Protection And Coordination

Study
Introduction to Basic
Overcurrent Protection and
Coordination Study

Overcurrent protection is the most basic protection against excessive

currents resulting from system faults. In general, power system faults are
indicated by a sudden and significant increase in current, thus the
prevalence of this type of protection. Overcurrent protection is often the
simplest and cheapest to employ but in most cases, its application tends
to be difficult.

Overcurrent protection is mainly used in electric power distribution and

industrial systems for the following reasons:

 Simple and inexpensive

 Often uses only CTs since directional overcurrent protection is
not usually required
 Fault magnitude is not significantly affected by changes in the
high-voltage transmission system and is dependent mostly on
fault location

Overcurrent protection is also widely used as back-up protection

especially for transmission lines and power transformers. Though, care
should be taken considering its tendency to either overreach or
underreach a protection zone.
Overcurrent Protection and
Coordination
Consider for example the single line diagram below.

Figure 1. Fault Levels

From the perspective of selectivity, in order to ensure a very high level of

continuity of service, protective devices at each bus (A, B, C) should
operate only on faults at their zone of protection. That is, for relay A at
Bus A, the line AB, relay B at Bus B, the line BC, and relay C at Bus C, line
C.
Short-circuit currents generally are higher in magnitude the closer they
are to the source. In figure 1, the fault F 1 is higher in magnitude than the
faults F2 and F3. However, distinguishing between faults F2 and F3 can be
really tricky since these faults are very close to each other resulting in
current magnitudes that are approximately equal.

The basic approach to this problem is to conduct a protection coordination

study using time-current grading.

Zones of Protection
Protective devices are selected and assigned to protect a specific part of
the power system. These part, known as the primary zone of protection, is
the responsibility of the protective device.

While each zone is bounded by the location of the circuit breakers, the
fault detection is dependent on the location of the current transformers
(CTs). The location of the CTs is purposely identified in order to have
overlapping zones. This is shown in the following figures.
Primary and Backup Protection
The overlapping of zones allows a protective device to provide backup
protection to the adjacent zone, also referred to as the backup or
overreached zone. Protective devices operate as fast as possible within
their primary zone of protection while a delayed operation is expected in
the backup zone. This is intentional in order to allow the protective
devices to operate first in their primary zone of protection. Backup
protection is intended to operate only when the primary protection fails to
clear the fault.

In figure 1, the relay A at Bus A primary zone of protection is the line AB,
while its backup zone is the line BC.

Backup is defined by IEEE as,

“protection that operates independently of specified

components in the primary protective system”
IEEE 100
The selection of protective device primary and backup zones of protection
is achieved through a protective device coordination analysis, also
referred to as protection coordination study. This study is very important
in order to ensure the least service interruption arising from a fault or
short-circuit.

Local VS Remote Backup

Backup protection is designed to operate when the primary protection
fails to clear the fault. Backup protection can either be local or remote.

Local Backup
A protective device at the same location as the primary protection device
is referred to as local backup. The local backup protection is commonly
fed from a different CT core but operates the same circuit breaker. It
provides a degree of backup against failure DC supply and tripping circuit
failure. However, local backups DO NOT PROVIDE backup against circuit
breaker failure.

Figure 4. Local Backup

Remote Backup
A remote backup protection is located at the adjacent upstream zone of
protection. This backup protection effectively protect against circuit
breaker failure but results otherwise to a wider area of service
interruption.
Figure 5. Remote Backup

Objective of Overcurrent
Coordination
The objective of every protection coordination study is to determine the
characteristics, ratings and settings of OC relays in the system under
study such that after a fault or overload

 only a minimum amount of equipment is removed from service

 provide satisfactory protection and interrupt short circuits as rapidly

as possible
 provide backup for the downstream relay

A coordination study also provides data useful for the selection of

 Instrument transformer ratios

 Protective relay characteristics and settings

 Fuse characteristics and ratings

 Low-voltage circuit breaker ratings, characteristics, and settings

 Basic Considerations
The following considerations are integral in carrying-out a protection
coordination study.

Short-circuit Currents
½ Cycle 1.5 to 4 Cycles > 30 Cycles

HV Circuit Breaker Close and Latch Capability Interrupting Capability N/A

LV Circuit Breaker Interrupting Capability N/A N/A

Fuse Interrupting Capability N/A N/A

Switchgear Bus Bracing N/A N/A

Relay Instantaneous Settings N/A Time-delayed Settings

Overcurrent protection is designed to protect the system from the

intolerable conditions associated with short-circuits. Information on the
available fault duties is important when performing a protection
coordination study. The following table shows a summary of fault duties
and how they are used.

You may want to check out these topics on short-circuit study and circuit
breaker sizing.

 Short Circuit Study: An Introduction to Circuit Breaker Sizing

 Circuit Breaker Interrupting Rating Calculations
 kAIC Rating of Circuit Breakers: Calculation in Low Voltage System
 Circuit Breaker Sizing Calculation: A Step-by-Step Guide
 Short Circuit Calculation Using ETAP
 IEC 60909 vs ANSI/IEEE C37 Series
 IEC 60909 Short-circuit: Meshed vs Non-meshed
 IEC 60909: ‘Far from’ Generator Short-Circuit
 IEC 60909: ‘Near’ Generator Short Circuit Calculation
 Short Circuit Impedance Calculation | IEC60909
 Circuit Breaker Short-Circuit Duty Calculation | IEC60909
 Short Circuit Analysis Using ETAP | IEC 60909
Load Flow Currents
Equipment selection and specification is a basic requirement in the design
of any electric power system. Typically, this starts with the determination
of the system steady-state operating conditions through a load flow study.
The determination of normal and emergency load flow currents is very
important in the configuration of protective relay settings.

Minimum Operating Criteria

Based on the available information on short-circuit and load flow currents.
A minimum operating criteria for overcurrent protection can be
established. The following figure shows the criteria for selecting
overcurrent relay taps.

Figure 6. Criteria for Selecting Overcurrent Relay Taps

The minimum operating quantity is commonly referred to as the ‘pickup’
value and is defined as the minimum value of current that starts an
action. For an overcurrent protective relay, the ‘pickup’ value is the
minimum value of current that causes the relay to start timing and
ultimately close its contacts.

Delta-Wye Transformers
Delta-Wye transformers are of great interest when doing a protection
coordination study. Consider for example the figure below. For simplicity,
let us consider a 1:1 transformer. Take note that by setting a 1:1 ratio, the
winding ratio of a delta-wye transformer will be √3:1.

Figure 7. Currents
in a Phase-to-Phase Fault

Fig
ure 8. Phase-to-Phase Fault in terms of the 3-Phase Fault

For a phase-to-phase fault on the wye side of the transformer, the per-unit
secondary line current is approximately equal to 86.6% of the current
magnitude resulting from a three-phase fault. However, on the delta side
of the transformer, the per-unit primary line current magnitude in one
phase reaches a value approximately equal to the three-phase fault
current.

Relay Coordination Basics |

Principles and Objectives

Relay Coordination Basics. Knowing the principles are very important in

power system protection and coordination. First things first, one must
understand these principles by heart.

Prevent human injury arising from short circuits or equipment

failure

The most important objective of power system protection is preventing

human injury. Therefore, it is important that short circuit protection
devices such as protection relays are properly configured. Likewise, all
circuit breakers, fuses, and other fault interrupting devices should be
selected and sized correctly.

Limit the damage to equipment as a result of short circuits in the

power system or failure of adjacent equipment

The protection system should be designed to limit the damage to

equipment. This is in order to minimize the cost of repair or replacement
including equipment downtime.

Limit the extent of service interruption to ensure a very high level

of continuity of service.

While limiting the damage to equipment is very important, ensuring that

service interruption is kept at a minimum is equally important. In most
cases, the design of the protection system should be the best compromise
between these two.

The principles of relay coordination can be translated into the following

objectives.

Reliability

IEEE specifically defined reliability as

“the degree of certainty that a relay or relay system will

operate correctly” – dependability
IEEE C37.2, 2008

and

“the degree of certainty that a relay or relay system will

not operate incorrectly” – security
IEEE C37.2, 2008

In other words, we can define reliability as the measure of the soundness

of the protection system.

Selectivity

This the measure of how well the protection system limits service
interruptions by isolating the smallest portion of the affected area. This is
to ensure a very high level of continuity of service.

Speed of Operation
In order to preserve system stability and limit the damage caused by
short circuits, the protection system should isolate the faulted areas as
fast a possible.

Simplicity

A good practice in any protection system is to keep things simple. This

way, troubleshooting issues can be done quickly.

Sensitivity

A good measure of a well-designed protection system is how well this

detects a fault. This is especially important in the case of high-impedance
faults and dispersed generation.

Economics

Ensuring a well-protected power system involves cost and there is no

better way than achieving maximum protection at a minimal cost.

States of a Power System

From one of our previous discussions, we presented the following power
system states: normal, abnormal, and faulted state.

Normal State
In a normal state, the system is operating within the designed limits and
maximum equipment life expectancy is anticipated.

Abnormal State
An abnormal state is when the system operates outside the designed
limits for short periods that may accelerate equipment aging.

Faulted State
A faulted state is when the system is subjected to severe stress and
where equipment failure is very likely. It may be caused by natural
events, accidents, deterioration of insulation, and other causes that are
impossible or impractical to avoid. Moreover, it can be distinguished
generally by a sudden and significant increase in current. It is because of
this high current that the system is subjected to high levels of stress given
that mechanical and thermal stress are functions of the square of the
current.

Power System Faults

Most faults in the power system, typically on overhead lines, is caused by
lightning-induced transients, and vegetation. Based on statistical data,
single line-to-ground occurs more frequently than other types of faults.
This accounts for 70% to 80% of all fault occurrences.

Circuit Breaker Flash-over

So how are power system faults detected?

The detection of faults in the power system is basically done by

monitoring changes in the system operating quantities such as:

 Current
 Voltage
 Power Factor
  Power Flow
 Impedance
 Frequency
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Mechanical movements

Of these operating quantities, changes in current are the easiest to detect

and is the most common fault indicator. That is why overcurrent
protection is widely used.

Protective Relaying
The IEEE defines a protective relay as

“a relay whose function is to detect defective lines or

apparatus or other power system conditions of an
abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate appropriate
control circuit action”
IEEE 100, 2000

Protective relaying is, therefore, the craft of configuring protection relays

to identify an intolerable system condition, initiate an alarm, and/or circuit
isolation at the right instant. This is relay coordination basics!

From the book, Protective Relaying by J. Blackburn and T. Domin,

protective relaying is defined as

“A nonprofit, nonrevenue-producing item that is not

necessary in the normal operation of an electric power
system until a fault, an abnormal, intolerable situation,
occurs.”
J. Blackburn and T. Domin

Sounds about right, right?

Protective Devices
The following are the most common protective devices on many power
systems around the world.
  Fuses
 Automatic reclosers
 Sectionalizers
 Circuit breakers
 Protective relays

Other Relay Classifications

Aside from protective relays, relays can be classified according to their
function. The following are the most common relay classifications which
are present many power systems.

 Protective
 Regulating
 Reclosing and synchronism check
 Monitoring
 Auxiliary

ANSI Device Numbers

ANSI /IEEE Standard C37.2 Standard for Electrical Power System Device
Function Numbers, Acronyms, and Contact Designations ) lists Device
numbers which used to identify the functions of devices shown on a
protection schematic diagram.

List of device numbers and acronyms

1 - Master Element
2 - Time-delay Starting or Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay, complete Sequence
4 - Master Protective
5 - Stopping Device, Emergency Stop Switch
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 - Rate of Change Relay
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 - Multifunction Device
12 - Overspeed Device
13 - Synchronous-Speed Device
14 - Underspeed Device
15 - Speed or Frequency Matching Device
16 - Data Communications Device
17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch
18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19 - Starting-to-Running Transition Contactor
20 - Electrically-Operated Valve ( Solenoid Valve )
21 - Distance Relay
21G - Ground Distance
21P - Phase Distance
22 – Equalizer circuit breaker
23 – Temperature control device, Heater
24 – Volts per hertz relay
25 – Synchronizing or synchronism-check device
26 – Apparatus thermal device, Temperature Switch
27 – Undervoltage relay
27P - Phase Undervoltage
27S - DC undervoltage relay
27TN - Third Harmonic Neutral Undervoltage
27TN/59N - 100% Stator Earth Fault
27X - Auxiliary Undervoltage
27 AUX - Undervoltage Auxiliary Input
27/27X - Bus/Line Undervoltage
27/50 - Accidental Generator Energization
28 - Flame Detector
29 - Isolating Contactor
30 - Annunciator Relay
31 - Separate Excitation Device
32 - Directional Power Relay
32L - Low Forward Power
32H - High Directional Power
32N - Wattmetric Zero-Sequence Directional
32P - Directional Power
32R - Reverse Power
33 - Position Switch
34 - Master Sequence Device
35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-ring Short Circuiting Device
36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device
37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
37P - Underpower
38 - Bearing Protective Device / Bearing Rtd
39 - Mechanical Condition Monitor ( Vibration )
40 - Field Relay / Loss of Excitation
41 - Field Circuit Breaker
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44 - Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45 - Fire Detector
46 - Reverse-Phase or Phase Balance Current Relay or Stator
Current Unbalance
47 - Phase-Sequence or Phase Balance Voltage Relay
48 - Incomplete Sequence Relay / Blocked Rotor
49 - Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay / Thermal Overload
49RTD - RTD Biased Thermal Overload
50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
50BF - Breaker Failure
50DD - Current Disturbance Detector
50EF - End Fault Protection
50G - Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50IG - Isolated Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50LR - Acceleration Time
50N - Neutral Instantaneous Overcurrent
50NBF - Neutral Instantaneous Breaker Failure
50P - Phase Instantaneous Overcurrent
50SG - Sensitive Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50SP - Split Phase Instantaneous Current
50Q - Negative Sequence Instantaneous Overcurrent
50/27 - Accidental Energization
50/51 - Instantaneous / Time-delay Overcurrent relay
50Ns/51Ns - Sensitive earth-fault protection
50/74 - Ct Trouble
50/87 - Instantaneous Differential
51 - AC Time Overcurrent Relay
51G - Ground Time Overcurrent
51LR - AC inverse time overcurrent (locked rotor) protection
relay
51N - Neutral Time Overcurrent
51P - Phase Time Overcurrent
51R - Locked / Stalled Rotor
51V - Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent
51Q - Negative Sequence Time Overcurrent
52 – AC circuit breaker
52a - AC circuit breaker position (contact open when circuit
breaker open)
52b - AC circuit breaker position (contact closed when circuit
breaker open)
53 - Exciter or Dc Generator Relay
54 - Turning Gear Engaging Device
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device
58 - Rectification Failure Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay
59B - Bank Phase Overvoltage
59P - Phase Overvoltage
59N - Neutral Overvoltage
59NU - Neutral Voltage Unbalance
59P - Phase Overvoltage
59X - Auxiliary Overvoltage
59Q - Negative Sequence Overvoltage
60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay
60N - Neutral Current Unbalance
60P - Phase Current Unbalance
61 - Density Switch or Sensor
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63 - Pressure Switch Detector
64 - Ground Protective Relay
64F - Field Ground Protection
64R – Rotor earth fault
64REF – Restricted earth fault differential
64S – Stator earth fault
64S - Sub-harmonic Stator Ground Protection
64TN - 100% Stator Ground
65 - Governor
66 - Notching or Jogging Device/Maximum Starting Rate/Starts Per
Hour/Time Between Starts
67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
67G - Ground Directional Overcurrent
67N - Neutral Directional Overcurrent
67Ns – Earth fault directional
67P - Phase Directional Overcurrent
67SG - Sensitive Ground Directional Overcurrent
67Q - Negative Sequence Directional Overcurrent
68 - Blocking Relay / Power Swing Blocking
69 - Permissive Control Device
70 - Rheostat
71 - Liquid Switch, Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism
76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
77 - Telemetering Device, Speed Sensor
78 - Phase Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step Protective Relay
78V - Loss of Mains
79 - AC Reclosing Relay / Auto Reclose
80 - Liquid or Gas Flow Relay
81 - Frequency Relay
81O - Over Frequency
81R - Rate-of-Change Frequency
81U - Under Frequency
82 - DC Reclosing Relay
83 - Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay
84 - Operating Mechanism
85 - Pilot Communications, Carrier or Pilot-Wire Relay
86 - Lock-Out Relay, Master Trip Relay
87 - Differential Protective Relay
87B - Bus Differential
87G - Generator Differential
87GT - Generator/Transformer Differential
87L - Segregated Line Current Differential
87LG - Ground Line Current Differential
87M - Motor Differential
87O - Overall Differential
87PC - Phase Comparison
87RGF - Restricted Ground Fault
87S - Stator Differential
87S - Percent Differential
87T - Transformer Differential
87V - Voltage Differential
88 - Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
89 - Line Switch
90 - Regulating Device
91 - Voltage Directional Relay
92 - Voltage And Power Directional Relay
93 - Field-Changing Contactor
94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
95 – For specific applications where other numbers are not
suitable
96 – Transmitter
97 – For specific applications where other numbers are not
suitable
98 – For specific applications where other numbers are not
suitable
99 – For specific applications where other numbers are not
suitable

Acronyms Description

AFD - Arc Flash Detector

CLK - Clock or Timing Source
CLP - Cold Load Pickup
DDR – Dynamic Disturbance Recorder
DFR – Digital Fault Recorder
DME – Disturbance Monitor Equipment
ENV – Environmental data
HIZ – High Impedance Fault Detector
HMI – Human Machine Interface
HST – Historian
LGC – Scheme Logic
MET – Substation Metering
PDC – Phasor Data Concentrator
PMU – Phasor Measurement Unit
PQM – Power Quality Monitor
RIO – Remote Input/Output Device
RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector
RTU – Remote Terminal Unit/Data Concentrator
SER – Sequence of Events Recorder
TCM – Trip Circuit Monitor
LRSS – Local/Remote selector switch
VTFF - Vt Fuse Fail

Suffixes Description

_1 - Positive-Sequence
_2 - Negative-Sequence
A - Alarm, Auxiliary Power
AC - Alternating Current
AN - Anode
B - Bus, Battery, or Blower
BF - Breaker Failure
BK - Brake
BL - Block (Valve)
BP - Bypass
BT - Bus Tie
BU - Backup
C - Capacitor, Condenser, Compensator, Carrier Current, Case or
Compressor
CA - Cathode
CH - Check (Valve)
D - Discharge (Valve)
DC - Direct Current
DCB - Directional Comparison Blocking
DCUB - Directional Comparison Unblocking
DD - Disturbance Detector
DUTT - Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip
E - Exciter
F - Feeder, Field, Filament, Filter, or Fan
G - Ground or Generator
GC - Ground Check
H - Heater or Housing
L - Line or Logic
M - Motor or Metering
MOC - Mechanism Operated Contact
N - Neutral or Network
O - Over
P - Phase or Pump
PC - Phase Comparison
POTT - Pott: Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip
PUTT - Putt: Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip
R - Reactor, Rectifier, or Room
S - Synchronizing, Secondary, Strainer, Sump, or Suction (Valve)
SOTF - Switch On To Fault
T - Transformer or Thyratron
TD - Time Delay
TDC - Time-Delay Closing Contact
TDDO - Time Delayed Relay Coil Drop-Out
TDO - Time-Delay Opening Contact
TDPU - Time Delayed Relay Coil Pickup
THD - Total Harmonic Distortion
TH - Transformer (High-Voltage Side)
TL - Transformer (Low-Voltage Side)
TM - Telemeter
TT - Transformer (Tertiary-Voltage Side)
Q - Lube Oil
W - Water
F - Fuel
G - Gas
U - Under or Unit
X - Auxiliary
Z - Impedance
Overcurrent Protection Devices
and their Time Current Curves

Understanding overcurrent protection device characteristics is very

important in a protection coordination study. To start our discussion on
common overcurrent protection devices, let us review the basic
considerations of a coordination study. In our previous discussion
on overcurrent protection and coordination study, the following
considerations were presented:
  Short Circuit Currents

 Load Flow Currents

 Minimum Operating Criteria

 Delta-Wye Transformers

Overcurrent protection devices can be categorized into three main types:

 Fuses

 Switching Devices

 Relays

Fuses
Fuses are essentially made up of a metal wire or strip that melts when
excessive currents flow through. Being such, fuses operate on a
continuous-ampere rating. Low-voltage power fuses can withstand 110%
of their rating under controlled conditions. while medium- and high-
voltage power fuses can withstand currents below 200% of their nominal
rating. Low-level overcurrent takes a long time interval to melt the fuse
while large overcurrent levels tend to melt fuses very quickly. A typical
fuse time-current curve is shown below.
 Figure 3.
Fuse Time Current Curve

Fuses operate in a time-current band, between

 minimum melting time – the time when the metal strip starts to melt,
and
 maximum clearing time – when the strip completely breaks and the
arc fully extinguished.
 The difference between these is referred to as the arcing time.
Overcurrent coordination with fuses is a little tricky, especially for a
remote backup fuse. The primary device which can be another fuse should
clear the fault before the minimum melting time of the remote backup
fuse. In other words, for fuse-to-fuse coordination, the maximum clearing
time of the primary fuse (also referred to as the downstream fuse or
the protecting fuse) should be lesser than the minimum melting time of
the remote backup fuse (also referred to as the upstream fuse or
the protected fuse). In most applications, the rating of the upstream
fuse is approximately twice that of the downstream fuse.
Figure 4. Primary and Backup Fuse

The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of fuses:

Advantages
 Simple

 Very fast

 Limits fault energy

 Little or no maintenance

Disadvantages
 Difficult coordination

 Limited sensitivity to earth faults

 Single phasing

 Fixed characteristic

 Need replacing following fault clearance

Switching Devices
Switching devices are another basic category for overcurrent protection
devices. Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs), Molded Case Circuit Breakers
(MCCB), Air Circuit Breakers (ACB) fall into this category and are usually
used in low voltage applications.



 
MCCB

Like fuses, switching devices detects and clears fault but do not need
replacement after every fault clearance. The fault interruption is done
using an integrated trip device. The trip action may be done mechanically
using spring charge or compressed air to separate the contacts, or using
the energy of the fault current to separate the contacts through thermal
expansion or magnetic field.

Trip Device
The trip devices for low voltage circuit breakers are the following:

 Thermal Magnetic

 Electro-mechanical or Solid-State

Thermal-Magnetic Trip Device

Low voltage circuit breakers with a thermal-magnetic trip device allow for
the discrimination between an overload from a fault. The thermal element
acts as protection from overloading while the magnetic element is for
protection from faults. This allows slow operation on overload and fast on
fault. A typical time-current curve is shown in figure 6. Thermal Magnetic
trip devices may be fixed or adjustable based on the ampere rating.
 Figur
e 6. Thermal Magnetic Trip Device Time Current Curve

Electro-mechanical or Solid-State Trip Device

Electro-mechanical or Solid-State trip devices are more complex than
Thermal Magnetic trip devices in that their trip characteristics can be
divided into three sections. These are

 Long-Time Element – allows for protection on overloads.

 Short-Time Element – the intermediate protection between

overloading and faults
 Instantaneous Element – allows for protection for faults.
 Figur
e 7. Electro-mechanical or Solid-State Trip Device Time Current Curve

Relays
Relays detect and isolate faults indirectly. Unlike fuses and switching
devices, relays require CT and PT input to detect the fault, and a circuit
breaker in order to isolate it. Relays have different functions and use
currents, voltages, or their combination (impedance) to identify a fault.
Basic overcurrent functions such an instantaneous overcurrent (50) and
time-overcurrent (51) are usually common.
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays (50)
These relays operate instantaneously when the current exceeds the pick-
up value and reset with no intentional time delay. Most instantaneous
overcurrent relays operate on minimum operating time.

Figure 8. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay Time Current Curve

Definite Time-Overcurrent Relay

These relays operate when the current exceeds the pick-up value after a
set time delay. The time delay settings are adjustable and set following an
overcurrent coordination study.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
Overcurrent Relay
These relays operate when the current exceeds the pick-up value and with
an operating time that varies inversely the magnitude of the current.
This means that the operating time decreases with increasing current
magnitude. However, like instantaneous overcurrent relays, IDMT
overcurrent relays have a definite minimum operating time. Hence
the name Inverse Definite Minimum Time.

Figur
e 9. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Current Curve
 ANSI and IEC Standard Curves
There are different characteristic curves available for Inverse Definite
Minimum Time (IDMT) overcurrent relays.

ANSI Standard Curves

ANSI standard curves are described by the following general equation

where

Tt is the tripping time

TM is the time multiplier
I is the fault current
Ip is the pick-up current
A, B, p are constants

ANSI standard curves are provided with a disk emulating reset timer
described by the following general equation

where

Rt is the reset time

D is a constant
Imin is the minimum operating current

The ANSI standard curve constants are defined in the table below.

TCC Type A B D p

Extremely Inverse (EI) 6.407 0.025 3.0 2.0

Very Inverse (VI) 2.855 0.0712 1.346 2.0
Inverse (I) 0.0086 0.0185 0.46 0.02
Short Time Inverse (STI) 0.00172 0.0037 0.092 0.02
Short Time Extremely Inverse (STEI) 1.281 0.005 0.6 2.0
Long Time Extremely Inverse (LTEI) 64.07 0.250 30.0 2.0
Long Time Very Inverse (LTVI) 28.55 0.712 13.46 2.0
Long Time Inverse (LTI) 0.086 0.185 4.6 0.02

IEC Standard Curves

IEC standard curves are described by the following general equation

where

Tt is the tripping time

TM is the time multiplier
I is the fault current
Ip is the pick-up current
A, p are constants defined in the table below
TCC Type A p

Extremely Inverse (EI) 80 2.0

Very Inverse (VI) 13.5 1.0
Inverse (I) 0.14 0.02
Long Time Inverse (LTI) 120 1.0
 Figure
10. IEC Standard Time Current Curves
Understanding Time Current
Curves

Overcurrent protection is often the simplest and cheapest to employ but in most
cases, its application tends to be difficult. While the primary objective of power
system protection is to isolate faults as quickly possible, limiting service
interruptions to a minimum cannot be discounted. Effective overcurrent
protection is carried out through an overcurrent coordination study, and with
coordination comes the concept of time-current curves.
Time Current Curves
A Time Current Curve (TCC) is a graphical representation of the operating
characteristics of overcurrent protection devices at different magnitudes
of fault currents. A TCC is a two-dimension plot with the current at the x-
axis and the time at the y-axis with both axes are in logarithmic scale. The
current axis may be expressed in amperes and can be scaled in multiples
of 10 while the time axis is usually in the range of 0.01s to 1000s.

Figure 1 shows a TCC plot of a fuse and an overcurrent relay. Take note of
the current axis. In this plot, the current axis is expressed in amperes with
a current multiplier of 10 and with a reference voltage of 13.8kV.

A caveat.
It is important that the current multiplier and reference voltage be
indicated on the TCC plot to avoid misinterpretation.

Figure 1. TCC
Plot of a Fuse and Overcurrent Relay
Like other protection devices (see biased differential protection), the TCC
plot has ‘operate’ and ‘no operate’ regions. The area to the right and
above the device time-current curve is the ‘operate’ region while the area
to the left and below the device time-current curve is the ‘no operate’
region. In figure 1, the area to the left and below the fuse time-current
curve is its ‘no operate’ region. The area to the right and above the fuse
time-current curve is its ‘operate’ region and at the same time, the ‘no
operate’ region of the overcurrent relay.

For a specific value of fault current, the operating time of the overcurrent
device can be determined from its time-current curve. This is the point on
the y-axis in which the fault current intersects the device time-current
curve.

Figure
2. Fault Current of 2000A
In figure 2, a fault of 2000A is shown as a vertical arrow. At this value of
fault current, the fuse is expected to operate in 0.074s while the
overcurrent relay will operate in 5.73s.

Coordination Time Interval

So when can we say that overcurrent protection devices are effectively
coordinated?

Before that, let us answer this first. Why do we need coordination of

overcurrent protection devices?

In our previous discussion, we laid down the concept of zones of

protection as well as the objectives of overcurrent coordination. The
bottom line is to limit the extent of service interruptions by ensuring that
only the devices needed to isolate the fault will operate.

Now going back to the first question,

when can we say that overcurrent protection devices are effectively

coordinated?

By plotting the time-current curves, we can estimate the respective

operating time of the overcurrent devices. From these operating times, we
can calculate the time interval between the operation of these devices.
This time interval is referred to as the Coordination Time Interval (CTI).

The recommended CTIs for coordination of various overcurrent protection

devices are listed in IEEE Std 242. These CTIs are based on the following
considerations:

 Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time

 Relay Overtravel (for electromechanical relays)

 Relay Tolerances and Setting Errors

Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time

Medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers cannot instantaneously open
their contacts after energization of the trip circuit (receiving a trip signal
from the relay) due to mechanical limitations. The duration from the
energization of the circuit breaker trip circuit up to the extinction of arc on
the primary arcing contacts is referred to as the ‘interrupting time’. This is
shown in figure 3.
Common circuit breaker interrupting times are:

 2 cycles

 3 cycles

 5 cycles

 8 cycles

Relay Overtravel
Relay overtravel is basically the inertia of a rotating induction disk in an
electromechanical relay. The induction disk starts to rotate from the
passing of currents above the configured threshold or pick-up value. When
the downstream protective device successfully operates to isolate the
fault, the current through the electromechanical relay drops-out below the
threshold or pick up value. This removes the initiating energy to the
induction disk. However, because of inertia, the induction disk cannot
instantaneously stop rotating and may overtravel up to the
electromechanical relay operating point. The typical relay overtravel
duration is 0.10s.
 Figure
4. Electromechanical Relay
Image taken from researchgate.net

Relay Tolerances and Setting Errors

The safety margin for relay operating time and the manufacturer’s
tolerances and setting errors, fault current magnitudes, CT ratios, and so
on. Typical safety margin differs for relays that are field calibrated and
those that are not by 5 seconds. This is shown in the following tables.

Components Electromechanical Static

Circuit breaker interrupting time

0.03s – 0.13s 0.03s – 0.13s
(2 cycles – 8 cycles)

Relay overtravel 0.10s 0.00s

Relay tolerances and setting errors 0.17s 0.17s

Total CTI 0.30s – 0.40s 0.20s – 0.30s

 Table 1. CTIs without field calibration

Components Electromechanical Static

Circuit breaker interrupting time

0.03s – 0.13s 0.03s – 0.13s
(2 cycles – 8 cycles)

Relay overtravel 0.10s 0.00s

Relay tolerances and setting errors 0.12s 0.12s

Total CTI 0.25s – 0.35s 0.15s – 0.25s

Table 2. CTIs with field calibration

Minimum CTIs in Industrial Applications

The following table summarizes the minimum CTIs for most industrial
applications. This was taken from Table 15-3 of IEEE Std 242.

To illustrate the use of table 15-3, let us consider the following examples.
Fuse-to-Fuse Coordination
Based on table 15-3, for fuse-to-fuse coordination, there must be a clear
space between the time-current curves. However, IEEE Std 242 did not
specify the CTI between fuses, rather, the standard recommends to
consult the device manufacturer.

In an article on the Application of Primary Fuses by Hubbell Power

Systems, Inc., in order to provide a safety margin against operating
variables, the maximum clearing time of the downstream fuse should be
no greater than 75% of the minimum melting time of the upstream fuse.

Consider for example the figure below, for a fault of 1kA at the protecting
fuse, the maximum clearing time is 0.0632s.
 Fi
gure 5. Fuse-to-Fuse Coordination

Using the 75% minimum melting time, the minimum melting time of the
protected fuse is calculated as follows,
It can be seen in the TCC plot that the minimum melting time of the
protected fuse is 0.0901s for a fault of 1kA.

Fuse-to-Electromechanical Relay Coordination

Table 15-3 recommends a CTI of 0.22 for fuse-to-electromechanical relay
coordination. This is illustrated in figure 6.
Figure 6. Fuse-to-Electromechanical Relay Coordination

Electromechanical-to-Static Relay Coordination

Table 15-3 recommends a CTI of 0.20 for electromechanical-to-static relay
coordination. This is illustrated in figure 7.
Figure 7. Electromechanical-to-Static Relay Coordination

Note that the circuit breaker interrupting time for the values presented in
table 15-3 is 5 cycles, equivalent to 0.08s at 60Hz. A different CTI is
recommended for a different circuit breaker interrupting time. For
example, a 3-cycle circuit breaker will operate in 0.05s at 60Hz. This will
bring down the recommended CTI to 0.17s in the above example.
Conclusion
Understanding time-current curves and the basic considerations in
establishing proper coordination between overcurrent protective devices
is very important. However, when coordination is very difficult, if not
impossible, a compromise should be made. As mentioned in the
book Protective Relaying Principles and Application, coordination is a cut-
and-try process that depends on the confidence or conservatism of the
protection engineer. In other words, it always up to you!
Development of IDMT Relay
Curves

Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) overcurrent relays operate when

current exceeds the pick-up value and with an operating time that
varies inversely the magnitude of the current. This means that the
operating time decreases with increasing current magnitude. However,
like instantaneous overcurrent relays, IDMT relay curves have a definite
minimum operating time. Hence the name Inverse Definite Minimum
Time.

In our previous article in overcurrent coordination, we have discussed the

different overcurrent protection devices and their time-current curves
(TCC). We presented, in particular, the various types of relay TCCs e.g.
instantaneous, definite time, and inverse definite minimum time
overcurrent relays. We also presented the concept of Coordination Time
Intervals (CTIs) and how they are used in the coordination of overcurrent
devices. In this article, we will take a step back and present how the
concept of time-current grading otherwise known as coordination for IDMT
relays came to where it is now in its application in the power systems
industry.

Discrimination by Current
Before the concept of IDMT relay curves, instantaneous overcurrent
protection was very common. These relays operate instantaneously when
the current exceeds the pick-up value and reset with no intentional time
delay. Coordination is done based on the fact that short-circuit currents
generally are higher in magnitude the closer they are to the source.

Figure 1. Short-circuit currents, I F1 > IF2 > IF3

By setting the pick-up value of each relay equal to the short-circuit current
at the farthest end of its protected zone, ideally, coordination can be
achieved.

However, for faults near the zone boundaries, the discrimination of the
faulted section can be very difficult. Consider for example the figure
below.

Figure 2. Faults Near the Zone Boundaries, I F1 ≈ IF2

At zone boundaries, the short-circuit current magnitudes are very close.

With voltage variations, current transformer and relay measurement
errors, and DC offset (affects instantaneous elements, why?), upstream
relays may overreach to the next zone.

To account for these tolerances, a margin of safety is recommended. A

pick-up setting of 120% to 130% of the short-circuit current at the farthest
end of the protected zone is usually sufficient in most applications.

With the application of the safety margin, there will be no protection for
end zone faults. This is illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 3. Margin of Safety – No Coverage for End Zone Faults

Because of this, reliability may be compromised in favor of selectivity.

Another downside of ‘discrimination by current’ is the difficulty of

application because of the dynamic nature of power systems, e.g.
operational reconfigurations due to line, substation, and/or generating
plant maintenance, projects, etc. Source impedances vary constantly
affecting the network fault levels.

Consider the example shown in figure 3. I pu1 is set to 1.2 to 1.3 times the
short-circuit current, IF1, for a source impedance, ZS. Now, if we let Z’S >
ZS (loss of generation), the fault level at the farthest end of zone 1 will
decrease to I’F1. This will result in the underreaching of the protection
element as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4. Underreaching of Protection

On the other hand, in cases where Z’ S < ZS, e.g. parallel operation of
transformers, etc., the fault level at the farthest end of zone 1 will
increase to I’F1. This will result in the overreaching of the protection
element as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. Overreaching of Protection

Discrimination by Time
In order to address the limitations of ‘discrimination by current’,
overcurrent protection using definite-time overcurrent relays was
introduced. These relays operate when the current exceeds the pick-up
value after a set time delay. Take note that the operating time of these
relays is independent of the short-circuit current magnitude. The pickup
setting is based on the maximum expected load and short-time overloads
(in contrast to the maximum short-circuit current set for instantaneous
relays). Coordination is done based on configured time delays i.e. the
relay on the farthest end has the lowest time delay walking towards the
source with progressively higher delay. The relay closest to the source
ends up with the highest time delay. Consider for example the figure
below.

Figure 6. Discrimination by Time

The good thing about ‘discrimination by time’ is that it is completely

independent of the short-circuit current magnitude. Concerns such as
voltage variations, current transformer and relay measurement errors, DC
offset, and source impedance variations are eliminated. However, the
single most detrimental to ‘discrimination by time’ is the time-delay itself
in that the relay closest to the source which actually experiences the
highest short-circuit current magnitude has the longest fault clearance
time. The disadvantage is even more pronounced with multiple devices in
series.

Discrimination by Time and Current

The ‘discrimination by time and current’ is usually associated with Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relays. These relays operate when the
current exceeds the pick-up value and with an operating time that
varies inversely the magnitude of the current. This means that the
operating time decreases with increasing current magnitude.
The application of IDMT relays is better understood with the use of time
current curves (TCC). A TCC plot is a graphical representation of the
operating characteristics of overcurrent protection devices at different
magnitudes of fault currents. It is a two-dimension plot with the current at
the x-axis and the time at the y-axis with both axes are in logarithmic
scale.

By plotting the IDMT relay curves, one can estimate the relay operating
time for a specific value of short-circuit current. Consider for example the
figure below.
Figure 7. TCC Plot

It can be seen that at any value of current, relay R3 will always operate
first while relay R1 will operate last. Unlike instantaneous overcurrent
relays, IDMT relays operate for a wide range of short-circuit currents
above pickup and unlike definite time relays, IDMT relays operate in a
wide range of time depending on the magnitude of short-circuit current.
IDMT Relay Curves
There are three major types of IDMT relays curves. These are the
following:

 Inverse (I)

 Very Inverse (VI)

 Extremely Inverse (EI)

Inverse (I) Type

The operating time of the ‘I’ type IDMT relay curve does not vary much
with the current magnitude. This is commonly used in systems where the
short-circuit current does not vary much with distance and variations to
the source impedance.

Very Inverse (VI) Type

Recommended in systems with a substantial reduction of short-circuit

current with distance. The VI type IDMT relay curve has faster operating
times for higher currents and slower operating time for lower currents.

Extremely Inverse (EI) Type

The ‘EI’ type IDMT relay curve operates at very fast at high short-circuit
currents and very slow at low short-circuit currents. This type of IDMT
curve is most suited for coordination with fuses.

Ideally, the same type should be used throughout the system. However,
the selection of the IDMT relay curve is often based on preferences or
standardization. In other words, the application is more of an art than a
science.
ETAP Star Coordination on
Focus | Detailed Example

The main objective of any protection system is to interrupt short-circuits

as fast as possible. The means to achieve this range from the simplest
and cheapest systems to the most complex and expensive schemes.
Among these, overcurrent protection is often the simplest and the most
inexpensive to employ.

A compliment to overcurrent protection is the procedure that looks at the

importance of maintaining a very high level of continuity of service. The
concept of overcurrent coordination ensures that only a minimum portion
of the power system is interrupted from a fault or overload condition.

In our previous discussions about overcurrent coordination, we learned

about the objectives of power system protection and the principles of
coordination. These objectives are
 prevent human injury,
  limit equipment damage, and
 limit the extent of service interruption,

while the principles include

 selectivity,
 speed of operation,
 simplicity,
 sensitivity, and
 economics.
Next, we discussed the concept of zones of protection, primary and
backup protection, local and remote backup, and basic considerations in a
coordination study.
We went on to discuss overcurrent protection devices, their advantages
and disadvantages, and their time-current curves. Our understanding of
time-current curves was supplemented through a discussion
of Coordination Time Intervals (CTIs).
Lastly, overcurrent coordination through the discrimination by time and
current was highlighted in our discussion on the development of the
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay.
In this article, we will complete our overcurrent coordination series with a
sample coordination study using ETAP Star Coordination. The example is
taken from the book “Protective Relaying Principles and Application” by J.
Blackburn.

The example shows a typical distribution substation with protective

devices that include the power transformer high-side fuse, feeder circuit
breaker, line recloser, and lateral fuses.
Figure 1. Typical Distribution Substation taken from [1]

ETAP Star Coordination

The ETAP star coordination study module can be accessed from the mode
toolbar by clicking the ‘Star – Protection & Coordination’ icon.

Figure 2. ETAP Star Coordination

Module

Before proceeding to the next section, it is recommended that you

familiarize yourself with the software user interface. You can refer to
this link to review the basic elements and toolbars available in the
software, and the step-by-step process of modeling.
Building the One-line Diagram
After creating a new project, start by building the system one-line
diagram. This is a straightforward procedure that involves selecting and
connecting the power system devices in a single line. Nothing can be
more simple.

Introducing the ‘Auto-Build’ Feature

For large systems, even a process as simple as building the one-line
diagram could take quite some time. ETAP addressed this by introducing
the ‘Auto-Build’ feature. ‘Auto-Build’ is a rule-based automated creation of
a one-line diagram that includes automatic spacing and alignment.

To illustrate this, let us continue by building the one-line diagram shown in

figure 1.

Figure 3. ETAP Auto-Build

The default rules are already defined and working out-of-the-box when
enabled so you won’t need to mess with them. However, if you have your
own preferences, you may edit the rules to suit your needs.

After building the one-line diagram and inputting device/equipment

parameters, your model should look like the figure below.

Figure
4. ETAP Project One-Line Diagram
 Fig. 5

Begin the ETAP star coordination study by clicking the ‘Star – Protection &
Coordination’ icon in the mode toolbar. To verify that you are in the
coordination module, your ‘Study Mode Toolbar’ located on the right side
of your screen should look like the figure shown in figure 5.

Fuse Ratings
The fuse ratings for this sample project were selected based on the lateral
loads they serve. In addition, type ‘T’ (slow-acting) fuse-links were
selected for lateral taps since they coordinate well with distribution
transformer fuses which generally use the fast-acting type ‘K’. These
ratings are shown in figure 1.

For the power transformer high-side fuse, the fuse rating is based on the
transformer maximum rating (2nd forced-air cooled from class OA/FA/FA)
of 25 MVA. An E-rated fuse is selected to provide current limiting
protection.
To create a time-current characteristic plot in ETAP star coordination,
select the devices or equipment from the one-line diagram and click the
‘Create Star View’ icon from the ‘Study Mode Toolbar’.

Figure 6. Creating a TCC Plot in ETAP Star Coordination

Figure 7 shows the time-current characteristic plot of the 125 A E-rated

power fuse and the transformer through-fault damage curve.
 Fig
ure 7. TCC Plot of Fuse and the Transformer through-fault Damage Curve

In order to show and/or modify the information displayed on the TCC plot,
open the transformer parameters window by double-clicking the
transformer symbol on the one-line diagram, and navigate to the
‘Protection’ tab.
 Figure 8. Transformer
‘Protection’ Tab

From the TCC plot in figure 7, the following can be inferred.

 The transformer inrush transient is located to the left of the fuse

characteristic curve. This will provide security during transformer
energization.
 The transformer through-fault damage curve is shifted to the left
considering that the 115 kV side protection sees only 57.7% of the
current resulting from a line-to-ground fault in the 13kV side. This is
applicable to Delta-Wye connected transformers.
 The transformer is sufficiently protected from thermal damage. The
fuse characteristic curve is located to the left of the shifted
transformer damage curve.

Recloser Settings
The recloser in the example has a maximum load of 230 A. The phase
overcurrent minimum operating current or pick-up value is set to more
than twice the maximum load, at 560 A, to provide security for cold-load
transients. On the other hand, the ground overcurrent minimum operating
current or pick-up value is set at 50% of the phase pick-up to 280 A.
An Extremely Inverse (EI) curve is chosen since it coordinates well with
the downstream fuse. The time multiplier for the phase overcurrent is set
to establish a coordination time interval (CTI) of at least 0.12 s with
respect to the fault level at the downstream 100 A Type ‘T’ fuse. In this
case, a CTI of 0.127 s at 2.215 kA.

In addition, an instantaneous high current trip setting is enabled with k =

1.2 x fault 4 (see figure 1) or 2.658 kA which is equivalent to 4.75 times
the phase overcurrent pick-up setting. This is configured in ETAP through
the ‘Controller’ tab of the recloser. For this controller, the delayed curve is
configured as TCC 2.
For the ground overcurrent, the time multiplier is set such that the ground
wire is sufficiently protected. In this case, a time multiplier of 0.7. This
translates into a CTI of 0.435 s at 1.346 kA with respect to the
downstream 100 A Type ‘T’ fuse. An instantaneous high current trip
setting is also enabled for ground overcurrent with k = 1.2 x fault 4 (see
figure 1) or 1.615 kA which is equivalent to 5.77 times the ground
overcurrent pick-up setting.

 

Figure 9. Recloser Delayed Curve

The recloser sequence is set to two operations to lockout with the 1st
operation using the fast curve (TCC 1). The fast curve is set with the same
pick-up level as the delayed curve (TCC 2) but is set to operate
instantaneously in order to avoid fuse operations for transient faults. This
scheme is particularly known as the ‘Fuse Saving’ scheme.

 

Figure 10. Recloser Fast Curve

The reclosing duration is set at 1 s to allow transient or temporary faults

to subside before reclosing. Upon reclosing, the fast curve is locked-out.
The 2nd operation uses the delayed curve which is coordinated with the
fuse characteristic curve.
 Figure 11. Recloser
Sequence Setting

Figures 12 and 13 show the phase and ground TCC plots of the recloser
fast and delayed curve, 100T, and 65T fuses.
 Fig
ure 12. Recloser-to-Fuse Phase Coordination
 Fig
ure 13. Recloser-to-Fuse Ground Coordination

Figures 12 and 13 also indicate the maximum fault levels at each fuse
location (fault 4 and 5 in figure 1) in which the coordination time interval
with the recloser is evaluated. To do this in ETAP star coordination, open
the ‘Star Mode Study Case’ by clicking the ‘Edit Study Case’ icon.

Figure 14. Edit Study Case

The ‘Study Case’ contains the study preferences and parameters which
include the selection of the faulted bus, the standard to be used, the
number of protective devices to be considered, calculation tolerance
adjustments, and others.

Start by selecting the bus/buses to be faulted. In this case, buses ‘Tap_Sec

3-4’ and ‘Tap_Sec 4-5’.

Figure 15. Study Case:

Info Tab

On the one-line diagram, the faulted buses should be highlighted in red.

Click on the ‘Run/Update Short-Circuit kA’. This should update the fault
levels of the protective devices connected to the faulted bus.
Figure 16. Running Short-Circuit Calculation

To verify this, click on any fuse and navigate to the ‘TCC kA’ tab. As shown
in figure 17, two values of TCC currents are displayed, ‘TCC Clipping
Current’ and ‘TCC Minimum Current’. These values are updated based on
the selected ‘Short-Circuit Current’ in the ‘Standard’ tab of the ‘Study
Case’. If ‘1/2 Cycle kA’ is selected, the ‘TCC Clipping Current’ values will
be updated else if ’30 Cycle kA’ is selected, the ‘TCC Minimum Current’
values will be updated.
 Figur
e 17a. Fuse TCC kA Tab
 
Figure 17b. Study Case Standard Tab

Figure 17. Updating Protective Device Fault Levels

The ‘TCC Clipping Current’ indicates the maximum fault level for the
protective device selected. It is shown on the TCC plot as a vertical arrow
pointing upwards. The arrow “clips” the device characteristic curves as
shown in figures 12 and 13. On the other hand, the ‘TCC Minimum
Current’ indicates the minimum fault level for the protective device
selected. It is shown on the TCC plot as a vertical arrow pointing
downwards.

Circuit Breaker Relay Settings

The maximum load through the 13 kV circuit breaker is 330 A. From this,
the current transformer primary rating of 400 A is selected giving a ratio
of 400:5 (CTR = 80). The phase overcurrent minimum operating current or
pick-up value is set to more than twice the maximum load, at 720 A, to
provide security for cold-load transients. For the selected overcurrent
relay, an input setting in multiples of the nominal CT secondary rating of 5
A is required. A 720 ampere-primary pick-up with a CTR of 80 translates
into a relay pick-up value setting of 1.8. The ground pick-up value is
chosen to be 320 A. Thus, a relay pick-up value for ground overcurrent is
set to 0.8.

An Extremely Inverse (EI) curve is chosen since it coordinates well with

the downstream fuse and recloser curve. The time multiplier for the phase
overcurrent is set to establish a coordination time interval (CTI) of at least
0.12 s with respect to the fault level at the downstream 100 A Type ‘T’
fuse and at least 0.2 s with respect to the fault level at the downstream
recloser. In this case, a CTI of 0.131 s at 6.131 kA and 0.241 s at 4.478 kA
for the fuse and recloser, respectively.

In addition, an instantaneous high current trip setting is enabled with k =

1.2 x fault 2 (see figure 1) or 7.357 kA. This translates to a relay pickup
setting of 18.4. The instantaneous element pickup setting is chosen such
that it will not overreach the downstream fuse and recloser.
For the ground overcurrent, the time multiplier is set to establish a
coordination time interval (CTI) of at least 0.12 s with respect to the fault
level at the downstream 100 A Type ‘T’ fuse and at least 0.2 s with
respect to the fault level at the downstream recloser. In this case, a CTI of
0.128 s at 5.825 kA and 0.209 s at 3.969 kA for the fuse and recloser,
respectively. In addition, an instantaneous high current trip setting is
enabled with k = 1.2 x fault 2 (see figure 1) or 6.990kA. This translates to
a relay pickup setting of 17.5. Again, the instantaneous element pickup
setting is chosen such that it will not overreach the downstream fuse and
recloser.
 Fig
ure 18. Breaker-to-Recloser/Fuse Phase Coordination
 Fig
ure 19. Breaker-to-Recloser/Fuse Ground Coordination

When applying fuse saving at the breaker, consideration should be made

on overreaching the downstream recloser. To do this, the pickup value for
the fast curve must be set greater than fault 3 (see figure 1). Setting the
fast curve pickup at k = 1.2 x fault 3 or 5.374 kA and 4.763 kA for phase
and ground, respectively, should be satisfactory in order to prevent
overreaching the downstream recloser. However, at this level of pickup,
the fuse melting time is 0.0244 s and 0.0309 s, respectively, and with the
breaker instantaneous operating time of at least 0.05 s, the fuse will blow
before the breaker opens. In this case, fuse saving is not applicable at the
breaker.


Figure 20a. Phase Overcurrent

 

Figure 20b. Ground Overcurrent

Figure 20. Overcurrent Relay Settings

Sequence-of-Operation Analysis
ETAP star coordination features a ‘Sequence-of-Operation’ analysis which
allows the simulation of a fault at any point on the one-line diagram and
assesses the sequence of operation of the protective devices. The
parameters for the ‘Sequence-of-Operation’ is accessible through the ‘Edit
Study Case’.
 Figure 21. Sequence-of-
Operation

To use the ‘Sequence-of-Operation’ analysis, click on the ‘Fault Insertion

(PD Sequence-of-Operation)’ icon on the ‘Study Mode’ toolbar as shown in
figure 22 and drop on any point of the one-line diagram. The icon changes
depending on the ‘Fault Type’ selected.
Figure 22. Fault Insertion (PD Sequence-of-Operation)

After inserting a fault, ETAP star coordination will show an animated

sequence of protective device operation. The number of protective
devices considered and operated will depend on the setting parameters
on the ‘Study Case’.
Figure 23. Animated Sequence-of-Operation

The protective device sequence operation details are available from the
ETAP star coordination report manager. Click on the ‘Report Manager’ icon
on the ‘Study Mode’ toolbar, navigate to the ‘Summary’, and select the
‘Sequence of Operation’. The report will show the time of operation of the
protective devices.

Note: An additional bus was added after the 65T fuse to simulate a
downstream fault.
 Figure 24.
Accessing Report Files in ETAP Star Coordination

Figure 25. Sequence-of-Operation Event Summary Report

In this example, for a 3-phase bolted fault downstream of the 65T fuse,
the recloser acts first with its fast curve issuing a trip signal in 10 ms. The
recloser primary contacts open 42 ms after the issued trip signal saving
the fuse from tripping. The recloser recloses after 1000 ms. If there was
no fuse saving scheme applied, the 65T fuse will have started melting in
240 ms and ultimately clearing the fault in 353 ms. Thus, for a permanent
fault downstream of the fuse, the total operation time to completely
isolate the fault is 1405 ms (the recloser operates on fast curve and
recloses in 1052 ms while the fuse will clear the fault in 353 ms after
reclosing).

If the fuse failed to isolate the fault, the recloser will continue to operate
on its delayed curve, issuing a trip signal in 1596 ms and ultimately
isolating the fault in 1638 ms. The total recloser operation time is 2690
ms. This includes the operation of the fast curve (52 ms), the reclosing
time (1000 s) and the operation of the delayed curve (1638 ms).
If the recloser fails, the substation circuit breaker will isolate the fault in
7955 ms (7871 ms for the relay to issue a tripping signal plus 83.3 ms of
circuit breaker interrupting time).

Device/Equipment Specifications
The specifications used in the example using the ETAP star coordination
were determined by trial and error in order to obtain the fault levels
indicated in figure 1. The values for the 3-phase faults were prioritized
over the 1-phase faults.

Edit the device/equipment parameters according to the following

specifications and leave other fields to their default values.

Power Grid
 Rated kV: 115

 MVAsc 3-Phase: 4340

 X/R 3-Phase: 17

 MVAsc 1-Phase: 4340

 X/R 1-Phase: 17

Power Transformer 115 kV-side Fuse

 Manufacturer: Southern States

 Model: HPA-PM

 Max kV: 115

 Speed: Medium

 Size: 125A

Power Transformer
 Voltage Rating kV Prim.: 115

 Voltage Rating kV Sec.: 13

 MVA: 15

 Class: OA/FA/FA

 Positive %X: 8.3

  Positive %R: 1.43

 Positive %Z: 8.422

 Zero %X: 8.2

 Zero %X: 1.96

 Zero %Z: 8.431

 Grounding Primary: Delta

 Grounding Secondary: Y (Solid)

Current Transformer 13 kV-side Circuit Breaker

 Primary: 400

 Sec.: 5

Overcurrent Relay 13 kV-side Circuit Breaker

 Output > click ‘Add’

 Interlock > click ‘Add’

 OCR: ABB REF541

 Phase Overcurrent:

 Phase Overcurrent Curve Type: IEEE – Extremely Inverse

 Phase Overcurrent Pickup Range: 0.1 – 5 x CT Sec

 Phase Overcurrent Pick-up: 1.8

 Phase Overcurrent Time Dial: 1.5

 Phase Instantaneous:

 Phase Instantaneous Pickup Range: 0.05 – 40 x CT Sec

 Phase Instantaneous Pickup: 18.4

 Phase Instantaneous Delay Range: 0.05 – 300

 Phase Instantaneous Delay (Sec): 0.05

 Neutral Overcurrent:

 Neutral Overcurrent Curve Type: IEEE – Extremely Inverse

 Neutral Overcurrent Pickup Range: 0.1 – 5 x CT Sec

 Neutral Overcurrent Pick-up: 0.8

  Neutral Overcurrent Time Dial: 3.9

 Neutral Instantaneous:

 Neutral Instantaneous Pickup Range: 0.05 – 40 x CT Sec

 Neutral Instantaneous Pickup: 17.5

 Neutral Instantaneous Delay Range: 0.05 – 300

 Neutral Instantaneous Delay (Sec): 0.05

13kV Circuit Breaker

 Cycle: 5

 CPT: 3

Distribution Line Section 1

 Length: 655

 Unit: m

 Phase Conductor: EPRI/M.LAYER Linnet

 Ground Wire: EPRI/S.LAYER Penguin

 Configuration Type: Vertical

 Height: 37.5

 Spacing AB: 2

 Spacing BC: 2

 Number of Ground Wires: 2

 GG: 0.8

 CG: -2.5

 Number of Earth Layers: 3

 Layer 1 p(ohms-m): 100

 Layer 1 Depth: 30

 Layer 2 p(ohms-m): 20

 Layer 2 Depth: 100

 Layer 3 p(ohms-m): 10
100T Fuse
 Manufacturer: Chance

 Model: Fuse Link (T)

 Speed: Slow

 Size: 100A

Distribution Line Section 2

 Length: 1165

 Unit: m

 Phase Conductor: EPRI/M.LAYER Linnet

 Ground Wire: EPRI/S.LAYER Penguin

 Configuration Type: Vertical

 Height: 37.5

 Spacing AB: 2

 Spacing BC: 2

 Number of Ground Wires: 2

 GG: 0.8

 CG: -2.78

 Number of Earth Layers: 3

 Layer 1 p(ohms-m): 100

 Layer 1 Depth: 30

 Layer 2 p(ohms-m): 20

 Layer 2 Depth: 100

 Layer 3 p(ohms-m): 10

Automatic Recloser
 Manufacturer: Cooper

 Model: Nova 15

 Controller Model: Form 6

 Sequence Operation 1st TCC: Phase – 1, Ground – 1

 Sequence Operation to Lockout: Phase – 2, Ground – 2

 Sequence Reclose Duration (Sec): 1

 Operation Level: TCC1

 TCC1 Phase Overcurrent: ☐

 TCC1 Phase High Current:

 TCC1 Phase High Current Trip Range: 1 – 32 x TOC Pickup

 TCC1 Phase High CurrentTrip: 1

 TCC1 Phase High CurrentDelay Range: 0.01 – 0.15

 TCC1 Phase High CurrentDelay (Sec): 0.01

 TCC1 Ground Overcurrent: ☐

 TCC1 Ground High Current:

 TCC1 Ground High CurrentTrip Range: 1 – 32 x TOC Pickup

 TCC1 Ground High CurrentTrip: 1

 TCC1 Ground High CurrentDelay Range: 0.01 – 0.15

 TCC1 Ground High CurrentDelay (Sec): 0.01

 Operation Level: TCC2

 TCC2 Phase Overcurrent:

 TCC2 Phase Overcurrent Curve Type: ANSI – Extremely Inverse

 TCC2 Phase Overcurrent Trip Range: 5 – 800 Primary

 TCC2 Phase Overcurrent Trip: 560

 TCC2 Phase Overcurrent Modifier Time Multiplier: 0.15

 TCC2 Phase High Current:

 TCC2 Phase High Current Trip Range: 1 – 32 x TOC Pickup

 TCC2 Phase High Current Trip: 4.75

 TCC2 Phase High Current Delay Range: 0.01 – 0.15

 TCC2 Phase High Current Delay (Sec): 0.01

 TCC2 Ground Overcurrent:

 TCC2 Ground Overcurrent Curve Type: ANSI – Extremely Inverse

 TCC2 Ground Overcurrent Trip Range: 2 – 400 Primary

 TCC2 Ground Overcurrent Trip: 280

 TCC2 Ground Overcurrent Modifier Time Multiplier: 0.7

  TCC2 Ground High Current:

 TCC2 Ground High Current Trip Range: 1 – 32 x TOC Pickup

 TCC2 Ground High Current Trip: 5.77

 TCC2 Ground High Current Delay Range: 0.01 – 0.15

 TCC2 Ground High Current Delay (Sec): 0.01

Distribution Line Section 3

 Length: 3550

 Unit: m

 Phase Conductor: EPRI/M.LAYER Penguin

 Ground Wire: EPRI 3 No. 10

 Configuration Type: Horizontal

 Height: 37.5

 Spacing AB: 2.92

 Spacing BC: 3.36

 Number of Ground Wires: 1

 CG: -4.75

 Number of Earth Layers: 1

 Layer 1 p(ohms-m): 1000

Distribution Line Section 4

 Length: 3835

 Unit: m

 Phase Conductor: EPRI/M.LAYER Penguin

 Ground Wire: EPRI 3 No. 10

 Configuration Type: Horizontal

 Height: 37.5

 Spacing AB: 2.92

 Spacing BC: 3.36

 Number of Ground Wires: 1

 CG: -4.75

 Number of Earth Layers: 1

  Layer 1 p(ohms-m): 1000

65T Fuse
 Manufacturer: Chance

 Model: Fuse Link (T)

 Speed: Slow

 Size: 65A

Distribution Line Section 5

 Length: 3465

 Unit: m

 Phase Conductor: EPRI/M.LAYER Penguin

 Ground Wire: EPRI 3 No. 10

 Configuration Type: Horizontal

 Height: 37.5

 Spacing AB: 2.92

 Spacing BC: 3.36

 Number of Ground Wires: 1

 CG: -4.75

 Number of Earth Layers: 1

 Layer 1 p(ohms-m): 1000