Unit III

1. SYNTAX DIRECTED TRANSLATION

Discuss the principles of syntax-directed translation and how they are used to implement language
features in compilers.

Syntax-directed translation (SDT) is a technique used in compilers to translate high-level programming

languages into intermediate or machine code. The translation is driven by the syntax of the source
language and is defined using context-free grammars augmented with semantic rules. Here are the key
principles of SDT:

Principles:

1. Syntax-Driven:

o SDT relies on the structure of the language's grammar. Each grammar rule is associated
with a set of semantic actions that specify the translation of language constructs.

2. Attributes:

o Attributes are associated with grammar symbols and are used to store information
needed for translation. These can be synthesized (computed from child nodes) or
inherited (passed from parent or sibling nodes).

3. Semantic Rules:

o Semantic rules define how attributes are computed. They are associated with
productions and specify the translation actions based on these attributes.

4. Translation Schemes:

o A translation scheme is a context-free grammar with embedded actions. These actions

can include constructing syntax trees, generating code, or performing type checks.

5. Evaluation Order:

o Attributes are evaluated based on their dependencies. Synthesized attributes are

computed from the bottom-up, while inherited attributes are often evaluated top-
down.

Use in Compilers:

• Syntax Checking:

o SDT is used to enforce syntax rules and ensure the source code adheres to the
language grammar.

• Semantic Analysis:

o SDT performs type checking, scope resolution, and other semantic checks to ensure
the code is semantically correct.

• Code Generation:

o SDT can be used to generate intermediate or target code directly from the source
code's parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST).
 • Optimization:

o By analyzing the syntax and semantics, SDT can perform optimizations like constant
folding or dead code elimination.

Example:

Consider a simple arithmetic expression evaluation. Here's a grammar with SDT:

E → E1 + T { E.val = E1.val + T.val }

E→T { E.val = T.val }

T → T1 * F { T.val = T1.val * F.val }

T→F { T.val = F.val }

F → (E) { F.val = E.val }

F → NUM { F.val = NUM.val }

• Attributes: val is an attribute used to store the value of each expression.

• Semantic Rules: Specify how the value of each expression is computed using the values of its
sub-expressions.

In a compiler, this setup would be used to evaluate expressions or generate corresponding machine
code.

2. S ATTRIBUTED GRAMMAR

Provide a detailed example of designing an S-attributed grammar for a simple programming

language and demonstrate its use.

An S-attributed grammar is a type of syntax-directed definition where all attributes are synthesized.
This means that the attribute values are computed from the attributes of the children nodes in the
parse tree.

Example: Simple Arithmetic Language

Let's design an S-attributed grammar for a language that supports addition and multiplication of
integers.

Grammar:

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E → E + T { E.val = E.val + T.val }

E→T { E.val = T.val }

T → T * F { T.val = T.val * F.val }

T→F { T.val = F.val }

F → NUM { F.val = NUM.val }

• Non-terminals:

o E (Expression)

o T (Term)

o F (Factor)

• Terminal:

o NUM (Number)

Attributes:

• Synthesized Attributes:

o E.val, T.val, F.val: These represent the evaluated value of expressions, terms, and
factors, respectively.

Semantic Rules:

• E.val = E.val + T.val: Computes the value of an expression by adding the values of its sub-
expressions.

• T.val = T.val * F.val: Computes the value of a term by multiplying the values of its factors.

Use:

Given an expression 3 + 4 * 5, the parsing and evaluation using the S-attributed grammar would
proceed as follows:

1. Parse Tree Construction:

/|\

E+T

| /\

T T F

| | |

F F NUM

| | |

NUM NUM 5

| |

3 4

2. Evaluation:

o Compute F.val: F.val = 3, F.val = 4, F.val = 5

 o Compute T.val: T.val = 4 * 5 = 20

o Compute E.val: E.val = 3 + 20 = 23

3. Result:

o The final value of the expression 3 + 4 * 5 is 23.

This example illustrates how S-attributed grammars can be used to evaluate arithmetic expressions
directly through parse tree traversal.

3. L ATTRIBUTED GRAMMAR

Develop an L-attributed grammar for a simple programming language and explain the evaluation of
attributes.

An L-attributed grammar is a type of syntax-directed definition where each attribute can be either
synthesized or inherited. However, inherited attributes are restricted such that they can only depend
on the attributes of the parent or preceding siblings in the derivation.

Example: Simple Variable Declaration Language

Let's consider a language where variables are declared with their types and are assigned integer values.

Grammar:

S→D;L

D → int ID { D.type = "int" }

L → ID = NUM { if (ID.type == "int") ID.val = NUM.val }

• Non-terminals:

o S (Statement)

o D (Declaration)

o L (List of assignments)

• Terminals:

o int, ID (Identifier), NUM (Number), ; (Semicolon)

Attributes:

• Inherited Attributes:

o ID.type: The type of the identifier, inherited from the declaration.

• Synthesized Attributes:

o ID.val: The value assigned to the identifier.

Semantic Rules:

• D.type = "int": Sets the type of the declared identifier.

 • if (ID.type == "int") ID.val = NUM.val: Ensures the type correctness of assignments and assigns
values accordingly.

Example Code:

int x;

x = 10;

1. Parse Tree Construction:

/\

D L

/ /\

int ID = |
x NUM | 10

2. **Attribute Evaluation:**

- **Declaration:** `D.type = "int"`

- **Assignment:** `ID.type = D.type` (inherited), `ID.val = NUM.val` (synthesized)

3. **Execution:**

- **Declare `x` of type `int`.**

- **Assign `10` to `x`:** Since `x` is of type `int`, assignment is valid and `x.val = 10`.

This example shows how L-attributed grammars facilitate attribute evaluation by allowing the
propagation of type information down the parse tree.

4. ABSTRACT SYNTAX TREE

**Abstract Syntax Trees (ASTs)** are a critical component in the compilation process, representing the
hierarchical structure of the source code in a way that abstracts away unnecessary syntactic details.

#### Construction of ASTs:

1. **Parsing:**

- The source code is parsed using a context-free grammar to produce a parse tree, which includes all
syntactic details of the language.

2. **AST Generation:**

- The parse tree is transformed into an AST by removing extraneous nodes and retaining only the
essential structure representing the semantics of the code.

- For example, parentheses and operator precedence rules are resolved in the AST, meaning operators
are directly related to their operands.

3. **Node Types:**

- **Expression Nodes:** Represent arithmetic or logical operations, e.g., `+`, `*`, `-`, `/`.

- **Statement Nodes:** Represent control flow constructs, e.g., `if`, `while`, `for`.

- **Declaration Nodes:** Represent variable or function declarations.

- **Literal Nodes:** Represent constants and literals, e.g., numbers, strings.

#### Example:

Consider the expression `3 + 5 * (2 - 8)`. The AST would be:

/\

3 *

/\

5 -

/\

2 8

#### Optimization of ASTs:

ASTs can be optimized to improve the efficiency of the generated code. Common optimization
techniques include:
1. **Constant Folding:**

- Evaluate constant expressions at compile time. For example, `2 * 3` is replaced with `6`.

2. **Dead Code Elimination:**

- Remove code that has no effect on the program outcome, such as unused variables or unreachable
statements.

3. **Strength Reduction:**

- Replace expensive operations with cheaper ones, such as replacing `x * 2` with `x + x`.

4. **Subexpression Elimination:**

- Identify and eliminate repeated calculations by storing the result in a temporary variable.

5. **Inlining:**

- Replace function calls with the function body to eliminate the overhead of calling a function,
especially for small functions.

#### Example Optimization:

Consider a piece of code:

```c

int a = 2 * 3;

int b = a + 5 * 4;

AST Before Optimization:

/\

a *

/\

2 3
 =

/\

b +

/\

a *

/\

5 4

AST After Optimization:

• Constant Folding: 2 * 3 becomes 6, 5 * 4 becomes 20.

• Dead Code Elimination: If a is not used elsewhere, the first assignment can be removed.

/\

b +

/\

6 20

ASTs provide a simplified and abstract representation of the source code, making them ideal for
performing optimizations. By transforming the parse tree into an AST, compilers can more easily
manipulate and optimize the code before generating intermediate or machine code.

5. TRANSLATION OF SIMPLE STATEMENTS AND CONTROL FLOW STATEMENTS

Explain the process of translating high-level language constructs to intermediate code.

The translation of high-level language constructs to intermediate code is a crucial step in the
compilation process. Intermediate code serves as an abstraction between the high-level source code
and machine code, providing a platform-independent representation that can be further optimized
and translated into target machine code.

Intermediate Code:

• Representation:

o Intermediate code is often represented in a form similar to assembly language, such

as three-address code or quadruples. It abstracts machine-specific details, allowing
optimizations to be performed independently of the target architecture.

Process of Translation:

1. Parsing:

o The source code is parsed to create a parse tree or AST that represents the syntactic
structure of the code.
 2. Semantic Analysis:

o The semantic analyzer checks the source code for semantic correctness, including type
checking and scope resolution.

3. Translation to Intermediate Code:

o Each construct in the high-level language is translated into equivalent intermediate

code constructs.

Examples of Construct Translation:

1. Arithmetic Expressions:

o Expressions are translated into sequences of instructions using temporary variables.

o Example: The expression a + b * c is translated to:

t1 = b * c

t2 = a + t1

2. Control Flow Constructs:

o High-level constructs like if-else, while, and for loops are translated into conditional
and unconditional jump instructions.

o Example: An if statement:

if (a > b) {

c = a;

} else {

c = b;

Translated to:

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if a > b goto L1

c=b

goto L2

L1: c = a

L2:

3. Function Calls:

o Function calls are translated into a sequence of instructions for parameter passing,
calling, and returning.
 o Example:

result = foo(x, y);

Translated to:

param x

param y

call foo

result = return_value

4. Array Access:

o Access to array elements involves calculating the address and then accessing the
memory location.

o Example:

x = arr[i];

Translated to:

t1 = i * sizeof(int) // Assuming int is 4 bytes

t2 = arr_base + t1

x = *t2

The intermediate code provides a flexible and target-independent representation of the source code,
facilitating further optimization and easy translation to machine code for different architectures. By
abstracting away machine-specific details, intermediate code plays a crucial role in modern compilers,
enabling efficient code generation and optimization across various platforms.

5. CHOMSKY HIERARCHY

Analyze the Chomsky hierarchy and its impact on formal language theory.

The Chomsky hierarchy is a classification of formal languages based on their generative power,
proposed by Noam Chomsky. It consists of four levels, each corresponding to a type of grammar and
automaton capable of recognizing the language class.

Levels of the Chomsky Hierarchy:

1. Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages

o Grammar: Unrestricted Grammar

o Automaton: Turing Machine

o Characteristics:

▪ The most general class of languages, capable of expressing any computation.

▪ No restrictions on the production rules.

 ▪ Example: The set of all valid programs in a Turing-complete language.

2. Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages

o Grammar: Context-Sensitive Grammar (CSG)

o Automaton: Linear Bounded Automaton

o Characteristics:

▪ Production rules have the form αAβ → αγβ, where A is a non-terminal, and α,
β, γ are strings.

▪ The length of the string does not decrease in derivations.

▪ Example: The language {a^n b^n c^n | n ≥ 1} is context-sensitive because it

requires matching counts of different symbols.

3. Type 2: Context-Free Languages

o Grammar: Context-Free Grammar (CFG)

o Automaton: Pushdown Automaton

o Characteristics:

▪ Production rules have the form A → γ, where A is a non-terminal, and γ is a

string of terminals and non-terminals.

▪ CFGs can describe nested structures, making them suitable for programming
languages.

▪ Example: Arithmetic expressions and balanced parentheses.

4. Type 3: Regular Languages

o Grammar: Regular Grammar

o Automaton: Finite Automaton

o Characteristics:

▪ Production rules are of the form A → aB or A → a, where a is a terminal and

A, B are non-terminals.

▪ Can be expressed using regular expressions.

▪ Example: Simple patterns like strings of even length.

Impact on Formal Language Theory:

1. Foundation for Compiler Design:

o The Chomsky hierarchy provides a theoretical framework for understanding the

capabilities and limitations of different types of grammars and automata.

o Context-free grammars (CFGs) are fundamental in defining the syntax of programming

languages, while regular expressions are used for lexical analysis.
 2. Understanding Computational Complexity:

o The hierarchy illustrates the computational power required to recognize different

language classes.

o It highlights the trade-offs between expressiveness and computational efficiency.

3. Development of Parsing Techniques:

o The hierarchy guides the development of parsing algorithms, such as LR parsers for
context-free languages and finite automata for regular languages.

4. Formal Language Theory:

o It serves as a foundation for formal language theory, influencing research in fields like
natural language processing, formal verification, and automata theory.

5. Implications for Language Design:

o The hierarchy informs the design of programming languages, allowing language

designers to balance expressiveness with ease of parsing and implementation.

The Chomsky hierarchy provides a comprehensive framework for classifying formal languages and
understanding the computational resources needed to recognize them. Its impact on formal language
theory and compiler design is profound, shaping the development of programming languages and
parsing techniques.

7. TYPE CHECKING

Discuss the implementation of type checking in a statically typed programming language.

Type checking is the process of verifying and enforcing the constraints of types to ensure the
correctness of programs. In statically typed programming languages, type checking occurs at compile
time, providing early detection of type errors and enhancing program reliability.

Type Checking Implementation:

1. Type Declarations:

o Variables, functions, and data structures are declared with explicit types.

o Example:

int a;

float b;

2. Type Inference:

o Some languages support type inference, allowing the compiler to deduce types based
on context.

o Example:

val x = 5 // x is inferred to be of type Int

 3. Type Rules:

o The language defines type rules specifying valid operations for each type.

o Example:

▪ Integer addition: int + int → int

▪ String concatenation: string + string → string

4. Expression Type Checking:

o The compiler checks each expression for type correctness based on the type rules.

o Example:

int a = 5;

float b = 2.5;

a = b; // Type error: cannot assign float to int

5. Function Type Checking:

o Function signatures specify parameter and return types. The compiler checks that
function calls match these types.

o Example:

int add(int x, int y) { return x + y; }

int result = add(3, 4); // Valid

float result = add(3.5, 4.2); // Type error

6. Control Flow Type Checking:

o The compiler ensures that control flow constructs (e.g., if, while) operate on boolean
expressions.

o Example:

if (a > b) { ... } // Valid if a and b are comparable

7. Type Conversion:

o Implicit or explicit conversions may be allowed, but they must adhere to defined rules.

o Example:

int a = 5;

float b = a; // Implicit conversion from int to float

Example Implementation in C:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
 int a = 5;

float b = 2.5;

// Type checking

a = b; // Error: cannot assign float to int

// Function type checking

int result = add(3, 4); // Valid

float result2 = add(3.5, 4.2); // Error: expected int arguments

return 0;

int add(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

Advantages of Static Type Checking:

1. Early Error Detection:

o Type errors are caught at compile time, reducing runtime errors.

2. Improved Performance:

o The compiler can generate optimized code with known types, reducing the need for
dynamic type checks.

3. Documentation and Maintainability:

o Type annotations serve as documentation, making the code easier to understand and
maintain.

4. Enhanced Tooling:

o Static type checking enables better tooling, such as autocompletion and refactoring
support.

Type checking in statically typed languages ensures type safety and program correctness by verifying
type constraints at compile time. This enhances reliability, performance, and maintainability, making
it a crucial component of modern programming language design.
 8. TYPE CHECKING

Explain type conversion mechanisms and their impact on programming language design.

Type conversion is the process of converting a value from one data type to another. It is a common
operation in programming languages, allowing flexibility in operations and interactions between
different data types.

Type Conversion Mechanisms:

1. Implicit Conversion (Coercion):

o Automatic conversion performed by the compiler when a value of one type is used in
a context where another type is expected.

o Example:

int a = 5;

float b = a; // Implicit conversion from int to float

2. Explicit Conversion (Casting):

o The programmer explicitly specifies the type conversion using a cast operator.

o Example:

float a = 5.5;

int b = (int)a; // Explicit conversion from float to int

3. Numeric Conversions:

o Conversions between numeric types, such as integers and floating-point numbers.

o Example:

double x = 3.14;

int y = (int)x; // Conversion from double to int

4. Pointer Conversions:

o Conversion between different pointer types, often used in low-level programming.

o Example:

void* ptr = &a;

int* intPtr = (int*)ptr;

5. User-Defined Conversions:

o Languages like C++ allow defining custom conversion operators for user-defined types.

o Example:

class Complex {

public:
 operator double() const { return real; } // Conversion to double

private:

double real, imag;

};

Impact on Programming Language Design:

1. Type Safety:

o Implicit conversions can lead to type safety issues, as they may cause unintended
behavior or data loss. Language designers must balance convenience with safety.

2. Readability and Maintainability:

o Explicit conversions improve code readability by making conversions explicit, but they
can also clutter the code. Language design should aim for clarity without excessive
verbosity.

3. Performance:

o Implicit conversions can introduce overhead, especially in performance-critical code.

Efficient handling of conversions is important for language design.

4. Polymorphism and Overloading:

o Type conversions play a role in method overloading and polymorphism, where the
appropriate method is selected based on the types of arguments.

5. Interoperability:

o Conversions are essential for interoperability between different data representations,

such as primitive types and object types in object-oriented languages.

Example:

Consider a simple program in C++ demonstrating type conversion:

#include <iostream>

int main() {

int a = 5;

double b = a; // Implicit conversion from int to double

double c = 3.14;

int d = static_cast<int>(c); // Explicit conversion using static_cast

std::cout << "b: " << b << std::endl;

 std::cout << "d: " << d << std::endl;

return 0;

Type conversion mechanisms provide flexibility in programming languages, allowing seamless

interactions between different data types. However, they also present challenges related to type
safety, readability, and performance. Language designers must carefully balance these factors to create
efficient and user-friendly languages.

9. FUNCTION AND OPERATOR OVERLOADING

Describe the implementation of function and operator overloading in object-oriented languages.

Function and operator overloading are key features in object-oriented languages that allow defining
multiple functions or operators with the same name but different parameters or operand types. This
provides flexibility and enhances code readability.

Function Overloading:

Function overloading allows defining multiple functions with the same name but different parameter
lists. The compiler determines which function to call based on the arguments' types and numbers.

Implementation:

1. Function Signature:

o A function's signature includes its name and parameter types. The return type is not
part of the signature.

o Example:

void print(int x);

void print(double x);

void print(const std::string& str);

2. Overload Resolution:

o When a function is called, the compiler uses overload resolution to select the
appropriate function.

o Resolution considers:

▪ Exact matches

▪ Implicit conversions

▪ User-defined conversions

▪ Least number of conversions

3. Ambiguity Resolution:
 o If the compiler cannot determine a single best match, an ambiguity error occurs. The
programmer must resolve the ambiguity by specifying the exact types.

Example:

#include <iostream>

void print(int x) {

std::cout << "Integer: " << x << std::endl;

void print(double x) {

std::cout << "Double: " << x << std::endl;

void print(const std::string& str) {

std::cout << "String: " << str << std::endl;

int main() {

print(10); // Calls print(int)

print(3.14); // Calls print(double)

print("Hello"); // Calls print(const std::string&)

return 0;

Operator Overloading:

Operator overloading allows defining custom behavior for operators when applied to user-defined
types, enhancing the usability and expressiveness of objects.

Implementation:

1. Defining Operator Overloads:

o Operators are overloaded by defining special member functions or friend functions.

o Example:

class Complex {

public:
 double real, imag;

Complex operator+(const Complex& other) const {

return {real + other.real, imag + other.imag};

};

2. Rules for Overloading:

o Not all operators can be overloaded (e.g., . and ::).

o Overloaded operators must respect the precedence and associativity rules of the
original operators.

o Overloading cannot change the number of operands or the syntax of the operator.

3. Usage:

o Overloaded operators are used in the same way as built-in operators.

o Example:

Complex a{1, 2};

Complex b{3, 4};

Complex c = a + b; // Calls operator+

Function and operator overloading are powerful features of object-oriented languages, allowing
developers to extend the language's capabilities and create more intuitive interfaces for user-defined
types. Proper implementation of overloading involves understanding the rules of overload resolution,
ensuring that overloaded functions and operators are unambiguous, and maintaining consistency with
language conventions.

10. INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION

Discuss the overall process of intermediate code generation and optimization.

Intermediate code generation is a crucial step in the compilation process, providing a platform-
independent representation of the source program that facilitates optimization and code generation
for multiple target architectures.

Intermediate Code Generation:

1. Purpose:

o Intermediate code acts as a bridge between high-level source code and low-level
machine code, abstracting away machine-specific details and enabling optimizations.

2. Forms of Intermediate Code:

o Three-Address Code (TAC): Uses statements with at most three operands, typically in
the form x = y op z.
 o Quadruples: A representation with four fields: operation, argument 1, argument 2,
and result.

o Triples: Similar to quadruples but without an explicit result field, using implicit results.

o Static Single Assignment (SSA): Each variable is assigned exactly once, simplifying data
flow analysis.

3. Translation:

o The compiler translates high-level constructs into equivalent intermediate code,

handling expressions, control flow, function calls, and data structures.

Optimization:

Optimization is the process of improving the intermediate code to enhance performance, reduce
resource usage, and increase execution speed.

1. Local Optimization:

o Applied to basic blocks (a straight-line sequence of instructions with no branches).

o Examples:

▪ Constant folding: Evaluate constant expressions at compile time.

▪ Algebraic simplification: Simplify expressions using algebraic identities.

2. Global Optimization:

o Applied across basic blocks within a function or program.

o Examples:

▪ Common subexpression elimination: Remove redundant calculations.

▪ Dead code elimination: Remove code that does not affect program output.

3. Loop Optimization:

o Focused on improving the performance of loops, a common performance bottleneck.

o Examples:

▪ Loop unrolling: Increase loop body size to reduce loop control overhead.

▪ Loop invariant code motion: Move loop-invariant computations outside the

loop.

4. Data Flow Analysis:

o Analyzes the flow of data through the program to enable optimizations.

o Examples:

▪ Live variable analysis: Identify variables that are used before being redefined.

▪ Reaching definitions: Determine which definitions reach each program point.

5. Register Allocation:
 o Assigns variables to a limited number of CPU registers to minimize memory access.

o Techniques include graph coloring and linear scan allocation.

Example of Intermediate Code and Optimization:

Consider a simple program:

int a = 2 * 3;

int b = a + 5 * 4;

Intermediate Code:

t1 = 2 * 3

a = t1

t2 = 5 * 4

t3 = a + t2

b = t3

Optimization:

• Constant Folding:

t1 = 6

a = t1

t2 = 20

t3 = a + t2

b = t3

• Algebraic Simplification:

a=6

b = a + 20

• Dead Code Elimination (if a is unused later):

b = 6 + 20

• Final Optimized Code:

b = 26

Intermediate code generation and optimization are integral parts of the compilation process, enabling
efficient translation of high-level code into machine code. Through various optimization techniques,
the compiler improves performance, reduces resource consumption, and ensures efficient execution
of the generated code.