→ Charge is a fundamental particle in an atom. It may be positive or negative.

→ Protons have a positive charge. Electrons have a negative charge. Neutron does not possess any
charge.
→ Charge is a scalar quantity.
→ Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

→ Coulomb (C) : S. I. unit of charge

→ 1 Coulomb charge = Charge present on approx. 6 × 1018 electrons

→ Charge on 1 electron = Negative charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C

i.e. Q = ne
Where, Q = Charge (total)
n = No. of electrons
e = Charge on 1 electron

The flow of electric charge is known as Electric Current. It is expressed in terms of the rate of
flow of charges.

The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A).

⇒ 1 A = 1 Cs-1
⇒ 1 mA = 10-3 A
⇒ 1 µA = 10-6 A

1 Ampere Current: When one Coulomb charge flows through any cross section of a conductor
in one second, the current passing through it is said to be one Ampere.

Measurement of Current: Ammeter is a device used to measure electric current.

→ Current is measured by Ammeter. It is an electrical device that is used to measure the intensity of
current in a circuit. Its symbol is
→ Ammeter has low resistance and always connected in series.

→ The direction of electric current is the same as the direction of positive charges and opposite
to the direction of flow of negative charges.

Potential difference is the amount of work done ( energy spent ) in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to another point in an electric field .
V = W/Q , where V is the potential difference, W is the work done and Q is the charge.

→ S. I. unit of Potential difference = Volt (V)

1 Volt: When 1 joule work is done in carrying one Coulomb charge then potential difference is
called 1 volt.
1 V = 1 JC-1

Voltmeter :

→ It is an electrical device that is used to measure the potential difference between any two
points.

→ Voltmeter is always connected in parallel.

→ Voltmeter has High resistance.
→ Cell or battery is the simplest device to maintain potential difference.

→ Current always flow from higher potential to lower potential.

A continuous and closed path along which an electric current flows is called an electric circuit.

The Potential difference V across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature is constant. This
is called Ohm’s law.

V ∝ I

V=IR → R is a constant called resistance for a given metal.

Where V is the voltage, I is the current and R is the resistance.

Resistance: Resistance is defined as the property of the conductor which opposes the flow of
electric current.

The S.I unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). Resistance is a Scalar quantity.

The resistance of the conductor is one ohm if a potential difference of one volt applied between
its ends, causes a current of one ampere to flow through it. [ 1 ohm = 1 volt/1ampere ]

Rheostat: Variable resistance is a component used to regulate current without changing the
source of voltage.

Limitation of Ohm's Law :

All conductors do not obey Ohm's law.

Temperature of the conductor should not change.
Ohm's law is not applicable to vacuum tubes such as diodes , triodes etc.
It is not applicable to gaseous conductor such as gases in discharge tube.

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section.
Resistance depends on the nature of the material.
Resistance is directly proportional to the temperature.

So from the above points we can conclude that

where R is the resistance, l is the length of the conductor and A is the area of the cross section.
ρ= resistivity

Resistivity: Resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered by a cylindrical

conductor of the material of cross sectional area one metre square and length one metre when
the Current flows perpendicular to the opposite ends of the cylinder.

If , l =1 m and A = 1 m2, then R = ρ

∴Resistivity of a conductor is equal to resistance of the conductor if its length is 1m and area of
cross section 1m2

The S.I unit of resistivity is ohm-meter. Conductors have very low resistivity while insulators
have very high resistivity.

→ Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10-8 to 10-6 Ωm.

→ Range of resistivity of insulators is 1012 to 1017 Ωm.

→ Resistivity of alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.

Heating elements of electrical heating appliances are made up of alloys rather than pure metals
because resistivity of alloys is much more than metals. Alloys do not oxidize (burn) readily at
high temperature, so they are commonly used in electrical heating devices.

→ Copper and Aluminium are used for electrical transmission lines as they have low
resistivity.

Resistors are used in various combinations. There are two methods of arranging the resistors in
different combinations:

(i) Resistors in Series

(ii) Resistors in Parallel

Resistors in Series Combination:

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to end.

In this case, the equivalent or the total resistance equals the sum of the number of individual
resistances present in the series combination.

Consider a case of three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in series with each other with the
corresponding voltage source (V1, V2 , and V3 ) in a circuit shown below:

The equivalent current flow through it is I, measured through the ammeter A and key K.

The equivalent potential difference is equal to the sum of the individual potential difference
across each resistor, i.e.

V=V1=V2=V3

The current I through each resistor is the same ( For single path) i.e.

I=I1=I2=I3
Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit:
VEq = IREq

By applying Ohm’s law to all resistors individually as:

V1= IR1
V2= IR2
V3 = IR3
Hence,

IR=IR1+IR2+IR3

REq=R1+R2+R3

Conclusions:

1.The current through the circuit will remain the same here.
2. The equivalent potential difference is the sum of the individual potential difference across
each resistor.
3. As a result, equivalent resistance becomes the sum of individual resistances.
4. The only disadvantage of a series combination is that, if any resistor in a series
combination is disrupted or a failure occurs, the whole circuit is switched off.
5. The series combination is needed to increase the resistance and to divide high potential
differences across many resistances.
6. Such a combination is used in resistance boxes, decorative lights etc.

Resistors in Parallel Combination:

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in parallel connected when they are
connected between two points and each has a different current direction.

Consider a case of three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in parallel with each other
with the corresponding voltage source (V1, V2, and V3) in a circuit shown below:

Here, the current flows through each resistor is different therefore, the equivalent current
 flown through the circuit is:

IEq=I1+I2+I3
Replace the three resistors connected in parallel by an equivalent single resistor of the parallel
combination of resistors be Req.

Now, by applying Ohm’s law to the parallel combination of resistors as:

IEq=V/R Eq

On applying Ohm’s law to individual resistors as:

I1= V/R1
I2=V/R2
I3=V/R3

V/R=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3

In conclusion.

1. Reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to

the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
2. The equivalent current through the circuit is the sum of individual currents through each
branch of the circuit.
3. The potential difference across the two terminal points of the circuit remains the same.
4. The reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum of reciprocal of the individual
resistances.
5.In a parallel circuit, a resistor or some other component can be easily connected or
disconnected without disturbing the other components.
6. In parallel combination, the current flown in the circuit is divided into different branches and
hence each component receives the required amount of current.
7. the equivalent resistance is always lesser than all the individual resistances.
8.If one of the components fuse or shorted, the rest of the components of the circuit works
usually.