time interval, you rode the cycle at different velocities. The velocity has changed due to the motion being fast or slow. Again the velocity has changed due to the change of direction. Considering these changes, the magnitude of the average velocity will be: Average velocity = displacement/time 3km _3x1000m Therefore, yao km_ _ 31000 m 20 minutes 20x 60s =2.5 m/s In this example you noticed that the value of the average velocity is less than that of the average speed. If the path was straight rather than curved, then the magnitude of the average velocity would be equal to the magnitude of the average speed. 2018Motion 41 In our example, if you rode your cycle always at the same speed then we say your speed is uniform speed. When anything moves with uniform speed then its instantaneous speed and average speed will be the same. Notice that, since the path is curved, if you go through this path your direction is changing continuously. Therefore you can move with uniform speed through this path but you cannot go with uniform velocity, If anything moves in a linear motion along a straight line, only then uniform velocity or constant velocity is possible. ® Example Question: Let us consider another example to understand the relation between velocity and speed more clearly. Tie a small piece of stone with a string and rotate it over your head (figure 2.05). Does the stone move with uniform velocity or with uniform speed? Or with uniform speed and uniform velocity? Answer: If you think for a while you will be able to understand that the speed of the stone is not changing but the velocity is changing at every instant! Because at every instant the direction of motion of the stone is changing. If the stone moves along a straight line, then the direction of its motion will not change. Since it is revolving, its direction of motion is changing continuously. So it is an example of uniform speed- not of sine tied with string, velocity might be uniform velocity. If it is uniform changed though speed is same. velocity, then it must be uniform — speed. Whereas for uniform speed it is not guaranteed that the velocity will be uniform. Figure 2.05 : Incase of rotation of a Question: If the stone is suddenly released, will it move with uniform velocity and with uniform speed? Answer: If the stone is released suddenly, it will move straight with uniform velocity and uniform speed. It will continue to move with uniform velocity and uniform speed if there is no air friction or gravitational force etc. Forma-6, Physics, Class 9-1042 Physics 2.6 Acceleration and Deceleration or Retardation When an object moves with uniform velocity it has no acceleration. If there is a change of velocity, then there is an acceleration. More clearly, we can say the rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration. Since velocity has both magnitude and direction, hence the change of velocity can occur in two ways. In our previous example, when you rode (your bicycle along the curved path, the change of velocity occurs at every turn and you are accelerated. Although you travelled the whole path with uniform speed, acceleration takes place due to change of direction only. If you tied a stone with a string, as in the previous example, and rotated it over your head with uniform speed then the rotating stone will change its direction of motion continuously. That is, change of velocity will occur and acceleration will takes place. If your motion is linear, then there is no scope of changing the direction. Then acceleration may occur only for the change of magnitude of the velocities (speed). When the magnitude of the velocity increases, then we can say acceleration is taking place along the direction of the velocity. If the velocity decreases, then we can say negative acceleration or deceleration is taking place. Now we can determine the acceleration of an object moving along a straight line. © ve Question: In figure 2.06 the change of velocity of an object with time is shown. Identify where there is acceleration and where it is absent. Answer: There is acceleration at A; at B there is no acceleration. At C, there is acceleration; at D there is negative acceleration or deceleration. time Figure 2.06: Change of velocity of an object with time 2018Motion 43 In this chapter we will discuss only the linear motion i.e. if the change in magnitude of the velocity occurs then only acceleration will takes place. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. If the acceleration is uniform i.e. it will not change with time, then we can write; (final velocity-initial velocity) acceleration = time If the initial velocity of an object is u and after time t the velocity becomes v, then the acceleration a will be; The dimension of accelerat Unit of acceleration When the acceleration a is known and if the initial velocity is u then after time ¢ it is very easy to find the final velocity v (Figure 2.07). The final velocity is, + at If the object starts its motion from rest, then velocity v = at In the meantime all the discussions that were done till now are true for uniform. acceleration. If the object does not move with uniform acceleration, then it is not so easy to find the acceleration from the initial and final velocities. time Figure 2.07 : Increasing velocity of an object which is moving with uniform acceleration, started from rest. The examples of motion we see around us, such as the motion of a car, train or a bicycle etc. their accelerations are non-uniform, almost all the time. For exam- ple, if a car starts its motion from rest and increases its velocity gradually, then starting from zero its acceleration reaches a particular value. When the car ~ attains its peak velocity, then its velocity does not increase any further and the 3S acceleration becomes zero again. If the car reduces its velocity and ceases it44 Physics motion, then retardation starts, If the car ceases its motion, then both its velocity and acceleration become zero. You may think that the examples of uniform acceleration are rare. There is an amazing example of uniform acceleration which we see in our surroundings. That is the acceleration due to gravity. Near the earth’s surface, the value of this acceleration is 9.8 ms®. If we release an object from rest above the earth, then its velocity increases according to the equation v= gf. 2.7 Equations of Motion Since we will discuss only linear motion, the quantities we have talked about so far are: u: the initial velocity a: acceleration t: elapsed time v: velocity after elapsed time s: distance covered in elapsed timed The relationship among these quantities, almost all of them are done already, only one is left, that one is the relationship for the distance s. If an object has no acceleration, then there is no change in its velocity. Then the initial velocity and the final velocity will be equal i.e.(u = v). Therefore the distance covered will be, s=vt If there is uniform acceleration, the final velocity is: v=utat This equation shows that the velocity is changing with time. Therefore to calculate the travelled distance, velocity at any instant is to be multiplied by the time of that instant and then the total distance, for the elapsed time, determined. For this type of calculation we have to know a special type of mathematics (called calculus), here we will solve it without this mathematics. This will be possible since we are concerned only with uniform acceleration. If it is not uniform acceleration, it would not be possible. 20182018 Motion 45 Science the velocity is changing every moment hence we cannot write the equation s = vt but if we consider an average velocity V then we can write s=Vt It means that to calculate the distance travelled we have to find only the average velocity. For uniform acceleration it is easy to the find average velocity. If anything increases uniformly then its average value is exactly equal to its mean value. In the other words if anything increases uniformly then the arithmetic mean of its initial and final values represents its average value. i.e. , Vc velocity < ° we t time Figure 2.08: Average velocity is the uty _ut(u+tat) mid time velocity of the initial and v= => final velocity. Veut Fat Therefore the travelled distance is, Inall, the equations of motion we have already deduced the time # is present. We can deduce another equation in which t is absent. Such as: v=utat 1 ? + Quat +a7t? =u? +2a (ut +5a0?)46 Physics Although this equation looks like another general equation but there is some amazing physics hidden in it, which we will show in fourth chapter. Que Question: The velocity of a car is increased by 60 km/hour in 1 minute starting from rest. What is its acceleration? Answer: From now we will use the unit of time in second (s) instead of minute or hour and for distance meter (m) will be used instead of mile or kilometer. The final velocity of the car is km _ 601000 m v= 60FO= 60x60s 7 16:67 m/s So the problem is like this, a car attains a velocity of 16.67 m/s in 60 s starting from rest, what is its acceleration? v =at _v _ 16.67 m/s _ 2 = Eee = 0.278 m/s Question: A car is moving with a velocity of 60 mile/hour, suddenly its engine stops. It takes 5 minutes to come at rest. What is the deceleration of the car? Answer: If there is acceleration velocity increases, where as decrease of velocity means negative acceleration or deceleration. Again we will use s for time and m for distance. 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1600 m Initial velocity of car, miles 60 x 1.6 x 1000 m hour 60 x 60s u=60 = 268 m/s Final velocity of car, v=0 20182018 Motion 47 Acceleration, v-u_0-26.8m/s =—_— = ————= -0: 2 a=— Sos 0.089 m/s Thus the acceleration of the car —0.089 m/s? or deceleration 0.089 m/s? Question: The velocity of a bullet is 1.5 km/s. It has penetrated 10 cm of a wall. What is deceleration of the bullet? Answer: The only way to solve this problem is to use the formula 2 —2as Final velocity, v = 0 10 = 2 — 2q (2° 0 =(5x 1000) 2a (=) 1.5 x 1000. a= ome = 11,250,000 m/s* Deceleration: 11,250,000 m/s? (or acceleration: —11,250,000 m/s?) 2.8 Laws of Falling Bodies We have already mentioned that an amazing example of uniform acceleration is acceleration due to gravity g. Due to its effect; an object falls downward when it is released from above the earth surface. Observing these types of falling bodies Galileo invented three laws. The laws can be used in case of freely falling bodies. The laws are as follows: First law: All bodies falling from rest and from the same height without any resistance traverse equal distance in the same time. Second law: The velocity (v), acquired by a freely falling body from rest in a given (¢) is directly proportional to that time. i.e.v « t Third law: The distance (h) traversed by a freely falling body from rest in a given time (1) is directly proportional to the square of the given time. ic. het?48 Physics ‘We have said earlier that the acceleration due to gravity is an example of uniform acceleration. The equations we have deduced about motion, can be used to deduce the equations of motion of the falling bodies. In case motion s was used to indicate the travelled distance, for a falling body we will use h to indicate height, For acceleration we will use g instead of a, These two will be the only difference! vautgt 1 = ut +5gt? h=ut+5at 2 + 2gh The three laws of falling bodies of Galileo are nothing but these equations of motion of falling bodies. The first law states that all objects dropped from the same height will reach the ground at the same time i.e, it does not depend on the mass of the objects. This does not go with the experience of our daily lives. If a piece of paper and a piece of stone are dropped from the same height, at the same time, then it is seen that the stone reaches the ground first and the paper reaches the ground later. This happens due to the resistance of air. If the experiment is done in a vacuum tube then both the paper and stone will reach the ground at the same time. Galileo’s first law can be understood from the equation of falling bodies. This is because there is no mass of object in the equations of velocity and traversed height. That is the acceleration due to gravity acts equally on both heavy and light objects. So the freely falling body traverses equal distances in the same time. Second law of Galileo is the law of increase of velocity due to g. If the initial velocity u is zero then velocity v is proportional to g. Galileo's third law is nothing except the equation of h. In this formula if we consider u=0 then we see that traversed distance h is proportional to t? Dre Queston: A good pace bowler of cricket can throw a ball with a velocity of 150kmy/hour. If he throws the ball vertically upwards, how high will it go? 2018Motion 49 Answer: 150 x 1000 m 150 km/hour = "=" = 41.67 m/s Acceleration due to gravity will act as retardation when the ball is thrown vertically upwards. The ball eventually comes to a stop. If the height is expressed by h then, v? =u? —2gh v=0, w= 4167m/s, g = 98m/s? _w_ (41.679 “2g 2x98 [The ball will approximately reach the roof of a 30 storied building] Therefore, m = 88.59 m Question: When a space ship revolves around the earth then its speed is very high and is nearly 10 km/s. If a cannon ball is fired at this velocity straight up, how high will it go? Answer: Let us try like with the cricket ball, only the initial velocity will be 10,000 m/s instead of 41.67 m/s. 2 Therefore, p= 10000) = 5,102,000 m = 5,102 km 2x98 Though it is felt that there is no mistake anywhere but actually the answer is not correct. This is because we have considered the value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s’, this is true for the distances near the surface of earth. But if we go far from the earth the value of g will decrease. When we deduced the equation v? =u? 2gh then we considered that the value of g is not changing. It is not true for this problem. So what we have learned till now, that knowledge cannot be used to solve this problem. If we cannot solve it, there will be no loss; because if anything is thrown upwards with this high velocity it will be bumt due to air friction! Forma-7, Physics, Class 9-1050 Physics ®) Do yourself Determination of velocity and acceleration at any time from a time- distance graph. (Motion and Graph) ‘We have deduced equations of motion in the previous sections. We have analyzed the relations between distance travelled, velocity and acceleration. In this section we will analyze the same quantities but only by graph. We can have a kind of real feelings about different quantities of motion, if we analyze them graphically. Table 2:01 Distance (m) Time (8) 0 10 ‘We need to mention something here. Whenever we have discussed distanc- es travelled, velocity or acceleration always we considered a standard situation. We considered that when an object moves there is no friction and the object does not lose its energy by any other means. That does not happen in real life. That is why it is not so easy to collect real data for distances travelled, velocity or acceleration. For performing a real experiment an air track is used in the laboratory, where an object is kept floating in an air layer so that no friction is present. To measure the change of position of an object with respect to time, electric sparks or electronic signals are used. We will not get such type of data in our daily lives easily. For now we will consider that we have collected some data in this standard situation, to use in our graph. Two sets of data have been shown in the table 20182018 2.01 which represent the change of position of an object with respect to time. We will solve the set for you and you will solve the second one by yourself. oy eI x BY ay velocity ( Lf nm 4 _—n H ‘abgeleratior Ht ct Figure 2.09: Finding velocity - time from distance - time and acceleration - time from velocity-time graphs are drawn. The distance — time graph of the first data set of the table is shown in figure 2.09. We have taken data in integer form. From the graph we will be able to52 Physics find the distance of any time from 0 to 5s. For example the distance of the object in 2.5 second is approximately 6.25m. If we have a velocity versus time graph, from there we can find the velocity easily. Velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position. So we can see from the graph the object has travelled a distance of 0 m to 1 min 0 to 1 second. Therefore the average velocity at this time, _@=-0)m "Ts ‘We can use this average velocity for the mid-time value of 0 to 1s. Similarly the average velocity within | to 2s is, =1m/s (4-1)m = Gaps 73m We can use this velocity as data for the time 1.5 s within 1 to 2s, Similarly we see the average velocity between 2 s and 3 s is 5 m/s, between 3 and 4s is 7 m/s and between 4 s and 5 s is 9 m/s, We see these data points are on a straight line on a graph paper and we can connect the points by drawing a straight line. Although we have put the data for time 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5 s, but we can find the velocity at any time after drawing a straight line through these points. For example at time 3 s the velocity is 6 m/s. We will be able to find the acceleration in the same way after drawing the velocity -time graph of figure 2.09. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Since the velocity- time graph is a straight line, so in this case we will get the same value of the acceleration at any point on the graph. For example the rate of change of velocity in between the time 2 s to 3 s is, _ 6-4) m/s ="G=2)s = 2m/s* For any other time if we calculate the acceleration, the same value will be found, It is shown in the acceleration- time graph in figure 2.09. 20182018 Motion 53, Therefore, you have seen that we have found velocity or acceleration at any time starting from the distance- time graph. As correctly as possible, we can draw this graph. Investigation 2.01 Determination of the average speed of an object rolling over a slanting plank. Objective: To determine the speed for the same distance travelled on different slopes and then to find relation with slope with the help of graph. Apparatus: 1. Aplane plank or bench or table. 2. Aruler or meter scale. 3. A marble or a cylindrical pen or a pencil which can roll. Figure 2.10: A marble is allowed to roll on an inclined plane.54 Physics Working Procedure: 1. Taking a plank or a bench or a table, measure its length (L) by a ruler or meter scale, This distance will be the distance travelled by the object. 2. By placing a book under one end of the plane plank or bench or table let us make it inclined, Measure the height (h) of the book. Dividing height by length, find the slope (sind = b/L). 3. Put a marble or a pencil or a pen on the inclined plane and make sure that it can roll. 4. You have to measure the time taken by the marble to travel the length of the inclined plane. A stop watch is needed to measure the time accurately. But it is unlikely to have a stop watch available, (Now a days stop watch option is available in many mobile phones. You use the method given below). If you have a normal watch instead of a stop watch, you will be at a disadvantage. Because normal watch cannot measure less than a second. We need to measure more accurately. If we have no stop watch we can try to measure the time by other means, How many numbers (one, two, three,.....) can you count in fifteen seconds at normal speed. Let us consider if you count up to forty five in fifteen seconds, then we can assume to utter every number in approximately 15/45 = 1/3 second. Let the marble or pencil or pen move on the inclined plane and start counting one, two, three and so on, Up to which number could you count for the the marble, pencil or pen to reach the lower end of the inclined plane. Calculate the actual time by multiplying with the approximate multiple. 5, Repeat the experiment several times and calculate the average time. 6. Calculate the speed, dividing the length of inclined plane by the average time. This is average speed. 7. Increase the slope of the inclined plane by placing another book. Measure the new height after placing the second book. Calculate the slope for this height. 20182018 Motion 55 8. Let the marble, pencil or pen roll on the inclined plane again. Measure the time by counting the numbers and calculate the speed again. Increase the slope gradually and calculate the average speed every time. 9. Draw a graph by plotting sin® along the X-axis and average speed along Y-axis. From the graph calculate the speed for any slope. Distance Distance L| Height h|sin® = Time t |Speed = cm cm_| h/t s m/s Discussion: Describe the relation between slope and speed? Discuss what necessary measures should be taken to perform the experiment with more accuracy? Playing with different kinds of motion. Objective: To find the differences among different kinds of motion through playing. Apparatus: Small open space. Working Procedure: 1. You have to select definite activities to explain different kinds of motion. Linear motion: You have to run straight, if you face any obstructions you have to turn back and go straight again. Rotational motion: Spreading your hands on two sides starts rotating.56 Physics ‘Translatory motion: Looking in a particular direction move back and forth and left and right. Periodic motion: You have to run along a circular path. Oscillatory motion: Raise your hands and oscillate them left and right, . Those who are interested in playing this game will stand scattered around the room. . An instructor of the game will loudly say the words linear, rotational, translatory, periodic or oscillatory motion. . Everyone has to perform the activities of the game as instructed by the instructor. Those who will fail to follow the instructions will be knocked out from the game. . The instructor of the game will utter different motions at different times and the boys and girls have to perform the game. The person who will be able to demonstrate all kinds of motion perfectly, he or she will be declared the winner. Keeping the fundamental characteristics of the motions unchanged, the activities of different motions can be changed as necessary. For example, the instructions may be given to demonstrate two different motions at the same time. In case of linear and oscillatory motion the participant have to Tun straight by oscillating his or her hands left and right. Discussion: Write down some addtional names of different motions which can be demonstrated. Q Investigation 2.03 To determine the speed of moving vehicles. Objective: Determination of speed of different kinds of vehicles by measuring the distances travelled at different times. Apparatus: Ruler. Working Procedure: 1. To determine the speed of a vehicle, at first you have to measure the distance between two stationary objects beside a road (c.g. light post, Tree, shop etc). Measurement of distance very accurately may be complex that’s why we will use a simple way to do it, At first you have to measure the distance of your step by a ruler. (Measure the distance of ten steps and divide it by ten to make it accurate). 2018Motion 57 2, Now go on foot from one stationary object to another object beside the road. Count the number of steps you need to travel the distance and multiply it by the distance of your single step to calculate the distance. It will be better if the distance is approximately hundred meters. 3. Now try to measure the speed of a bicycle, rickshaw, tempo or a pedestrian staying at a safe distance beside the road. Since the distance is known, you can measure the required time, then speed can be calculated. 4, To measure the time accurately a stop watch is required, an ordinary watch will meet up the purpose instead of a stop watch. If you have none, you can use an easy method to measure the time. It takes almost one second to utter the words “one thousand one”, “one thousand two”, “one thousand three” etc. Counting like this we can measure it. 5. When you will see a cycle, rickshaw, tempo or a pedestrian just passing the first stationary object, you start to count time with a watch, or start to counting “one thousand one”, “one thousand two” and so on. Again when you will see this vehicle is just passing the second stationary object, you see the time on the watch or stop counting the numbers. Find the required time from the watch or up to which number of words you have counted, that number of seconds will be the time. This is the time to travel the distance. Calculate the speed dividing the distance by the time. Discussion: Compose your procedure of measuring time with the time of a watch and see how accurate is it. Guess the percentage of error of your calculated speed considering the degree of accuracy of your step measuring procedure. Distanced : 7 Vehicles | No. of steps travelled iaie Avene Riot L(m) t (9) L/t (m/s) Forma-8, Physics, Class 9-1058 Physics ?) Exercise 03 1. Velocity is zero but acceleration is not zero — is it possible? If possible, explain. 2. Velocity is changing but speed is not changing. Is it possible? If possible show it, 3. The acceleration due to gravity of the moon is 6 times less than that of earth. Ifa stone is released from a definite height towards earth at which velocity it will hit the ground, if the same stone is released from the same height. 4. Is there any place from where you go1 km south and then 1 km east, continuing 1 km north will you reach the same place? 5.Do we travel double the distance at double the time in case of uniform acceleration? @ Mathematical question 1. From your school a car has gone 40 km east, then 40 km north, then 30 km west, then 30 km south, then 20 km east, then 20 km north, then 10 km west, then 10 km south. In which direction and how far is the car from your school? Show when velocity and acceleration become positive, negative or zero on the portions OA, AB, BC and CD in figure 2.11. If position is plotted along the Y- axis instead of velocity then what would be the value of velocity and acceleration on the portions OA, AB, BC and CD in the figure 2.11. 4, The velocity of a car is 30 km/hour, after 1 minute the velocity of the car becomes 50 km/hour with uniform acceleration. What is the distance travelled by the car in this time? 5. You have thrown a ball vertically upwards at 10 m/s. How much height will it attain in how much time? nN » 2018