Unit 3 – AC Motor

Contents

► Three phase induction motor – basics,

► Inverter Based Induction Motor Drive
► Modifying Torque-speed characteristics of 3 phase induction motor – Variable voltage,
variable frequency control, field oriented control, direct torque control. Braking of the
Induction Motor –
► Regenerative braking and dynamic braking.
► Losses in AC motors
Brushless DC motor

Advantages Limitations
► Wide speed range ► Cost: Rare-earth permanent magnets are much
more expensive than other permanent
► Excellent torque characteristics, good medium
magnets.
and low speed torque characteristics, large
starting torque and small starting current; ► Limited constant power range: A large
strong overload capacity; constant power range is critical to achieving
high vehicle efficiency.
► Soft start and soft stop, good braking
characteristics ► High-speed performance: Surface-mounted
motors of permanent magnets cannot achieve
► High reliability, good stability, strong
high speeds
adaptability, simple maintenance
► Small size, light weight, high output;
Single Phase Induction Motor

► A single phase induction motor, does not have a self starting torque. Auxiliaries are
required to start a single phase motor.
► Speed control of an induction motor is very difficult to attain.
► Induction motors have high input surge currents, which are referred to as Magnetising
Inrush currents. This causes a reduction in voltage at the time of starting the motor.
► Due to poor starting torque, the motor cannot be used for applications which require high
starting torque.
 Three Phase Induction Motor

► The three-phase AC induction motor is a rotating electric machine that is designed to operate on a three-phase
supply.
► These three-phase motors consist of a stator and a rotor and between which no electrical connection exists.
► These stator and rotors are constructed with the use of high-magnetic core materials in order to reduce hysteresis
and eddy current losses.
► Stator frame can be constructed using cast iron, aluminum, or rolled steel.
► The stator frame provides necessary mechanical protection and support for stator laminated core, windings, and
other arrangements for ventilation.
► The stator is wounded with three-phase windings which are overlapped with one another at a 120-degree phase
shift fitted into slotted laminations.
► The six ends of the three windings are brought out and connected to the terminal box so that these windings are
excited by three-phase main supply.
Three Phase Induction Motor

► These windings are of copper wire insulated with varnish fitted into insulated slotted
laminations.
► At all working temperatures, this impregnated varnish remains rigid. These windings have
high-insulation resistance and high resistance to the saline atmosphere, moisture, alkaline
fumes, oil, and grease, etc.
Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction
Motor
 Three-Phase Induction Motor
Torque-Speed Characteristics

► Similar to other types of electric machines, a three-phase induction machine can work as a generator and as a
motor. For this machine, however, because the stator must be connected to the three-phase circuit, the difference
between being a motor or functioning as a generator lies in the speed of the rotor.
► In general, if the rotor speed is higher than the synchronous speed, then it behaves as a generator, and if the
rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed, it becomes a motor.
► The synchronous speed is determined by the line frequency and the number of poles of the stator winding.
► The developed rotating magnetic field, after the stator is electrically connected, revolves at the synchronous
speed. This causes the rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field and rotate (thus, a motor), but, if the rotor shaft
is given mechanical energy to rotate faster than the speed of the magnetic field, then the machine behaves as a
generator.
Slip: The fact that the rotor of an induction machine does
not rotate with the same speed as the rotating magnetic
field (turning faster in a generator and slower in a motor).

Slip speed: Difference between the speeds of the rotor

and the rotating magnetic field in an AC induction
machine.
 Torque of Induction Motor

The torque produced by three phase induction motor is given by,

When the rotor is at standstill slip, s is one.

So the equation of torque is,
Where,
E2 is the rotor emf
Ns is the synchronous speed
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the rotor inductive reactance
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM TORQUE
AND EQUATION FOR MAXIMUM
TORQUE
Therefore, the maximum torque is
independent of rotor resistance, but it is
inversely proportional to rotor reactance at
standstill (i.e., X2s). Therefore, to achieve
higher value of maximum torque, the leakage
reactance of the rotor should be kept
minimum. This is achieved (i) by placing the
rotor conductors very near to the outer
periphery of the rotor and (ii) by reducing the
air gap between stator and rotor to smallest
possible value.
Effect of rotor resistance on the torque-slip
curve of an induction motor

• The effect of change in rotor resistance will change the value

of slip at which this maximum torque occurs.
• Greater the rotor resistance, greater the value of slip at which
the maximum torque occurs.

The maximum value of the torque can be obtained even at the

start by adding that much resistance in the rotor circuit so that
R2 becomes equal to X2s.
Effect of rotor resistance on the torque-slip curve
of an induction motor

► The maximum value of the torque can be obtained even at the start by adding that much
resistance in the rotor circuit so that R2 becomes equal to X2s. The following important points
may be noted from the above discussions:
► 1. The maximum torque developed by an induction motor remains constant since it is independent
of the rotor resistance.
► 2. The slip at which maximum torque occurs varies with the variation of the rotor resistance.
► 3. The starting torque increased with the increase in the value of rotor resistance.
► 4. The maximum torque is obtained at the start when rotor resistance is made equal to rotor
reactance at standstill, that is, R2 = X2s.
Configuration of induction motor drive
 Speed Control of Induction Motor

► The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side. The speed control of three
phase induction motor from stator side are further classified as :
► V / f control or frequency control.
► Changing the number of stator poles.
► Controlling supply voltage.
► Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.
► The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are further classified as:
► Adding external resistance on rotor side.
► Cascade control method.
► Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.
What do we really control?

► What is in our control?

► The voltage applied to the motor: amplitude, frequency, phase

► What do we want to control?

► The speed ( from Hall sensor, encoder, resolver….)
► The torque (inferred from the measured current)
► Flux ( inferred from speed and current)
Conventional Closed Loop Control
Induction Motor Control

► There are three main types of control strategies for induction motor drives: the
variable-voltage
► variable-frequency (VVVF) control,
► field-oriented control (FOC), and
► direct torque control (DTC).
Variable-Voltage Variable-Frequency Control

► VVVF control has been widely adopted for speed control of induction drives.
► It is based on constant volts/hertz control for frequencies below the rated frequency, and
variable-frequency control with constant rated voltage for frequencies beyond the rated
frequency.
► For very low frequencies, voltage boosting is applied to compensate the difference
between the applied voltage and induced EMF.
The magnetizing current Im at the rated speed can be expressed as

where E′r rated is the back EMF at the rated frequency and Lm is the magnetizing inductance.
Below the rated speed, the operating frequency f can be normalized as a frequency ratio a, which is defined as

Hence, the corresponding magnetizing current can be expressed as

The magnetizing current and hence flux will remain constant if E′ r = aE′r rated or simply called constant
E⁄f .

Consequently, the corresponding maximum torques, both during motoring and generating, remain
constant as given by
• Because the measurement of the back EMF is very difficult, the applied voltage is generally adopted to
approximate the back EMF.
• Thus, the desired constant E⁄f strategy is approximated by the constant V⁄f strategy for most operating
frequencies, except under low frequencies for low-speed operation.
• At low speeds, the stator impedance drop becomes appreciable so that the applied voltage can no longer
be valid to approximate the back EMF. Thus, a boosting voltage is normally required to compensate for
the stator impedance drop for low-speed operation using the constant V⁄f strategy.

Above the rated speed, the applied voltage is kept at the rated voltage Vrated, while the operating frequency
is increased above the rated frequency. Hence, the maximum torque decreases with the increase
in frequency (a > 1) as given by
• Since the slip is small, the rotor current is almost in phase with the back EMF.

• When neglecting the rotor resistance loss and stator impedance drop, the output power is equal to the
product of rated voltage and rotor current.

• Thus, under the maximum permissible stator current, this variable-frequency control offers
constant-power operation.
Beyond the critical speed, the motor is operated at the slip for
the maximum torque. Both the current and power of the motor
are allowed to decrease inversely with speed, and the torque
decreases inversely as the speed squared.

Torque-speed characteristics of
VVVF-controlled induction motor drive
 The first region is called the constant-torque region
in which the motor can deliver its rated torque for speeds below
the rated speed (normally called the
base speed 𝜔b).

In the second region, called the constant-power region, the slip

is increased gradually to the maximum value so that the stator
current remains constant and the motor can maintain its rated
power capability.

When the speed is above the critical speed 𝜔c, the slip remains
constant while the stator current decreases. Thus, the torque
capability declines with the square of speed, the so-called
reduced power region.
It should be noted that both the torque and air-gap flux
under the VVVF control are functions of voltage
and frequency. This coupling effect is actually responsible
for the sluggish response. That is, the
corresponding torque control is not fast and accurate
enough for application to high-performance EVs.
 Origin of VVVF Speed Control

► As we know that synchronous speed of machine is given as

► where f is frequency and P is number of pole.

► Thus if we can change the frequency f then it is possible to change the speed of induction motor.
► Now frequency of power supply can easily be varied using power electronics devices like inverter.
► The inverter converts DC power into AC power and feeds to induction motor.
► Inverter output may be either constant voltage variable frequency or variable voltage variable
frequency. Which one to choose?
► Suppose inverter output is constant voltage but variable frequency.
► Thus we can write V = Constant but f = Variable.
► The relationship between voltage V and frequency f is well known and can be written as

► where N is number of turns per phase and Ø is resultant air gap flux.
► Suppose we want to reduce the speed of induction motor. For this, obviously we will have to reduce the
frequency f while keeping V constant as per (1). But from (2),

► Air gap flux Ø will increase which may cause machine core to saturate which is not desirable. Thus the
concept of speed control with constant voltage variable frequency cannot be adopted.
► But from (3), it is possible to achieve constant flux Ø by maintaining (V/f) constant. This allows us to
change voltage and frequency simultaneously to have speed control while maintaining constant air gap
flux. This is the basic concept behind VVVF speed control of induction motor.
► “In VVVF speed control, motor stator supply as well as frequency is varied such that ratio (V/f) is
constant.”
Torque in VVVF Speed Control

► As discussed, frequency is varied, therefore it is quite important to have a look at the maximum torque at
variable frequency.
► As we know that torque in an induction motor is given as

► To get the maximum torque, we need to differentiate the above equation w.r.t s and equate it to zero. This
will give us the value of slip s’ at which torque is maximum as below.

► Therefore, maximum torque Tmax = k2/8π2L2

► Thus maximum torque is independent of frequency. But the speed at which maximum torque will
appear will vary slightly as per (4).

► As we increase the frequency f, ω = 2πf also increases. This in turn will reduce s’ as per (4). Thus
increasing the frequency will increase the speed of induction motor and speed at which maximum
torque appears while having the same maximum torque.
Field Oriented Control
Introduction

► Scalar control such as the “V/Hz” strategy has its limitations in terms of performance.
► The scalar control method for induction motors generates oscillations on the produced torque.
► Hence to achieve better dynamic performance, a more superior control scheme is needed for Induction
Motor.
► With the mathematical processing capabilities offered by the micro-controllers, digital signal processors
and Filed Programmable Gate Array (FGPA), advanced control strategies can be implemented to
decouple the torque generation and the magnetization functions in an AC induction motor.
► This decoupled torque and magnetization flux is commonly called rotor Flux Oriented Control
(FOC).
Field Oriented Control

► Field Oriented Control describes the way in which the control of torque and speed are directly based on
the electromagnetic state of the motor, similar to a DC motor. FOC is the first technology to control the
“real” motor control variables of torque and flux.
► With decoupling between the stator current components (magnetizing flux and torque), the torque
producing component of the stator flux can be controlled independently.
► Decoupled control, at low speeds, the magnetization state of motor can be maintained at the appropriate
level, and the torque can be controlled to regulate the speed.
► FOC has been solely developed for high-performance motor applications which can operate smoothly
over the wide speed range, can produce full torque at zero speed, and is capable of quick acceleration and
deceleration
Working Principle of Field Oriented
Control

► The field oriented control consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector.
► This control is based on projections that transform a three phase time and speed dependent system into a
two coordinate (d and q frame) time invariant system.
► These transformations and projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control.
► FOC machines need two constants as input references: the torque component (aligned with the q
coordinate) and the flux component (aligned with d coordinate).
► The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors can be analyzed in terms of complex space
vectors. If we take ia, ib, ic as instantaneous currents in the stator phases, then the stator current vector is
defined as follow:

Where, (a, b, c) are the axes of three phase system.

► This current space vector represents the three phase sinusoidal system.
► It needs to be transformed into a two time invariant coordinate system.
► This transformation can be divided into two steps:
► (a, b, c) → (α, β) (the Clarke transformation), which gives outputs of two coordinate time variant system.
► (a, β) → (d, q) (the Park transformation), which gives outputs of two coordinate time invariant system.
► The (a, b, c) → (α, β) Projection (Clarke transformation)
Three-phase quantities either voltages or currents, varying in time along the axes a, b, and c can be
mathematically transformed into two-phase voltages or currents, varying in time along the axes α
and β by the following transformation matrix:

► Assuming that the axis a and the axis α are along same direction and β is orthogonal to them, we
have the following vector diagram:
► The above projection modifies the three phase system into the (α, β) two dimension orthogonal system as
stated below:

The time domain components of

a three-phase system (in abc Resulting signals for the Clarke transform (αβ).
frame).

► But these two phase (α, β) currents still depends upon time and speed.
► The (α, β) → (d.q) projection (Park transformation)
This is the most important transformation in the FOC. In fact, this projection modifies the
two phase fixed orthogonal system (α, β) into d, q rotating reference system. The
transformation matrix is given below:

► Where, θ is the angle between the rotating and fixed coordinate system.

Signals for the Clarke transform (αβ). Resulting signals for the Park transform (dq).
Basic module of Field Oriented Control
 Field Oriented Control

► Advantages of Field Oriented Control

1. Improved torque response.
2. Torque control at low frequencies and low speed.
3. Dynamic speed accuracy.
4. Reduction in size of motor, cost and power consumption.
5. Four quadrant operation.
6. Short-term overload capability.
► On the other hand, FOC has some drawbacks including the fact that a sensor is needed for
determining the exact rotor position. This information is required to generate the magnetic field
resulting in maximum torque. In most cases, an electro-mechanical sensor or a complex software
algorithm (observer) is used.
Direct Torque Control
Introduction

► Direct torque control (DTC) is an emerging technique for controlling PWM inverter-fed induction motor
(IM) drives.
► It allows the precise and quick control of the IM flux and torque without calling for complex control
algorithms.
► In principle, moreover, it requires only the knowledge of the stator resistance.
Space vectors
Switching State Vectors
Principle of DTC
Principle of DTC
Invertor Voltage vectors and corresponding stator flux
variation in the time Δt
Conventional DTC Controller
Estimation block of Conventional DTC
Controller
Look up Table for DTC
Trajectory of stator flux vector in DTC
Effect of selected space vector
Features of DTC