SWARNANDHRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)

DEPARTMENT OF ROBOTICS

Machine Tools Material

By
Mr.G.Veerendra Kumar M.Tech
Assistant Professor

Red.No:
Name:

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar i|Page

 MACHINE TOOLS (20RB3T03)
Syllabus

UNIT – I: FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING: 12

Metal cutting theory -element of cutting process , geometry of single point tool angles, chip formation and
types of chips, built up edge and its effects, chip breakers, mechanics of orthogonal cutting - Merchant's
force diagram, cutting forces, cutting speeds, feed, depth of cut, tool life, coolants, tool materials.

UNIT – II: LATHE: 12

Engine lathe - principle of working, specification of lathe , types of lathe , work holders tool holders , taper
turning, thread turning - attachments, Constructional features of speed gear box and feed gear box, Turret
and capstan lathes, Collet , Chucks, other work holders, Tool holding devices - box and tool layout, Principal
features of automatic lathes - classification , single spindle and multi-spindle automatic lathes , tool layout
and cam design for automats.

UNIT – III: SHAPING, SLOTTING AND PLANNING MACHINES: 12

Shaping, Slotting and Planning machines-Principles of working , principal parts , specifications, operations
performed, machining time calculations. DRILLING MACHINES: Principles of working, Specifications, Types,
Operations Performed, Tool holding devices, Twist drill

UNIT – IV: BORING AND MILLING MACHINES:

Boring Machines - fine Boring machines , jig boring machine, deep hole drilling Machine. Milling
MachinePrinciples of working, specifications , classification , principle features of horizontal, vertical and
universal Milling Machine, machining operations, types of cutters, geometry of milling cutters , methods of
indexing, accessories to milling machines.

UNIT –V: FINISHING PROCESSES: 12

Theory of Grinding ,Classification of grinding machines- cylindrical and surface grinding machines, tool and
cutter grinding machines, Different types of abrasives, bonds, specification and selection of a grinding
wheel, Lapping, Honing & Broaching operations- comparison to grinding. Jigs & fixtures- Principles of design
of jigs and fixtures and uses, classification of jigs & fixtures.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. B. S. Raghuvamsi, Workshop Technology - Vol. - II, 2 nd edition, Dhanapat Rai publications 2016.
2. R.K. Jain and S.C. Gupta, Production Technology,16th Edition, Khanna Publishers, 2017

IMP Question Bank

1. Explain in details the working of Radial drilling machine with a neat sketch.
2. Sketch a twist drill and indicate its various features.
3. Explain in details the working of Sensitive drilling machine
1. Explain in details the working of Jig Boring machine with a neat sketch.
2. Explain in details the working of Column and Knee type Milling machine with a neat sketch.
3. Describe the various types of cutters commonly used on milling machine
1. Describe the working principle of surface grinding
2. Explain the various bonding materials used for making grinding wheels.
3. Explain lapping, broaching and Honing

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar ii | P a g e

 UNIT-1
Fundamentals of Machining
1.0. Introduction: In any engineering industry, components are made into various shapes and sizes by using metals. These
shapes and sizes are formed by using suitable tools depending on the type of operations what we choose to obtain our
requirements. So, the required shape is obtained by a suitable metal removing process. During the metal removal
process, the various forces act on the cutting tool and workpiece.
In addition to above elements, the heat is generated due to friction between tool and workpiece. This heat generation
affects the hardness of both work and tool. Finally, the grain structure of both tool and work is slightly refined. If it
continues, the tool will damage. To avoid this, a complete study of theory of metal cutting is required with its geometry
and materials used.

Metal Removing Processes: Metals are shaped into usable forms through various processes
1. Non-cutting Shaping processes operations like Forging, Drawing, Spinning, Rolling, Extruding, etc.
2. Cutting Shaping. A few of the important Machining Processes falling in this category are: Turning, Boring,
Milling, Drilling, Shaping. Planing, Broaching, etc.
 Basic Objectives of efficient and economical machining practice:
a. Quick metal removal,
b. Economy in Tool Cost,
c. High class surface finish,
d. Less Power consumption,
e. Economy in the Cost of replacement and sharpening of Tools,
f. Minimum idle time of machine tools.

1.1. Basic Elements of Machining

The Basic Elements of all Machining operations are the
following:
1. Workpiece,
2. Tool, and
3. Chip.
During machining Process, the cutting tool exerts a
Compressive Force on the work piece. The material of the work
piece is stressed beyond its yield. It causes the material to deform
plastically and shear off. The plastic flow takes place in a
localized region called Shear Plane as shown in Figure 4.1. This
shear plane extends from the cutting obliquely up to the uncut
surface ahead of the tool.
The sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small pieces called Chips. The compressive
force applied to form the chip is called Cutting Force.
The type and geometry of the chip formed are greatly affected by
 The metal of the work piece,
 Geometry of cutting tool and
 The method of cutting, etc.
 Chemical composition, and
 The rate of flow of the cutting fluid also provides considerable influence over the machining operation.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 1|Page

1.2. Mechanism of Metal Cutting
During machining, the cutting tool exerts a compressive
force on the work piece. The material of the work piece is stressed
beyond its yield point under this compressive force. It causes the
material to deform plastically and shear off. The plastic flow takes
place in a localized region called shear plane as shown in Figure
1.1. This shear plane extends from the cutting obliquely up to the
uncut surface ahead of the tool. The sheared material begins to
flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small pieces called
chips. The compressive force applied to form the chip is called
cutting force.
When the chip flows over the tool, it will wear off the tool. Due to friction, wearing heat is produced. The heat
generated raises the temperature of the work, cutting tool and chip. The temperature rise in cutting tool tends to soften it and
causes the loss of keenness in the cutting edge thereby leading to its failure. The cutting force, heat and abrasive wear are the
basic features of the metal cutting process.
The following points are worth to be noted:
1. The shear plane is actually a narrow zone of the order of about 0.025mm.
2. The cutting edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces.
a) The surface along which the chip moves upwards is called rake surface.
b) The surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing with the machined surface is called flank Surface.
During cutting process, the following properties of the work piece material are quite important.
(i) Hardness
(ii) Abrasive qualities
(iii) Toughness
(iv) Tendency to weld
(v) Inherent hard spots and surface inclusions.
The desirable properties of tool material are hard, strong, tough and wear resistance.

1.3. Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

The process of Metal Cutting is divided into the following two main classes
1. Orthogonal cutting, and
2. Oblique cutting.
A comparison between these two methods is clearly illustrated in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3.
In Fig. 4.2 is shown as to how these two Cutting Methods differ while turning a job on a lathe. Similarly, Fig. 4.3 shows the
difference between these two methods as applied to the Planing work, in which the tool remains stationary and the work
piece reciprocates past it.

Figs. 4.2 Orthogonal and Oblique cutting processes in turning.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 2|Page
 Fig. 4.3 Orthogonal and Oblique cutting processes in Planing.
Basically, in Orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool remains at Right Angles to the direction of cutting
velocity [Fig. 4.2 (a)] or work feed [Fig. 4.3 (a)]. This type of cutting is also known as Two-Dimensional Cutting. In Oblique
cutting the cutting edge of the tool is Inclined at an Acute Angle with the direction of tool feed or work feed, the chip being
disposed of at a certain angle. This type of cutting is also called Three-Dimensional Cutting. The main features of the two
types of cutting are summarised below:

1.3. i. Orthogonal Cutting

1. The cutting edge of the Tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
2. The direction of the Chip Flow Velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
3. The angle of inclination 'i' of the cutting edge of the Tool with the normal to the velocity Vc, is 'Zero'.
4. The chip flow angle 'β', i.e., the angle between the direction of chip flow and the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool, measured in the plane of the tool face, is 'Zero'.
5. The cutting edge is longer than the width of the Cut.
The last condition may not be fulfilled in some cases. It is then called Semi-Orthogonal or Restricted Orthogonal cutting.

1.3. ii. Oblique Cutting

1. The cutting edge of the Tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle ' β ' with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is
known as Chip flow Angle.
3. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle 'r with the normal to the direction of work feed or tool feed, ie,
the Velocity Vc
4. Three mutually perpendicular components of Cutting Forces act at the cutting edge of the Tool.
5. The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the width of the Cut.
An interesting feature to note here will be that most of the metal cutting carried out in workshops is through Oblique Cutting
method, but all our further discussions on metal cutting will be in the context of Orthogonal Cutting because of its simplicity.
However, it won't matter much since most of the general principles of Orthogonal Cutting are equally applicable to Oblique
Cutting.

1.4. Classification of Cutting Tools

All the cutting tools used in metal cutting can be broadly classified as :
1. Single Point Tools: Those having only One cutting edge; such as
i. Lathe tools,
ii. Shaper tools,
iii. Planer tools,
iv. Boring tools, etc.
2. Multi-Point Tools: Those having more than one cutting edges. (These tools may, for the sake of analysis, be
considered as consisting of a number of Single point tools, each forming a cutting edge). such as
i. Milling cutters,
ii. Drills, Broaches,
iii. Grinding wheels, etc.
The Cutting tools can also be classified according to the motion as:
 Linear Motion Tools; Lathe, Boring, Broaching, Planing, Shaping tools, etc.
 Rotary Motion Tools; Milling cutters, grinding wheels, etc.
 Linear and Rotary Tools; Drills, Honing tools, Boring Heads, etc.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 3|Page
1.5. Geometry of Single point Cutting TOOL
Single point cutting tools are commonly used in lathe, Planners, Shapers machine for cutting operation. These tools are
classified as left-handed and right-handed. A tool is said to be right-handed if their cutting edge is on the right side when
the tool is viewed from the point end.

Fig. 4.4 Principle Angles of a Single Point Cutting Tool

Important Terms
Before proceeding further, it would be advisable to be acquainted with a few important terms related to the Geometry of
Single point tools (See Fig. 4.4).
1. Shank. It forms the main body of a solid tool and it is this part of the tool which is gripped in the Tool Holder.
2. Face. It is the top surface of the tool between the shank and the point of the tool. In the cutting action, the chips flow
along this surface only.
3. Point. It is the wedge shaped portion where the face and flank of the tool meet. It is the cutting part of the tool. It is
also called nose, particularly in case of Round nose tools.
4. Flank. Portion of the tool which faces the work is termed as flank. It is the surface adjacent to and below the cutting
edge when the tool lies in a horizontal position.
5. Base. It is actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a Tool holder or clamped directly in a Tool
post.
6. Heel. It is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool where the base and flank of the tool meet, as shown in Fig.
7. Nose Radius. If the Cutting tip (nose) of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting point, the cutting tip is weak. It is,
therefore, highly stressed during the operation, may fail or lose its cutting ability soon and produce marks on the
machined surface.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 4|Page
 In order to prevent these harmful effects the nose is provided with a radius, called Nose radius. It enables greater
strength of the Cutting tip, a prolonged Tool life and a superior Surface finish on the workpiece. Also, as the value
of this radius increases, a higher cutting speed can be used. But, if it is too large it may lead to Chatter. So, a balance
has to be maintained. Its value normally varies from 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm, depending upon several factors like depth of
cut, amount of feed, type of cutting, type of tool (solid or with insert), etc.

Principal Angles of Single Point Tools:

The different Angles provided on Single point Tools play a significant role in successful and efficient machining of
different metals. A thorough study of these tool angles is, therefore, a must. The main angles provided on these tools are
shown in Fig. 4.4 and the average values of these angles for cutting different metals are given later in Lathe Work.
1. End Cutting Edge Angle: The angle formed in between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank is
called end cutting edge angle.
2. Side Cutting Edge Angle: The angle formed in between the side cutting edge and a line parallel to the shank.
3. Back Rack Angle: The angle formed between the tool face and line parallel to the base is called back rake angle.
4. End Relief Angle: The angle formed between the minor flank and a line normal to the base of the tool is called end
relief angle. It is also known as front clearance angle. It avoid the rubbing of the workpiece against tool.
5. Lip Angle/ Wedge Angle: It is defined as the angle between face and minor flank of the single point cutting tool.
6. Side Rake Angle: The angle formed between the tool face and a line perpendicular to the shank is called side rake
angle.
7. Side Relief Angle: the angle formed between the major flank surface and plane normal to the base of the tool is
called side relief angle. This angle avoids the rubbing between workpiece and flank when the tool is fed
longitudinally.

1.6. Nomenclature
There are three coordinate systems which are most popular in tool nomenclature. And these are
1. Machine Reference System (MRS)
2. Orthogonal Tool Reference System (ORS) or Orthogonal Rake System
3. Normal Reference System (NRS)

1.6.1. Tool Signature

The shape of a tool is specified in a special sequence and this special sequence is called Tool Signature.
The tool signature is given below
10 – 20 – 7 – 6 – 8 – 15 - 0.8

(i) Back rake angle (αy)

(ii) Side rake angle (αx)
(iii) Clearance or End Relief angle ( βy)
(iv) Side Relief angle ( βx)
(v) End cutting edge angle ( ϕe)
(vi) Side cutting edge angle ( ϕs )
(vii) Nose radius (Ɵ)
A typical tool signature of a single point cutting tool is 10 – 20 – 7 – 6 – 8 – 15 - 0.8. Here this tool signature indicates that
the tool has 10, 20, 7, 6, 8, 15 degree back rake, side rake, end relief, side relief, end cutting edge, side cutting edge angle
and 0.8 mm nose radius.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 5|Page

1.7. Reference Planes: The following two Systems of Reference planes are used to describe the geometry and locate the
different parameters of a single point Cutting Tool.
1. The Coordinate System:
In this system, it is assumed that the tool, although held
in position in space with reference to the Workpiece, is
not operating on the workpiece. This situation can be
conceived as the tool being held in position by hand
against a stationary workpiece. It is for this reason that
this system is also known as Tool in Hand System. This
system consists of three Principal Reference Planes, as
shown in Fig. 4.5.
The Horizontal plane which contains the base of the
shank of the Cutting Tool is known as Base Plane. The
second Reference plane is a Vertical plane, normal to

the base plane and parallel to the direction of feed (f) of the Cutting tool. It is called the Longitudinal Plane (XX').
The third Reference plane, called the Transverse Plane (YY’), is perpendicular to both the above reference planes and is
Cutting- parallel to the transverse motion of the tool, i.e., the depth of cut (d). This combination of Reference Planes is
known as Coordinate System of Reference Planes.
2. The Orthogonal System:
In this system of reference planes it is assumed that the
Cutting Tool is operating against the workpiece. As usual,
there are three main Reference Planes. One of these, the
horizontal plane, contains the base of the Cutting Tool and
is known as the Base Plane. The second plane, which is
perpendicular to the base plane, contains the Principal
Cutting Edge (c) and is called the Cutting Plane. The third
plane, which is perpendicular to both the above planes, is
known as Orthogonal Plane. This set of reference planes is
known as Orthogonal System of Reference Planes and is
shown in Fig. 4.6.

1.7.1 Tool Geometry In Orthogonal Rake System (O.R.S.)

This system is also known as Orthogonal Rake System (O.R.S.) or International System. Further, because of the
nomenclature (L, M and N) of the Principal planes (See Fig. 4.8), it is also described by some authors as L-M-N Planes
System. As already stated earlier, the tool in this system is supposed to be operating on the workpiece. Therefore, many tool
parameters are variable in this system and their actual values are affected by the tool position with regard to the workpiece in
actual operation. The different Tool angles in this System, are shown in Fig. 4.8.
Tool Designation in ORS System: In ORS System, only the main parameters of a Single Point Cutting Tool are
designated in the following order:
• Inclination angle (λ),
• Orthogonal rake angle (α)
• Side relief angle (γ),
• End relief angle (γ1)
• Auxiliary cutting angle (ϕ1)
• Approach angle (ϕ0) and
• Nose radius (R).

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 6|Page

 ---------------------------------------------------------xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx-----------------------------------------------

1.8. Chip Formation:

Consider Fig. 4.9, which represents an Orthogonal Cutting.
It is a schematic representation of a Shaping operation, in which the
workpiece remains stationary and the fool advances into the
workpiece towards the left. Thus, the metal in front of the tool gets
compressed very severely, causing Shear stress. This stress is
maximum along a plane, called Shear plane. If the material of the
workpiece is ductile, the material flows plastically along the shear
plane, forming the chip, which flows upwards along the face of the
tool.
 The complete area represented by PQRS, in which the metal
deformation occurs, is known as Shear Zone. 3
 The various types of chips are formed during metal cutting. The type of chip formed during metal cutting depends upon
the machining condition and material to be cut.
The following variables are influencing in producing the type of chip such as
(i) Mechanical properties of material to be cut in particular ductility and brittleness
(ii) Depth of cut
(iii) Various angles of tool especially rake angle
(iv) Cutting speed
(v) Feed rake
(vi) Type of cutting fluid
(vii) Machining temperature of cutting region
(viii) Surface finish required on work piece
(ix) Coefficient of friction between chip and tool interface

1.9. Types of Chips:

The Chips produced during machining of various metals can be broadly classified into the following three types.
1. Discontinuous or Segmental Chips
2. Continuous Chip
3. Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 7|Page
 1. Continuous Chip:
During cutting of ductile material, a continuous ribbon such as chips is produced due to the pressure of the tool
cutting edge in compression and shear. These types of chips are in the form of long coil and have the same thickness
throughout the length.
 Favorable condition for formation of continuous Chip are:
 Ductile material such as low carbon steel, aluminum, copper etc.
 Smaller depth of cut
 High cutting speed
 Large rake angle
 Sharp cutting edge
 Proper cutting fluid
 Low friction between Tool face and chip interface.
2. Discontinuous or Segmental Chip:
Discontinuous chips as shown in Figure. are produced while machining brittle materials such as grey cast iron,
bronze, high carbon steel at low cutting speeds without fluids when the friction exists between tool and chip interface.
During machining, the brittle material lacks its ductility which is necessary for the plastic chip formation. But, it
should be less. It results the formation of discontinuous chip. In the case of continuous chip, the formation shearing
occurs at the head of the cutting tool continuously without fracture whereas in discontinuous chip formation, the
rupture occurs intermittently which will produce segments of chips.
Handling of these chips is easier and it can be easily disposed off since they are having small lengths. Also, it will
not spoil the finished work surface as they do not interfere.
• Favorable condition for formation of discontinuous chips:
 Machining of brittle material
 Small rake angle
 Higher depth of cut
 Low cutting speeds
 Excess cutting fluids
 Cutting ductile material at very low feeds with small rake angle of the tool.

3. Continuous Chip with Built-Up Edge:

During cutting process, the interface temperature and pressure are quite high and also high friction
between tool-chip interface. It causes the chip material to weld itself to the tool face near the nose called "built-up
edge" as shown in Figure. The formation of a built-up edge in continuous chip is a transient and not stable
phenomenon. The accumulated built-up of chip material will then break away, part adhering to the underside of the
chip and part to the work piece. Thus, the process gives a rise to the poor surface finish on the machined surface and
accelerated wears on the tool face.
However, this type of chips has some advantages. The one important favour of it is that the rake face of the
tool protected from wears due to moving chips and the action of heat. It may result the increasing of tool life.
 Favorable condition for formation of continuous chips with built-up edge
 Low cutting speed
 Small rake angle
 Coarse feed
 Strong adhesion between chips and tool interface
 Insufficient cutting fluid
 Large uncut thickness.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 8|Page

Adverse Effects of Built-up Edge Formation
Rough surface finish on the workpiece.
Fluctuating cutting force, causing vibrations in Cutting Tool.
Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the built-up surface, producing Crater on the tool face
and causing tool wear.
For avoiding the formation of Built-up Edge the following precautions are required:
 The coefficient of friction at the chip-tool interface should be minimized by means of polishing the tool face and
adequate supply of coolant during the operation.
 The Rake angle should be kept large.
 High cutting speeds and low feeds should be employed, because at high speeds the strength of the weld becomes
low. Similarly, at very high temperature also the strength of the weld becomes low.

1.10. CHIP BREAKERS:

During machining, long and continuous chips formed at high cutting speed will affect the machining process. It
will spoil the tool, work and machine. These chips are hard, sharp, and hot. It will be difficult to remove the metal and
also dangerous to safety. Chip breakers are used to break the chips into small pieces for easy removal, safety and to
prevent damaging the machine and work.
It is very important in automatic machines and machines which are running at high speeds. The chip breaker is
provided on the cutting tool as shown in Figure 1.12.

The different types of chip breakers used on a cutting tool are:

i. Step Type
ii. Groove Type
iii. Clamp Type
 In the step type, a step is ground on the tool face behind the cutting edge. This step will break the chip.
 In groove type, a groove on the tool face behind the cutting edge will break the chip.
 In the clamp type, a thin chip breaker is clamped or screwed on the face of the tool.

1.11. Geometry of Chip Formation

Generally, the chip thickness after cutting is larger than the chip thickness before cutting the work piece. Also the metal
before to being cut is much longer than the chip
which is removed.
Let
t1 = Chip thickness before cutting.
t2 = Chip thickness after cutting.
The ratio of chip thickness before cutting
to chip thickness after cutting is Called Chip
Thickness Ratio. It is denoted by r.
𝒕𝟏
𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝒓 = …… 𝟏
𝒕𝟐

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 9|Page

The reciprocal of chip thickness ratio is called Chip Reduction Coefficient. It is denoted by k.
𝟏
𝒌=
𝒓
There is no change in volume when the metal is cut.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝.
𝒕𝟏 × 𝒍𝟏 × 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒕𝟐 × 𝒍𝟐 × 𝒃𝟐
𝑡1 , 𝑙1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 =. Thickness, width and length of chip before cutting.
𝑡2 , 𝑙2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏2 =. Thickness, width and length of chip After cutting.
Since 𝑏1 = 𝑏2
𝒕 𝟏 × 𝒍 𝟏 = 𝒕𝟐 × 𝒍 𝟐
𝑡1 𝑙2
= = 𝒓
𝑡2 𝑙1
The chip thickness ratio is used to measure shear angle (β) as follows.
From right angle triangle ABC
𝒕𝟏
𝑨𝑩 = ……………………2
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
From right angle triangle ABD,
𝐵𝐷
= sin(90 − 𝛽 + 𝛼) = cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐴𝐵
𝒕𝟐
𝑨𝑩 = ……………………………… 3
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷 − 𝜶)
where α = rake angle
From right angle triangle ABD,

BD AB = Sin (90-B + a) = Cos (B-α)

Equating the equation 2 and 3,
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
= ==>> =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝑡2 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
𝒓= …………………………4
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷 − 𝜶)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑟=
cos 𝛽 cos 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑟 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛼 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑟cos α
+ =1 ==>> + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝑟cos α
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 =
1 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
From the above relation shear angle,
𝒓𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂
𝜷 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 − [ ] ………………5
𝟏 − 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶

1.12. Velocity Relationship

The relationship of different velocities for Orthogonal Cutting is shown in Fig. 4.15. Let the velocities depicted in the
diagram be as follows:
𝑉𝑐 = Velocity of tool relative to work, or the Cutting Velocity.
𝑉𝑓 = Velocity of chip flow relative to tool, or the Chip flow velocity
𝑉𝑠 = Velocity of displacement of the chip along the shear plane relative to work, or the Velocity of Shear.
Of the above three Velocities the Cutting velocity V, is always known. The other two can be computed with its help of the
following relations, which refer to the velocity diagram shown on the right hand side in Fig. 4.15.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 10 | P a g e

From standard trigonometrical ratios, we get
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑠
= =
sin(90 − 𝛽 + 𝛼) sin 𝛽 sin(90 − 𝛼)
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑠
= =
cos(𝛽 − 𝛼) sin 𝛽 cos 𝛼
From these relations the values of 𝑉𝑓 , and 𝑉𝑠 , can be derived in terms of the known velocity 𝑉𝑐 , as follows:
cos 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑐 .
cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
and,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑐 .
cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒄 . 𝒓 … … … … … 6 ′.′ 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟒 => 𝒓 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷−𝜶)

1.3. Merchant for Circle (Force Relationship in Orthogonal Cutting)

It is clear from Fig. 4.16 that a number of forces act on the chip during metal cutting. The relationships among these forces
were established by Merchant with the following assumptions:

1. Cutting velocity always remains constant.

2. Cutting edge of the tool should be sharp throughout cutting.
3. There is no sideways flow of chip
4. Only continuous chip is produced.
5. There is no Built-up Edge.
6. No consideration is made of the inertia force of the chip.
7. The behavior of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of a stable equilibrium

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 11 | P a g e

Figure illustrates the forces acting on a chip in Orthogonal Cutting. The forces represented are the following:
Fs= Shear Force (Metal resistance to shear in chip formation, acting along the shear plane)
Fn= Backing up force exerted by the workpiece on the chip, acting normal to the shear plane.
N = Normal Force exerted by the tool on the chip, acting normal to the tool face.
F = μ.N= Frictional Resistance of the tool against the chip flow, acting along the tool face.
𝑭
𝝁 = ==>> 𝑭 = 𝝁. 𝑵
𝑵
 These forces are represented in the free-body diagram shown on the right hand side in Fig. 4.16. It will be observed that
 forces Fs, and Fn, can be easily replaced by their resultant R and
 Force’s F and N by their resultant R'.
 Thus, all these forces are resolved to only to forces R and R'. For equilibrium, these forces R and R' should be equal, act
opposite to each other and should be collinear,
For the convenience in studying further relationship, the two Triangles of Forces of the above free body diagram
have been combined together in Fig. 4.17, called the Merchant's Circle Diagram for Cutting Forces, in which the following
new components figure:
Fc = Cutting Force exerted by the tool on the workpiece.
Ft = Thrust force which helps in holding the tool in position and acts on the tool nose.
These two forces can easily be found out with the help of Strain Gauges or Force Dynamometers.
 The angle α is a known quantity, being the rake angle of the tool. With the help of the equations given in Art. 4.15,
 The value of β can also be determined. When all these four values i.e. of Fc, Ft, α , β are known, all the other forces can
be easily calculated with the help of geometry with reference to Fig. Merchant Force Circle Diagram, as follows:

𝐹 = 𝐴𝑄 + 𝑄𝐵
= 𝐴𝑄 + 𝐶𝐷
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 … … … … … … 7
𝑁 = 𝑄𝐷
= 𝑃𝑄 − 𝑃𝐷
𝑵 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 ……………… 8
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐴𝐻 − 𝐻𝐾
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 12 | P a g e
 = 𝐴𝐻 − 𝑃𝐸
𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 ……………… 9
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐶𝐾
= 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐶𝐸
= 𝑃𝐻 + 𝐶𝐸
𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 … … … … … 10
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑅 cos (𝜙 − 𝛼) … … … … … … … 11
𝑭𝒕 = 𝑅 sin (𝜙 − 𝛼) … … … … … … … 12

For more details refer below table

𝐹 = 𝐴𝑄 + 𝑄𝐵 𝐴𝑄
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝐶𝐷
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑄 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑃𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
𝐴𝑄 = 𝑃𝐴. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑃𝐶
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑃𝐶. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝐴𝑄 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑭𝒕 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑁 = 𝑄𝐷 𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝐷
cos 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 =
= 𝑃𝑄 − 𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐶
𝑵 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐶. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
= 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑭𝒕 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐴𝐻 − 𝐻𝐾 𝐴𝐻 𝑃𝐸
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = sin 𝜙 =
= 𝐴𝐻 − 𝑃𝐸 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐶
𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 𝐴𝐻 = 𝑃𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐶. sin 𝜙
𝐴𝐻 = 𝑭𝒄 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑭𝒕 . sin 𝜙
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐶𝐾 𝑃𝐻 𝐶𝐸
sin 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 =
= 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐶𝐸 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐶
= 𝑃𝐻 + 𝐶𝐸 𝑃𝐻 = 𝑃𝐴 . sin 𝜙 𝐶𝐸 = 𝑃𝐶. cos 𝜙
𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 𝑃𝐻 = 𝑭𝒄 . sin 𝜙 𝐶𝐸 = 𝑭𝒕 . cos 𝜙

From principle of friction

𝐹
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 ==≫ 𝜇=
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
𝑁
𝐹 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
𝜇= =
𝑁 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼
𝐹𝑐 tan 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡
𝜇=
𝐹𝑐 − 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝛼
𝐹𝑡 + 𝐹𝑐 tan 𝛼
𝜇=
𝐹𝑐 − 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝛼
𝐹
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛− [𝜇] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛− [ ]
𝑁
and also we have
𝑭𝒕
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧( 𝝓 − 𝜶)
𝑭𝒄
------------------------------------------x-----------------------------------------

1.4. Forces on a Single Point Tool in Turning: In case of oblique cutting three component forces act simultaneously
on the tool point, as shown in Fig.

The components are:

 𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒕 = The Feed Force or Thrust Force
Acting in horizontal plane parallel to the axis of the work.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 13 | P a g e

  𝑭𝒛 = 𝑭𝒓 = The Radial Force,
Acting in the horizontal plane but along a radius of the workpiece, ie, along the axis of the tool.
 𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒄 =The Cutting Force,
Acting in vertical plane and is tangential to the work surface. Also called the Tangential Force.

 Out of these three component forces, 𝑭𝒄 , is the largest and 𝑭𝒕 , the smallest.
𝑭𝒄 , 𝑭𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑭𝒓
 In case of Orthogonal Cutting, discussed in the previous article, only two component forces come into play since the
value of 𝑭𝒓 , is 'zero' in that case.
 In the present case of turning operation, the components 𝑭𝒄 , 𝑭𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑭𝒓 , can be easily determined with the help of
suitable Force Dynamometers. Their resultant R can then be computed from the following relation:

𝑹 = √𝑭𝟐𝒄 + 𝑭𝟐𝒕 + 𝑭𝟐𝒓

1.5. Work Done In Cutting

The total work done is cutting is equal to the sum of the work done in shearing the metal and the work done in
overcoming the friction,

𝑊 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

𝑊 𝑠 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑊 𝑓 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑾 = 𝑾 𝒔 + 𝑾 𝒇 ………………… 𝒊
Now, the Total Work supplied by the Motor is partly used in Cutting and partly in Feeding the tool.

𝑾 = (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈) + (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑭𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)

𝑊 = (𝐹𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐 ) + (𝐹𝑡 × 𝑉𝑡 )
 In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal.
 Similarly, 𝐹𝑡 is very small as compared to 𝐹𝑐 so, the work spent in feeding can be negligible.
Therefore,
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒄 × 𝑽𝒄 … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊
Also, under ideal conditions, ie, when there is no loss of work,

1.6. Horse Power Calculation

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑯. 𝑷. 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 =
4500
𝐹𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐
= 𝒉. 𝒑
4500
𝑭𝒄 × 𝑽𝒄
= 𝒌𝑾
4500 × 1.36

𝑭𝒄 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑽𝒄 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛.

---------------------------------------------------------------x---------------------------------------------------------------

1.7. Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth Of Cut

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 14 | P a g e

i. Cutting Speed :
Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the work moves concerning the tool (usually measured in feet per
minute). The cutting speed, expressed in RPM, must not be confused with the spindle speed of the lathe which is expressed
in RPM. To obtain uniform cutting speed, the lathe spindle must be revolved faster for workplaces of small diameter and
slower for workplaces of large diameter.
The proper cutting speed for a given job depends upon the hardness of the material being machined, the material of
the tool bit, and how much feed and depth of cut is required. Cutting speeds for metal are usually expressed in surface feet
per minute, measured on the circumference of the work.

Cutting Speed Calculation: Cutting Speed is the speed at which the metal is removed by the cutting tool from the
workpiece. In the case of lathe machine cutting speed is the peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool. It is expressed
in meter/min. or mm/min.

𝜋 𝐷𝑁
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑽𝒄 ) = × 1000 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
60

 Where D = diameter of the workpiece (mm)

 N = rpm of the work

ii. Feed:
Feed of the Cutting Tool can be defined as the distance it travels along or into the workpiece for each pass of its
point through a particular position in unit time. For example, in Turning operation on a lathe it is equal to the
advancement of the tool corresponding to each revolution of the work..
The cutting Speed and Feed of a Cutting Tool is largely influenced by the following factors:
 Tool material.
 Work material.
 Depth of cut.
 Tool geometry.
 Type of machine tool.
 Surface quality required.

iii. Depth of Cut:

It is indicative of the penetration of the Cutting Edge of the tool into the workpiece material in each pass, measured
perpendicular to the machined surface, Le, it determines the thickness of metal layer removed by the cutting tool in one
pass. For example, in Turning operation on a lathe it is given by:
𝑫−𝒅
𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒕 =
𝟐
where, D= Original diameter of the stock in mm
d = Diameter obtained after turning, in mm.
---------------------------------------------------------------x---------------------------------------------------------------

1.8. Sources of Heat In Metal Cutting:

The sources of heat generation during metal cutting are the following.
1. Friction
2. Plastic deformation of metal
3. Chip distortion
1. Friction:
A lot of friction always takes place between the cutting tool and
the work piece and between the tool face and the chips passing over
it. The total amount of heat generated depends upon many factors viz.
cutting speed, feed, tool material, depth of cut and metal being
machined. The heat so generated is known as heat of friction.

2. Plastic deformation of metal:

Cutting tool exerts high pressure on the adjacent metal grains
which due to this pressure start slipping along their planes of
weakness. This causes deformation of all of them. The action of
slipping of these grains in contact with one another causes friction,
leading to the generation of the heat of deformation. The total amount
of heat generated again depends upon the cutting speed, feed, depth of
cut and the metal being machined. Higher speeds, feeds, more depth
of cut, tougher materials contribute to greater heat generation.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 15 | P a g e
3. Chip distortion:
In machining, as the cut proceeds and the chips curl out, the inside and the outside grain of the chip metal are
subjected to compression and tension respectively. This causes distortion of the chip grains are the chips leading to a sort
of internal friction amongst the grains and consequently generation of heat of chip distortion. The amount of heat
generated depends on feeds and depth of cut. Heavier the feed and deeper the cut, the longer will be the area of cross-
section of the chip and more distortion amongst the grains, resulting in higher amount of heat generation.
During Metal Cutting, heat is generated in three regions as shown in Fig. 4.22. These regions are the following:
1. Around Shear Plane
2. Tool-chip Interface
3. Tool-workpiece Interface
---------------------------------------------------------------x---------------------------------------------------------------

1.9. Tool Failure

A properly designed Cutting Tool is not giving a satisfactory performance, it is indicative of the Tool failure .
Following effects of Tool failure:
1. Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece.
2. Higher consumption of power.
3. Work dimensions not being produced as specified.
4. Overheating of Cutting Tool.
5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface.
Reasons:

1. Thermal cracking and softening.

2. Mechanical chipping.
3. Gradual wear.
1. Thermal Cracking and Softening
The lot of heat is generated during the process of metal cutting Due to this heat the tool tip and the area closer to the
cutting edge becomes very hot. Although the cutting tool material is quite hard to withstand this temperature, still every tool
material has a certain limit to which it can withstand the elevated temperature without losing its hardness.
If that limit is crossed, the tool material starts deforming plastically at the tip and adjacent to the cutting edge under the
action of the cutting pressure and the high temperature. Thus, the tool loses its cutting ability and is said to have failed due to
softening.
The temperature ranges for tool materials are:
 Carbon tool steels 200°C to 250°C
 High speed steels 560°C to 600°C
 Cemented carbides 800°C to 1000°C

2. Mechanical Chipping
.

Mechanical Chipping of the nose and/or the cutting edge of the tool
are commonly observed causes of tool failure.. The common reasons
for such failures are Too high Cutting pressure, Mechanical impact,
Excessive wear, Too high Vibrations and Chatter, Weak tip and
Cutting edge, etc. A typical form of Mechanical Chipping is shown
in Fig

3. Gradual Wear
When a tool is in use for some time, it is found to have lost some weight or mass, implying that it has lost some
material from it, which is due to Wear
Types
a. Crater Wear
b. Flank Wear
c. Nose wear:

a. Flank wear:
Flank wear is due to abrasive action of discontinuities like
debris from built up edge etc. It wears out side and end flank of
the tool. It is occur at tool work-piece interface. This wear
predominates at low speed.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 16 | P a g e
b. Crater wear:
Crater wear generally occur in machining ductile material due to abrasion and diffusion of metal at face of tool. It is
occur at face at a short distance from cutting edge. This wear predominates at high speed.
c. Nose wear:
Nose wear are consider as separate part of wear. It wears out the tool corner. It is the matting part of flank and face
which is combination effect of crater wear and flank wear. It is considered as separate wear because the tool corners are
very important for proper cutting of work-piece.

Tool Wear Mechanism:

1. Abrasive wear:
2. Adhesion wear:
3. Diffusion
4. Oxidation
5. Chemical decomposing
1. Abrasive wear:
This wear is depends upon work hardening of work piece. When the tool cut the work piece, some small chips are
forms which act as hard particle. These hard particle acts as small cutting edge like grinding wheel, which cause tool
wear.
2. Adhesion wear:
This tool wear is due to sliding of chips over the tool. The chips forms by metal cutting are hard and have high
temperature. This is wear is due to rubbing of these chips over the tool. This wear cause due to high friction and high
temperature of chips flowing over tool face.
3. Diffusion:
Diffusion means diffuse of hard metal into soft metal due to high temperature of contact surface between hard
material and soft material. In tool wear chips act as hard material and tool act as soft material.
4. Oxidation:
Oxidation mean diffuse of oxygen particle tool face. It is also depend surface temperature of tool and tool material.
5. Chemical decomposing:
Due to high temperature and pressure there is change in chemical composition of tool which reduces its life.
---------------------------------------------------------------x---------------------------------------------------------------

1.10. TOOL LIFE

 Tool life is defined as the time period of a tool in which tool works efficiently and properly in between two successive
grinding and withstand to working conditions.
 Tool life also depends on its ability to work and resistance to different conditions, to know the proper function of the
tool there are some factors represents the tool life. and these factors helps to find the life period of tool
o Different types of factors that affect the tool life are as follows
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and Depth of cut
3. Tool Geometry
4. Tool Material
5. Work material
6. Cutting Fluids
1. Cutting Speed:
Out of all the above factors, the maximum effect on tool life is of Cutting Speed. The tool life varies
inversely as the Cutting Speed, i.e., the higher the cutting speed the smaller the tool life. Generally, the reduction in
tool life corresponding to an increase in cutting speed is Parabolic. as shown in Fig. 4.30. Based on the pioneer work
of F.W. Taylor, the relationship between Cutting Speed and Tool Life can be expressed as
𝑽 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪
Where, V = Cutting speed (m/mm)
T = Tool life (minutes)
n = an exponent, Tool Life Index
C = A Constant, called Machining Constant,

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 17 | P a g e

For all practical purposes the average values of exponent 'n' for common tool materials can be taken as:
n = 0.1 to 0.15 for High Speed Steel tools
0.2 to 0.5 for Cemented Carbide tools
0.6 to 1.0 for Ceramic tools.

2. Feed and Depth of cut: Refer 1.7

3. Tool Geometry: Refer 1.7.
4. Tool Material: If the material can withstand to high cutting speed and high temperature without changing in
mechanical properties this ensure the maximum tool life.
5. Work Material: If the work material has high hardness then the tool life is greater. and for higher temperature
metals have the tendency to stick to tool phase.
6. Cutting Fluids: This is used to improve the efficiency, by reducing the heat between tool and work-piece. This also
used to reduce the friction and heat generated can decreases. This improves the working period.
---------------------------------------------------------------x---------------------------------------------------------------

1.11. Characteristics of Cutting Tool Materials:

The materials used for the manufacture of cutting tools should possess the following characteristics:
o Hardness,
o Hot hardness and pressure resistance.
o Bending strength and toughness.
o Inner bonding strength.
o Wear resistance.
o Oxidation resistance.
o Small propensity for diffusion and adhesion.
o Abrasion resistance.
o Edge strength

Types of Cutting Tool Materials

1. Plain High Carbon Tool Steel
2. Low Alloy Carbon Tool Steel
3. High Speed Steel
4. Cemented Carbides
5. Ceramics
6. Diamond Tools
7. Abrasives
8. CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) etc.

1. Plain High Carbon Tool Steel:

Before 1900, all types of tools were made of carbon tool steel. The chief characteristics of plain carbon tool steel are
low hot hardness and poor hardenability. The carbon steels are limited in use to tools of small section which operate at
relatively low speed.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 18 | P a g e
 The typical composition of the plain carbon steel is:

C = 0.8 to 1.3%, Si = 0.1 to 0.4%, Mn = 0.1 to 0.4%

Temperature ranges are 200°C to 250°C

2. Low Alloy Carbon Tool Steel:

In order to increase hardness of tools, simple addition of carbon content makes it brittle. Small amounts of
chromium and molybdenum are frequently used to improve harden ability of tool steels. Upto 4% of tungsten is
sometimes added to these steels in order to improve their wear resistance.
These types of materials are used where wear resistance is required. These steels are widely used for drills, taps and
reamers. Their hot hardness is about the same as that of the carbon steels and are not satisfactory for high speed turning
and milling.

3. High Speed Steel:

The introduction of high speed steel made possible a significant increase in machining speed, which accounts for its
name. The chief characteristics of these steels are superior hot hardness and wear resistance. These can retain their
cutting edge hardness at temperatures upto 600°C but soften rapidly at higher temperatures. Cutting speeds are limited
upto 0.75 to 1.8 m/sec beyond which they fail rapidly.
The high speed steels are of two major types, viz., tungsten and molybdenum type and cobalt type.
A common type of high-speed steel contains
18% Tungsten,
4% Chromium,
1% Vanadium, and only
0.5–0.8% Carbon.
See also heat treating, stainless steel.

4. Cemented Carbides:
Thus cemented carbide is a typical powder metallurgy product. Cemented carbides are very effective in
machining cast irons and certain abrasive non-ferrous alloys, but as such are not good for cutting steel because wear
craters are developed on the face of the tool.

5. Ceramics:
Ceramics consist mainly of sintered oxides (A1 2O3) and are prepared in the form of clamped tips and
as throw away inserts. These can be used at very high speed (beyond carbide tools), resist built -up edge and
produce good surface finish. These are extremely brittle, so their use is limit ed for continuous cuts. Friction
at rake face is usually lower as compared to carbide tools but temperature is higher because these are poor
conductors of heat. To strengthen the cutting edge, a small chamfer or radius is often stoned on the cutting
edge and negative rake of about 15-20° is provided.

6. Diamond Tools:
Apart from its use as an abrasive due to its high hardness, diamond is also used to make other
products for its many other good properties such as high heat-conductivity, low friction coefficient, high
chemical stability, high resistivity and high optical performances.

7. Abrasives:
The most important physical properties of materials that qualify as abrasives are hardness, toughness (or
rigidity), grain shape and size, character of fracture (or cleavage), and purity (or uniformity)

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 19 | P a g e

 UNIT-2
LATHE MACHINE
Introduction
 These days lathe machine is the most popular and essential machinery in metalworking. LATHE is an
abbreviation of “Longitudinal Access Turning Horizontal Equipment”
 It is commonly known as the father of all machine tools.
 In the year 1797 Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe which is forerunner of
the present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe, a machine tool which has practically given shape to
our present day by building machines and industries.

Function of lathe
 The main function of lathe is to remove material from the workpiece to give it the required shape and size.
 This is accomplished by holding the workpiece securely on the machine and then turning it against the tool
which will remove the material from the workpiece.
 To cut the material properly the tool should be harder than the workpiece material, should be rigidly held on
the machine and should be fed in a definite way relative tothe workpiece.

Types of lathe
 Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes, from very small bench lathes used for precision work
to huge lathes used for turning large steel shafts. But the principle of operation and function of all types of
lathes is same.
 The different types of lathes are:
1. Speed Lathe
A. Wood working
B. Centering
C. Polishing
D. spinning
2. Engine Lathe
A. Belt drive
B. Individual motor drive
C. Geared lathe
D. Variable speed lathe.
3. Bench lathe
4. Tool room lathe
5. Semi-Automatic lathe
a. Capstan lathe
b. Turret lathe
6. Automatic lathe
7. Special purpose lathe
a. Crank shaft lathe
b. Wheel lathe
c. Duplicating lathe
8. 8. Copying lathe

1. Speed Lathe: The speed lathe is the simplest of all lathes. It consists of headstock, bed, tailstock and adjustable slide.
There is no lead screw, feed box and apron mechanism. Tool is only fed by hand. Usually, this lathe is driven by a
variable speed motor fitted in the headstock. The spindle is driven by a high-speed motor through belts and step cone
pulley. The work is held between centres and rotated at high speeds (1200 to 3600rpm). The tool is supported on the tool
post and fed by hand. It is mainly used for wood turning, spinning and polishing works.
2. Engine Lathe or Centre Lathe: Engine lathe is more important and widely used. In earlier days, it was driven by a
steam engine and hence, it was called engine lathe. It has the headstock, tailstock, carriage and bed. Automatic feed is
also available. It differs from the speed lathe. It is provided with additional features for controlling the spindle speed and
feed of the cutting tool, feed rod, lead screw and change gears are provided. The tool may be fed transversely or
longitudinally. The tool is fed by manually or automatically to remove the metal. Engine lathes are usually driven by a
constant speed motor mounted on a lathe. It is used for medium and large types of work. It is used for many operations
such as turning, taper turning, threading, drilling, knurling, reaming and forming.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 20 | P a g e

3. Bench Lathe: It is a small lathe which can be mounted on a workbench. It has all parts such as a centre lathe which is
used for many works. The only difference is small in size and mountings. It is used for machining small parts cheaply
and accurately at rapid rate.
4. Tool Room Lathe: A tool room lathe consists of all necessary attachments required for accurate and precision
machining. It has more range of speeds and feeds. It is equipped with a central steady rest, quick change gear
mechanism, taper turning attachment, lead screw, feed rod, accurate collet chuck, thread cutting attachment, pump for
coolant, micrometer stop, follower and centre rests etc. This lathe is too costly due to its high accuracy and precision
attachments.
5. Semi-Automatic Lathe: As the name implies, some operations are manually done and some operations by automatic
means. Capstan and turret lathers are of this type. These lathes are heavy lathes used for mass production. The headstock
is heavier than centre lathe and it has more speeds and feeds. There is no tailstock. Instead of a turret head, the number of
tools may be fitted in the turret head. They are fed into the work in a proper sequence. There are two tool posts, a front
tool post and rear tool post. The front tool post carries four tools. The rear tool post carries a parting tool. Many
operations can simultaneously be done by the front tool post, rear tool post and turret. Hence, the production time is
minimized. The accuracy will be more. These lathes are used in mass production. They are used to produce identical
parts.
6. Automatic Lathe: In this lathe, all operations and job handling movements are automatically done. It is a high speed
heavy duty lathe which is used for mass production. The loading and unloading of works are automatically done in this
type of lathe. There is a camshaft for carrying number of cams. The cams will do the speed changing, feed changing and
tool changing. After the initial setting of tools, it will automatically do all operations till the job is parted off. After
completing one cycle, the machine will repeat the same operation and hence, it only will produce identical parts. But, the
machining time is very less. One operator can handle many lathes at the same time.
7. Special Purpose Lathes: These lathes are specially designed for carrying out specific operations. These lathes are used
to do various operations that cannot be done on ordinary lathes. The headstock, tailstock and carriage of these lathes are
made according to the requirements of the special operations to be performed. For example, a shell lathe is used for
turning shells only. A wheel lathe is efficiently used for making locomotive wheels. A crankshaft lathe can only be used
for turning crankshafts.
8. Copying Lathe: The tool of this lathe follows a template or master through a stylus or tracer. The tracer is connected to
the cutting tool through hydraulic devices. According to the tracer movement, the tool moves to machine the job.

Constructional Features of a Lathe

The principal parts of an engine lathe are labelled and shown in Figure.

The following are the principal parts of the lathe.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 21 | P a g e

 1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tail stock
4. Carriage
i. Saddle
ii. Cross Slide
iii. Compound Rest
iv. Tool Post
5. Feed Mechanism.

What is the working principle of a Lathe Machine?

 Lathes are intended to spin a workpiece against a tool bit, unlike milling machines. According to the complete form, it
works on the principle of the rotating workpiece and fixed cutting tool. The workpiece is held between two strong
supports known as centers.
 Usually, lathes have two types of centers, A live center and another one is dead center. The Center, at the headstock, is
called a live center. That rotates the workpiece. And dead center at the tailstock holds the workpiece aligned with the live
center.
 The cutting tool is moved towards the rotating workpiece, to cut it into the desired shape. For normal operations, the
cutting tool is fed either parallel or perpendicular to the working axis. To understand the cutting tool, respective angles
and working principle, please read about single point cutting tool.

A brief description of these parts is as follows:

1. Bed: Bed is the base of machines. It carries a headstock on its

left end and tailstock on its right end. The carriage is mounted
at the middle of bed. Headstock is a stationary one. Both
tailstock and carriage move over the bed. The bed has V and
dovetail guide ways as shown in Figure. The bed is very
strong to resist the cutting forces and vibrations. It is rigidly
held by cross ribs supported by cast iron supports. The guide
ways are very accurate for getting the accurate dimensions in
jobs.
2. Headstock: The headstock assembly is permanently fastened to the left end of the bed. It carries a hollow spindle so that
bars can be passed through it, when it s required. The spindle nose of the spindle is threaded to hold the chuck or face
plate. The spindle is rotated by at combination of gears and cone pulleys or by gears alone. The spindle has a taper at the
front end for holding centres and other tools have a tapered shank. A live centre can be attached into the spindle. This
centre is called live centre because it turns with the work. In taper turning operations, there is no power feed to the
compound rest. It is only operated by hand to feed the tool longitudinally or at an angle to the lathe axis. There is a
micrometer dial for showing the depth of cut. The headstock has the driving and speed changing mechanisms. The
headstock may be of back-geared type or all geared type. There are speed changing and feed changing leavers attached to
the headstock.
3. Tailstock: Tailstock is situated at the right end of the bed. It is used for supporting the right end of work.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 22 | P a g e
 It consists of a taper hole adjusting screw and hand
wheel. It can be moved along the bed and clamped to
the bed at the desired location. Tailstock is also used
to hold a drill, reamer or tap for drilling, reaming or
tapping operations. Tailstock consists of two main
parts. The lower part directly rests on bed ways and
the upper part rests on the lower part. Adjusting
screws hold the two parts together. The upper body of
the tailstock can be moved towards or away from the
operator for taper turning operations. The tailstock
body is bored and the tailstock spindle or quill moves
through it. The spindle can axially be moved by means
of a hand wheel. A dead centre is fixed into the taper
hole of the spindle for supporting the right end of the
work.
4. Carriage: The carriage is a moving part that slides over the guide ways between headstock and tailstock. It carries the
following parts.
i. Saddle: It is an H shaped component fitted
across the lathe bed. It moves along the guide
way. It carries the cross slide and tool post to
provide various kinds of motion to tools. It can
be moved anywhere along the bed and locked to
the required position.
ii. Cross Slide: The cross slide is attached to the
saddle. It carries the compound rest and tool post.
The cross slide can be moved by power or by
hand. There is a micrometer dial fitted on the
cross slide hand wheel with an accuracy of
0.05mm.
iii. Compound Rest: Compound rest is mounted on
the top of the cross slide. It is used for supporting
the tool post and cutting tool in various positions.
The base of the compound rest is marked in
degrees. The tool post can be swiveled to various
angular positions for different turning operations.

iv. Tool Post: A tool post is used to hold various tools and tool holders to create convenient working conditions. The
tool post is fitted over the compound rest. The various types of tool posts are as follows.
(a) Single screw tool post
(b) Open side tool post
(c) Four bolt tool post
(d) Four way tool post.

5. Apron: The apron is fitted to the saddle and hung in the front side of bed. It has several gears, levers and clutches for
moving the carriage with the lead screw for thread cutting. It has a split nut for automatic thread cutting operation. The
detailed mechanism is explained in further sections.

Specification of a Lathe
The size of the lathe is generally specified as follows.
1. The length of bed
2. Maximum distance between dead and live centres
3. Type of bed i.e. straight, semi gap or gap type

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 23 | P a g e

 4. The height of centres from the bed
5. Swing over the bed
6. Swing over the cross slide
7. Width of the bed
8. Spindle bore
9. Spindle speed
10. H.P. of main motor and rpm
11. Number of spindle speeds
12. Spindle nose diameter
13. Feeds
14. Floor space required.

Figure.0 Specification of Lathe Machine

Head Stock Mechanisms

Spindle Mechanism: The spindle is located in the headstock and it receives the driving power from the motor. The
spindle speed should be changed to suit different machining conditions like type of material to be cut, the diameter and
the length of the work, type of operation, the type of cutting tool material used, the type of finish desired and the capacity
of the machine. In order to change the spindle speeds, any one of the following methods are employed.
1. Step cone pulley drive
2. Back geared drive
3. All geared drive

1. Cone Pulley Drive Lathe: It is simple in construction. The belt is arranged on the four different steps of the cone pulley
to obtain different speeds. A step cone pulley is attached with the spindle contained within the head-stock casting.

o The cone pulley has four steps (A, B, C & D).

o Another cone pulley having four steps (E, F, G and H) is
placed parallel to the spindle cone pulley.
o Both the cone pulleys are connected by a flat or V belt. The
belt can be arranged between the steps “A & H”, “B & G”,
“C & F” and “D & E”.
o The cone pulley at the bottom is connected to the electric
motor by a V-belt.
o So the cone pulley at the bottom rotates at a particular speed.
o The belt is arranged on any of the four steps to obtain
different spindle speeds.
o The spindle speed is increased if the belt is placed on the
smaller step of the driven pulley.
o The spindle speed will be maximum when the belt is
arranged between "A & H" and the speed will be minimum
when the belt is arranged between "D & E".

2. Back geared drive:

Back gear mechanism is housed within the headstock of the lathe. A step cone pulley having steps ABCD and a small
pinion „P‟ are mounted on the spindle and rotate freely on it. The gear „S‟ is keyed to the headstock spindle. So, the
spindle will rotate only when the gear „S‟ rotates. The step conepulley ABCD and the gear „S‟ can be kept separately or
made as one unit with the help of a pin „T‟. When the pin is disengaged, the cone pulley along with the gear P will rotate
freely on the spindle and the spindle will not rotate. There is another shaft parallel to the spindle axis having back gears
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 24 | P a g e
 Q and R mounted on it. These back gears can be
made to mesh with gears P and S or kept disengaged
from them. The spindle can get drive either from the
cone pulley or through back gears.
Drive from step cone pulley:
when the spindle gets drive from the cone
pulley, the back gears Q and R are disengaged from
the gears P and S. The pin „T‟ is engaged with cone
pulley. The belt can be arranged on the steps A,B,C
or D to get four different direct speeds for the
spindle.
Drive through back gears:
Back gears Q and R are engaged with gears P
and S. The pin „T‟ is disengaged from the cone
pulley to make the cone pulley and the spindle
separate units. When the cone pulley gets drive
through the belt, the power is transmitted through
the gears P,Q and R to the gear S. Because of number of teeth on these gears, the spindle rotates at slower speeds. By
arranging the belt on the different steps of the cone pulley, four different spindle speeds are obtained.
Uses of back gear arrangement
1. The spindle gets four direct speeds through the cone pulley and four slower speeds through the back gears.
2. Slower speeds obtained by this arrangement are useful when turning on larger workpieces and cutting coarse
threads.

3. All geared drive

o Lathe which is equipped with All Geared Head stock is
easy to operate as there is no manual slip of Belt from
one step to any other. All Geared Lathe have three or
more than three shafts mounted within & it is shown in
the picture below.
o The gears are equipped to obtain different speeds, which
can be more than 18 spindle speeds. The middle shaft
has got three gears D,E & F as a single unit, thus will
rotate at similar speed. The spline shaft also have three
gears mounted as A,B & C on it. The three gears can
made to slide with the help of the lever mounted in front
of the Headstock as shown below.
o This movement enables the Gear A to contact with the
Gear D or with other gears. This sliding movement on
the either of the shafts with the help of the levers,
different gears get in touch with each other & these gears
are connected to the main Spindle.
o So, with the rotation of the Electric Motor Pulley, these gears are also in drive and rotates the spindle, producing
different RPM. All Speed Changes are done with the series of levers on the front of the Headstock & are like shifting gears
in a Car.

Feed Mechanism:
There are several mechanisms to make the carriage and crose-slide move automatically and to change the direction of
their movement. Some important mechanisms are dealt with as follows.
Tumbler Gear Arrangement: Tumbler gears are located in the headstock just below the spindle gear. For the purpose of
moving the carriage towards or away from the headstock, this mechanism along with feed rod or leadscrew is used. Tumbler
gears are two small pinions mounted on a bracket. This bracket is pivoted about the axis of the stud gear. The position of the
bracket can be arranged in three different stages namely i) neutral ii) forward & iii) reverse. Hence, the direction of rotation
of the leadscrew and the feed rod is reversed.
 Neutral Position: When the bracket is held in neutral position, both the tumbler gears A and B stand disengaged from
the spindle gear and main gear train. And so carriage will not get any movement.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 25 | P a g e
  Forward Position: When the bracket is arranged
in the forward position as shown in the diagram,
only one of the tumbler gears(B) comes between
the spindle gear and the main gear train. In that
position, the leadscrew or the feed rod rotates in
the direction of the headstock spindle rotation.
The carriage moves towards the headstock
providing the cutting tool with longitudinal feed.
 Reverse Position: When the bracket is arranged
in the reverse position, both the tumbler gears
come in contact between the spindle gear and the
main gear train. The carriage moves towards the
tailstock to give the tool the longitudinal feed in the opposite direction.
1. Hand feed and power feed to the carriage
2. Hand feed and power feed to the cross slide

Types of Lathe Machine Operations

The lathe machine operations are classified into three main categories and are as follows.
Following are the Lathe machine operations done either by holding the workpiece between centres or by a chuck:
1. Turning Operation
a) Plain or Straight Turning
b) Rough Turning
c) Shoulder Turning
d) Taper Turning Other Lathe Operations
e) Eccentric Turning 1. Drilling
2. Facing Operation 2. Reaming
3. Chamfering Operation 3. Boring
4. Knurling Operation 4. Tapping
5. Thread cutting Operation
6. Grooving Operation
7. Forming

 Turning:
It is the most common type of operation in all lathe machine operations. Turning is the operation of removing the excess
material from the workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface to the desired length.
The job held between the centre or a chuck and rotating at a required speed. The tool moves in a longitudinal direction to
give the feed towards the headstock with proper depth of cut. The surface finish is very good.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 26 | P a g e

 i. Straight Turning: The workpiece is held on the chuck and it is made to rotate about the axis, and the tool is fed
parallel to the lathe axis. The straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal from the
workpiece.
ii. Rough Turning: It is the process of removal of excess material from the workpiece in minimum time by applying high
rate feed and heavy depth of cut. In rough turning the average depth of cut 2mm to 4mm can be given and feed is from
0.3 to 1.5mm per revolution of the work.
iii. Shoulder Turning: When a workpiece has different diameters and is to be turned, the surface forming steps from one
diameter to the other is called the shoulder, and machining this part of the workpiece is called shoulder turning.

iv. Eccentric turning: When a cylindrical surface two separate axis of rotation, with the first axis, is offset to the other
axis then such a workpiece is machined by the operation called eccentric turning. Here three sets of centre holes are
drilled. By holding the workpiece at these three centres the machining operation for each of the surface can be
completed.
v. Taper Turning:
A ”taper” is the uniform increase or decrease in the diameter of the workpiece and measured along with its length.
Taper turning means to produce a conical shape by a gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical workpiece.

 The amount of taper in the workpiece is usually specified on the basis of the difference in diameter of the taper to its
length. It is known as a conicity and it is indicated by the letter K.
 It has the formula

 D = Larger diameter of taper.

 d = Small diameter of taper.
 l = Length of the taper
In the case of a lathe, the taper on a given workpiece is obtained by tuning the job and feeding the tool at an angle to produce
a gradual increase or decrease in the diameter of the workpiece.

Methods of Taper Turning,

i. Form tool method
ii. Compound rest method or swivelling compound rest method
iii. Tailstock set over method
iv. Taper turning attachment method

i. Form tool method: Here the taper length obtain is equal to the width of the form tool. To obtain the required size of the
taper the form tool is fed slowly straight into the workpiece by operating the cross slide perpendicular to the lathe axis.
This is the simplest method of taper turning. It is limited to obtain small taper length such as chamfering the side of the
workpiece. The method is done at a faster rate.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 27 | P a g e
ii. Compound rest swivel method:
o Here the workpiece rotates and the cutting tool is fed at an angle by swivelled compound rest. The base of the
compound rest is graduated in degrees.
o The taper angle is the angle at which the compound rest to be rotated is calculated by using the formula tanα = D-d /
21, where, D= bigger diameter, d = smaller diameter, l = length of the workpiece.
o Compound rest can be swivelled to the required angle α. Once the compound rest is set to a particular angle then the
tool is moved by compound rest and wheel.

iii. Tailstock set over method:

o Here the workpiece on the job is tilted at the required taper angle. The tool is fed parallel to the axis.
o The tilting of the workpiece or the job to the required taper angle is achieved by the movement of the tailstock with
the help of tailstock set over the screw. This method is useful for small tapers.

iv. Taper turning attachment method:

o This method is similar to the compound rest method.
o Here the job or workpiece rotates and the tool is fed at the taper angle α.
o In this, arrangement, which has guide block graduated in degrees, with the help of this the block can be required
taper angle to the lathe axis.
o The taper angle is calculated similarly to the compound rest method using the formula: tanα = D-d / 21.
Advantages of taper turning attachment:
 Internal tapers can be obtained accurately.
 Large size tapers can be easily obtained.
 Once the attachment is set the taper turning operation can do at a faster rate.
 By setting the taper angle to „zero‟ we can carry out plain turning.
Disadvantages of taper turning attachment:
 It requires additional mounting facilities.
 Fitting and removing attachment consume more time.
 The attachment has to take large forces.

 Facing: It is an operation of reducing the length of the workpiece by feeding the perpendicular to the lathe axis. This
operation of reducing a flat surface on the end of the workpiece. For this operation, regular turning tool or facing tool
may use. The cutting edge of the tool should set to the same height as the centre of the workpiece.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 28 | P a g e

 Chamfering operation: It is the operation of getting a bevelled surface at the edge of a cylindrical workpiece. This
operation is done in case of bolt ends and shaft ends. Chamfering helps to avoid damage to the sharp edges and protect
the operation getting hurt during other operations. Chamfering on bolt helps to screw the nut easily.
 Knurling operation: It is an operation of obtaining a diamond shape on the workpiece for the gripping purpose. This is
done to provide a better gripping surface when operated by hands. It is done using a knurling tool. The tool consists of a
set of hardened steel roller, and it is held rigidly on the tool post. Knurling is done at the lowest speed available on a
lathe. It is done on the handles and also in case of ends of gauges. The feed varies from 1 to 2 mm per revolution. Two or
three cuts may be necessary to give the full impression.

 Thread cutting: It is the important operation in the lathe to obtain the continuous ”helical grooves” or ” threads‟„. When
the threads or helical grooves are formed on the out surface of the workpiece is called external thread cutting. When the
threads or helical grooves are formed on the inner surface of the workpiece is called internal thread cutting. The
workpiece is rotating between the two centres i.e., live centre and dead centre os the lathe.

 Grooving: It is the process of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow surface. It is done by a groove
tool. A grooving tool is similar to the parting-off tool. It is often done at the end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to
leave a small margin.

 Forming: It is the process of turning a convex, concave, or of any irregular shape. Form-turning may be accomplished
by the following method:
 Using a forming tool.
 Combining cross and longitudinal feed.
 Tracing or copying a template.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 29 | P a g e

 Drilling: Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece. It is done by a rotating tool, the
rotating side of the cutter, known as a drilling drill. In this operation, The workpiece is revolving in a chuck or a
faceplate and the drill is held in the tailstock drill holder or drill chuck. The feeding is adopted is affected by the
movement of the tailstock spindle. This method is adopted for the drilling of regular-shaped workpiece.
 Reaming: Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a hole which has been already drilled or bored. The tool is
used is called the reamer, which has multi-plate cutting edges. The reamer is held on the tailstock spindle, either directly
or through a drill chuck, and is held stationary while the work is revolved at a very slow speed.

 Boring: Boring is the operation of enlarging the hole which is already drilled, punched or forged. It cannot produce a
hole. Boring is similar to the external turning operation and can be performed in a lathe. In this operation, the workpiece
is revolved in a chuck or a faceplate and the tools which are fitted to the tool post is fed into the work. It consists of a
boring bar having a single-point cutting tool that enlarges the hole. It also corrects out of the roundness of a hole. This
method adopted for boring small-sized works only. The speed of this process is slow.
 Tapping: Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads of small diameter using a multipoint cutting tool called the
tap. In a lathe, the work is mounted on a chuck or on a faceplate and revolved at a very slow speed. A tap of the required
size held on a special fixture is mounted on the tailstock spindle. It is an operation of reducing the length of the
workpiece by feeding the perpendicular to the lathe axis. This operation of reducing a flat surface on the end of the
workpiece. For this operation, regular turning tool or facing tool may use. The cutting edge of the tool should set to the
same height as the centre of the workpiece.

Work-Holding devices used on Lathe:

Work holding devices in a lathe are used either for holding the workpiece or for supporting the workpiece during machining.
Few of the widely used work holding devices are explained below.
1. Chucks
a. Three Jaw Chuck
b. Four Jaw Chuck (Independent Chuck)
2 Centres
3 Faceplates
4 Rests
a. Steady Rest
b. Follower Rest
5. Mandrels
6. Lathe Dogs

1. Chucks: A chuck is a device, which is used for holding and rotating the job of shorter length during machining. A chuck
is usually equipped with three or four jaws and accordingly they are classified as three-jaw chucks and four-jaw chucks.
These are shown in figure below.
i. Three-jaw chuck: In a three-jaw chuck all the jaws are made to slide simultaneously by an equal amount within the
slots provided on the body by rotating any one of the three pinions with the help of a handle. Figure 1(a) shows a
three-jaw chuck. This is also known as a self-centering or a universal chuck. This chuck is suitable for holding round

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 30 | P a g e

 or hexagonal and other similar shaped workpieces. The gripping force of the 3-jaw chuck is less than that of the 4-
jaw chuck.

ii. Four-jaw chuck: The 4-jaw chuck is a very versatile work holding device, able to hold cylindrical as well as odd-
shaped parts for machining. A four-jaw chuck is shown in Figure 1(b). In a four-jaw chuck, the jaws can be moved
and adjusted independent of each other. The jaws are individually reversible to best match the shape of the
workpiece. Hence, this is also known as independent jaw chuck. It can be also used for machining eccentrics by
offsetting the workpiece. Its grip is more powerful than that of the 3-jaw chuck and gives better adjustment as you
have control over each individual jaw.
2. Centres: When the length of job large and if it cannot be conveniently held in a chuck, the workpiece can be held and
rotated between the headstock centre (the live centre) and the tail stock centre (the dead centre). Turning between the
centres is the classic way of machining the barstock with maximum accuracy. The work can be mounted and dismounted
from the lathe quickly and without loosing setup accuracy. The centre holes on workpiece mate with the points of the
lathe centres. Figure 2 shows the job held between the centres.

3. Faceplates: Workpieces that cannot be accommodated in a chuck or between centres because they are asymmetrical or
have a complex shape can be bolted to the faceplate either directly or indirectly via an angle plate. Bolts, clamps and
dogs are used with the faceplate to hold the workpiece. Figure 3 shows a faceplate. The faceplate is directly mounted on
the lathe spindle.

4. Rests: A rest is used for providing additional support to long workpiece when it is machined between centres or held in a
chuck. If thin and long workpieces are not supported during machining, then there is a possibility that it may bend due to
self-weight or due to the cutting forces exerted by the cutting tool on the workpiece. Two types of rests are in common
use; these are the steady (or fixed) and follower (or traveling) rest. The two types of rests are shown in Figure 4.
a. Steady Rest: The steady rest is shown in Figure 4(a). This has three jaws, two on the lower base and one on the upper
frame. These jaws can be adjusted radially by rotating individual screws to accommodate workpieces of different
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 31 | P a g e
 diameters. These jaws act as bearing to the workpiece surface. The steady rest is clamped to the bed at the desired
position, that is, where support is necessary. Depending on the length and weight of the workpiece more than one
steady rest can also be used.
b. Follower Rest: The follower rest is shown in Figure 4(b). This rest is similar to steady rest but is bolted to the back
end of the carriage. Unlike steady rest, which is stationary, the follower rest moves along with the carriage. The
follower rest consists of a 'C' like casting having two adjustable jaws to support the workpiece.

5. Mandrels: workpiece having a large hole in it like a pipe cannot be held firmly in a chuck, because of its reduced
strength. In such cases, mandrels are used to hold the workpieces from inside. A mandrel holding a workpiece is shown
in Figure 5. During machining, mandrel is held between centres and the workpiece is then machined similar to
machining between centres.

6. Lathe Dogs:
Lathe dogs are clamping devices used for holding
workpiece or mandrels for turning between
centres. Lathe dogs are shown in Figure 6. The
part to be held is inserted in the v-shaped hole
and then firmly secured in position by means of
the screw. These lathe dogs can hold the
workpiece of only certain range of diameters. In
case of large or small size, chucks or faceplates
are or other work holding devices are used

7. Magnetic chuck
The holding power of this chuck is obtained by the magnetic flux radiating from
the electromagnet placed inside the chuck. Magnets are adjusted inside the chuck
to hold or release the work. Work pieces made of magnetic material only are held
in this chuck. Very small, thin and light works which cannot be held in an
ordinary chuck are held in this chuck.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 32 | P a g e

8. Faceplate
 It is a circular plate threaded at its centre with plain and T-slots which are machined rapidly.
 It is fitted to the lathe spindle with its central threaded portion.
 The job on the workpiece is held by the faceplate using bolts and clamps in the slots.
 The faceplate is suitable to hold both regular and irregular shaped workpieces, which cannot help conveniently by
chucks or on centres.
 The faceplate is used for holding jobs such as thin and irregularly shaped workpieces that cannot be held between
the centres and chucks.
 The faceplate is held at the headstock spindle as shown in the figure.

9. Angle Plates: are made of closely grained cast iron or steel. The edges and ends are also machined square. They have
ribs on the un machined part for good rigidity and to prevent distortion.
Types of angle plates
1. Plain Solid Angle Plate: Among the three types of angle plates normally used, the plain solid angle plate is the most
common. It has the two plane surfaces perfectly machined at 90° to each other. Such angle plates are suitable for supporting
work-pieces during layout work. They are comparatively smaller in size.

 Semi-Automatic Lathes
In an ordinary center lathe, changing and setting of tools consume more time. Hence, the rate of production will be low.
Ultimately, the cost of production is also increased. So, the change of center lathe into some special lathes is called as Semi-
Automatic Lathes and automatic lathes. In semi-automatic lathes, the required tools are preset. More than one tool can be
used at a time to perform the specific task. It reduces the tool-changing time, loading and unloading time and it increases the
rate of production. Hence, these semi-automatic and automatic lathes are used in mass production.
 In Semi-Automatic Lathes, all machining operations are automatically performed. But the loading and unloading of job,
bringing the tools in correct positions, coolant on or off and selection of spindle speeds are manually performed.
1. Capstan lathes and
2. Turret lathes are
The two types of semi-automatic lathes. The construction and working principle of both lathes are similar to each other. But
they differ in applications. The turret lathe is used for heavy jobs whereas the capstan lathe is used for light and small jobs.

Important requisites/features of Capstan and Turret Lathes

The main parts of capstan and turret lathes are as follows.
1. bed
2. head stock
3. Turret head and saddle
4. cross slide.

1. Bed: Bed is the base part of the lathe. It is a box type which is made of cast iron. Guide ways on the top of the bed have
accurately been provided. Both cross slide and turret head are mounted on these guide ways. The bed should be strong and
rigid to withstand heavy loads, force and vibrations during machining.

2. Cross slide: The two types of cross slides are as follows.

1. Reach over type
2. Side hung type

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 33 | P a g e

(i) Reach Over Type: It is mounted on bed guide ways in between headstock and turret and also supported by a lower rail.
The cross slide has two tool posts. One is at the front end having four faces of square turret-for mounting tools. Each tool can
be indexed by 90°. Stop bars are provided for controlling the motion of each tool which can automatically be indexed along
with the square turret for the next machining operation.
The tool post can move both in perpendicular and parallel directions to the spindle axis. Mostly, the power feed is
used for movement of the tool post. In the rear tool post, the parting-off tool is clamped in an inverted position to make the
direction of rotation of work piece anticlockwise with respect to tool movement.
(ii) Side Hung Type: This type of cross slide is entirely supported on the front way which has no rear tool post. It provides a
greater swing capacity to accommodate large diameter work piece. It is mainly used in turret lathe.

3. Head Stock: Headstock of capstan and turret lathe is similar to a head in ordinary center lathes but larger and heavier in
construction to house the spindle and driving mechanisms. A powerful motor of 30 to 2000rpm speeds is fitted.
The four main types of headstock are as follows.
i) Step cone pulley driven headstock
ii) Direct electric motor driven headstock
iii) All geared headstock
iv) Pre-selective stock.
Step cone pulley driven headstock, direct electric motor driven headstock and all geared headstock are already discussed in
detail.
Pre-selective headstock: In this type, an all geared headstock is provided with friction clutches. Rapid stopping, starting and
speed changing for different machining operations can be done by simply pushing a button or pulling a lever. The required
speed of the next operation can also be selected in advance. At the end of the first operation, the lever is actuated to rotate the
spindle at the selected speed without stopping the machine.
4. Saddle: In a capstan lathe, the turret head is mounted on a ram which slides on a saddle. It can be positioned on lathe bed
ways and clamped well.
In a turret lathe, the turret head is mounted on the saddle itself which slides on the bed ways during machining. It is mainly
used in turret lathes.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 34 | P a g e

5. Turret head:
A turret head has a hexagonal block having six faces with a bore for mounting six or more than six tools at a time.
The four threaded holes on these faces are used to accommodate tool holders.
The turret head is mounted on the ram fitted with turret slides longitudinally on a saddle. The ram is actuated either
by hand or power. The forward movement of the ram is controlled by a preset or adjustable stop. To index the cutting tool,
the ram or turret is returned to its starting position for tripping the stops. The tripped stops are locked in position by locking
nuts.
Each tool is indexed through 60° by the rotation of a circular plate. The circular plate is automatically indexed along
with the turret head. Bringing the next tool into the cutting position is known as Geneva mechanism.
The tool post can move both in perpendicular and parallel directions to the spindle axis. Mostly, the power feed is
used for the movement of the tool post. In the rear tool post, the parting-off tool is clamped in inverted position to make the
direction of rotation of work piece anticlockwise with respect to tool movement.

Geneva Mechanism or Indexing Mechanism:

The turret is provided with automatic indexing mechanism. To index the turret by 1/6 of a revolution, the ram is
returned to the starting position. Then, the next tool comes into position to perform the machining operations.
Turret head, an index plate, a bevel gear and ratchet are mounted on the same vertical spindle of the saddle. A
spring- actuated plunger is used to lock the index plate which prevents the rotation of turret during machining. When the
turret trips the stop, the plunger is released with the help of a spring-loaded cam and a pin already fitted with plunger. So, the
index plate is free to rotate. Then, the indexing pawl is engaged with the ratchet and it rotates 1/6 or 60° of revolution. When
the turret moves forward, the plunger is again locked the index plate.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 35 | P a g e

 Working Principle of Capstan and Turret Lathes:
The work pieces are held in collets or chucks which may be operated either hydraulically or pneumatically. A bar
feeding mechanism is used for automatic feeding the bar stock or work piece. At least, six tools can be held on the hexagonal
turret faces, four tools in front square tool post and one tool at the rear end. Generally,
1. Drilling, boring, reaming, counter boring, turning and threading tools are mounted on the hexagonal turret head.
2. Forming, chamfering, knurling and necking tools are mounted at the front end of the square turret.
3. Parting off tool is mounted on the rear end of the square turret in an inverted or in a reversed position.

The movement of front and rear tool posts is controlled by pre- set stops. A bar stop is fitted at one end of the turret face
which sets the required length of the work piece by butting when the collets are opened. Then, the bar or work piece is tightly
gripped by the collet.
According to the order sequence of operations, the tool is moved while machining the hexagonal turret head, it is moved
in the forward direction. After completing each operation, the turret head automatically moves backward to index the tool
along with adjustable stops. These stops control the forward movement of a turret.

Specification of Capstan or Turret Lathe:

Mainly, the size of any capstan or turret lathe is specified by the maximum size of work piece diameter, swing over
cross slide and swing over bed. For example, if the size of a turret lathes is 80-150- 225, the maximum size of work piece
diameter is 80mm, the swing over cross slide is 150mm and the swing over bed is 225mm. In addition to this, other
specifications are listed below.

1. Number of spindle speeds.

2. Number of feeds for the carriage.
3. Number of feeds for the turret or saddle..
4. Net weight of the machine.
5. Floor space required.
6. Power of the motor required.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 36 | P a g e

Advantages of Turret Lathes
1. The production rate is high.
2. Heavier and larger work piece chucking can be done. 3. It has wider range of speeds.
4. Large number of tools can be held.
5. More than one operation can be performed at the same time.
6. It is more rigid. Hence, it withstands heavy
7. Semi skilled operators are enough
8. Labour cost is less.

Difference between Capstan and Turret Lathe:

Capstan lathe Turret lathe

1. The turret head is mounted on the ram and 1. The turret head is directly mounted on the saddle
the ram is mounted on the saddle. and the saddle slides over the bed ways.

2. The saddle is fixed during machining. 2. The saddle is moved along with the turret head
during machining.

3. The turret head can be moved crosswise

3. The turret head can‟t be moved crosswise.
4. The lengthwise movement of turret is more.
4. The lengthwise movement of turret is less.
5. Maximum bar size is up to 200 mm
5. Maximum bar size is up to 60 mm.
6. Jaw chuck used to hold the work piece
6. Collect is used to hold the work piece.
7. Rate of tool feeding relatively slower.
7. Rate of tool feeding relatively faster.
8. It is a heavier machine
8. It is a light weight machine.
9. It has hexagonal tool head
9. It has a simple tool head.
10. Manual indexing
10. Automatic indexing.

WORK HOLDING DEVICES

The work holding devices used on capstan and turret lathes are mostly automatic types. It reduces the setting time.
Generally, the work pieces are held in collets, chucks or fixtures in turret lathes.

1. Collets:
It is also called as a collet chuck. The collet is mainly used to hold the bar stock of different sizes and shapes
operated by either hand or power. The collet with a taper nose has three or four equally spaced slits. Collets which are having
springing action are called as spring collets. The collet has a bore at its center to receive the work piece and the nose is made
thicker for gripping the same. The bore may be

The various types of collets are as follows.

1. Draw back collet
2. Push out collet
3. Dead length collet.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 37 | P a g e
 i. Draw back collet: It is also called as draw-in-collet. The taper of collet is smoothly converged towards in (inward). The
collect is fitted inside a taper portion of the spindle nose. A thrust tube is used to move the collet provided behind the collet
in the spindle by moving axially either by a hand wheel or by a lever. This action clamps the bar stock by applying pressure
on the collet and it axially pushes inward. So, the collet is pushed inward to clamp the work piece or bar stock.
 Main disadvantage: When the collet is pulled, the bar may be slightly moved inward. Due to this, the required length
of the bar will be reduced. To compensate this error, the bar stock should be moved more than the required length.

ii. Push out collet: In a push out collet, the taper of collet converges towards the right end (nose end). To clamp the bar stock,
the collet is pushed into the tapered hole by the thrust tube which closes the jaws and grips the work piece. To unclamp or
release the work piece from the collet, the collet will be pulled in.
 Main disadvantage: During pushing out the collet, the work piece may slightly move outward against the stop bar.
Due to this, the length of work piece is slightly increased. To avoid this, an excess push out length should be
compensated.
iii. Dead length collet: While gripping, the bar stock may move inward or outward in above two methods. This difficulty is
rectified by providing a sliding sleeve in between spindle and collet. When the work piece is clamped, the sleeve pushes
through thrust tube by applying force on the collet. Thus, there is no axial movement either inward or outward.+

2. Chucks:
Chucks of two jaw, three jaw and four jaw chucks are already discussed in detail. Here, only power-operated chucks are
discussed.
Power Operated Chucks:
It is mainly used for holding heavy work pieces with more gripping force and quickly. Power chucks are operated
either by pneumatically (Air-operated) or hydraulically. The air cylinder is fitted at the back of headstock. A piston rod
connects the piston and jaws by links which are actuated by sliding piston.
When the compressed air is admitted to the right side of the piston, it moves left and jaws are moving inward to grip
the work piece. To release or unclamp the work piece, the compressed air is admitted to the left side of the piston so that the
piston moves right and jaws are moving out. The supply pressure of air is varied by a control valve.

3. Fixture:
A specially designed member to locate and grip a work piece is called as fixture. It is mounted on the spindle by replacing a
chuck or collet. Fixture is mainly used for machining large number of identical pieces. If the specially designed fixture is
used on lathes, it is called turning fixture which makes loading and unloading easy.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 38 | P a g e
 Bar Feeding Mechanism
In turret and capstan lathes, the bar is automatically fed without stopping the lathe which reduces the production time.
The bar stock passes through the chuck and hollow spindle of the lathe.

The bar is fitted with the bar chuck by setscrews. The bar chuck rotates in a sleeve along with the bar. The loose sleeve is
housed on a sliding bracket which slides over a sliding bar. It is again attached to one end of a chain. A suspended weight is
hanging at the other end of the chain to exert a constant force on the bar chuck towards right. When the bar is released by the
collet, the force due to weight will feed the work towards right. It continues till the work piece and it butts against the bar
stop held in the turret. Then, the collet is closed.

Tool Holding Devices

To hold these tools in the respective positions, the various types of tool holders are fitted in a hexagonal turret or front
tool post of the square turret or in the rear tool post.

The following are the various types of tool holders.

1. Straight cutter tool holder 2. Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
3. Multiple cutter holders 4. Offset cutter holder
5. Sliding tool holder 6. Knee tool holder
7. Flange tool holder 8. Collet steady box tool holder
9. Combination tool holder 10. Self-opening type die holder
11. Knurling tool holder 12. Collapsible taps
13. Tap holder.

1. Straight Cutter Tool Holder: Only one tool is held in this type of hole. It is also called as simple tool holder. The shank
of the tool holder is mounted on the turret face. Usually, the tool is held perpendicular to the shank axis. The holder is
tightening with the tool bit by three setscrews to perform various operations. It may be fitted in multiple turning lead and
knee tool holder.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 39 | P a g e

2. Adjustable Angle Cutter tool holder: It is similar to a straight tool holder but having an angular slot. The tool is fitted
in this slot by means of setscrews. It helps in turning or boring operations which closes the chuck jaws or to the shoulder
of work piece.
3. Multiple Cutter Holders: Two or more cutting tools can hold at a time in the tool holders. Due to this, two or more
operations can simultaneously be performed. It lowers the times of machining. Turning and chamfering tools can be
fitted and used at the same time.

4. Offset Cutter Holder: The holder body is offset with the shank axis. By this offset, larger diameter works can be turned
or bored.
5. Sliding Tool Holder: This type of tool holder is used for boring, recessing, grooving, facing etc. A slide is provided to
adjust the holder up and down. The vertical adjustment is accurately done by a hand wheel having a micrometer dial. The
holder has two holes. The lower hole is aligned with the lathe axis for holding boring tool, drilling tool and reaming tool.
The upper hole is used for holding a turning tool. The down feed of the slide can be controlled by adjustable stops.

6. Knee Tool Holder: A knee tool holder is mainly used for simultaneous turning and boring or turning and drilling
operations. It has got a knee with three holes. The lower hole coincides with the lathe axis for holding boring bars, drills
etc. The top hole acts as a guide bush for the pilot bar projecting from headstock. The central hole holds one turning tool.
7. Flange Tool Holder: The holder which has a flange to bolt with the turret face having a cylindrical bore. It can hold a
boring bar, drills and reamers by means of a socket. Two setscrews are used for fixing the tools and sockets with the tool
holder.
8. Roller Steady Box Tool Holder: It is commonly used for turning the bar stock. The tool is mounted on a slot by
setscrews. Two rollers are provided in the opposite side of the cutter to give support to the work. The roller takes up the
cutting force during machining and it also prevents the bending of the machined portion. Due to the support of the work
piece, heavy cut and good surface finish are obtained by burnishing action of the roller. Rollers can be adjusted and the
diameter of work piece can be reduced in one pass. The interference of chip may take place with the work.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 40 | P a g e

9. Combination Tool Holder: It is a multiple turning head. The various types of tools can be arranged in the same tool
holder itself. All these tools involve in cutting action at a time. For example, three turning tools and one boring bas are
fitted in a single tool holder. The combination tool holder is directly fitted to the turret head through a flange. Outside
bush and pilot bar are used to give an additional support while machining. Using a combination tool holder, the
machining time of the work can be reduced by performing operations in the same cutting stroke.
10. Self-Opening Die Holder: This type tool holder is mainly used for cutting external threads accurately for a fixed length.
It consists of four thread cutting blades called chasers. These chasers are automatically opened after cutting the thread.
The die holder consists of a shank, a body and a blade ring. The shank is connected to the body with the flange. The
body with a bore can have independent axial movement for a short distance. The blades are fitted in the radial slots of the
blade ring. The size of the thread can be adjusted by adjusting the blade screw. The die head can be brought to the
cutting position by using the reset handle.

11. Collapsible Tap: Collapsible taps are specifically used for making internal threads. After cutting threads, the cutting
edges of the tap collapse to reduce its overall diameter. So, the withdrawal of the tap will be easy without stopping the
machine. The tap has a shank which is fitted on the turret face. A plunger having a taper at its end supports of the chaser
during cutting. This plunger is again connected with a trip ring. After completing the thread cutting, the trip ring butts
against the rotating work to stop the axial movement of the plunger. It releases the chasers from the plunger to withdraw
the tap by reducing the overall diameter of the tap.
12. Bar Stop: Bar stop is also known as workstop. The length of the bar or work piece is controlled by this bar stop. It is
also fitted on one face of the turret having a cylindrical body with a tapered bore. A knurled bolt head with a fine thread
is screwed into the bore. The length of the stop is varied by adjusting the thread either in or out. The bolt locks the bar
stop in position by a lock nut after the adjustment is over.

.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 41 | P a g e
 Tooling
1. Simple Tool Layouts: Turret and capstan lathes are mainly used for machining workpieces on a rapid rate. Before
starting the production, the following works are carried out

1. Selection of tools
2. Designing of special tools
3. Selection of speeds
4. Selection of feeds
5. Setting the required length of work piece and tool travel length.
These planning of operation sequence and preparation of turret or capstan are termed as tool-layout. The accuracy and cost of
product are largely dependent on an efficient tool layout. The tool layout mainly consists of three stages.

2. Planning and scheduling stage: preparation of operation sheet with order of operation.
3. Detailed sketching of various stages of machining operations in a sequence of operations.
4. Sketching the plan showing the various tools into the hexagonal turret face and cross slides with proper sequence.

Step By Step Procedure for Preparing Tool Layout of Turret and Capstan Lathe
1. The component to be machined is thoroughly studied and the required total length of the work is calculated.
2. The number of operations involved in the component starting from the right end is roughly listed.
3. From the rough list of operations, the proper operation sequence is decided.
4. Various tools according to the sequence of operations are selected.
5. The selected tools are fitted either on hexagonal turret or on cross-slide according to the operation sequence.
6. The proper cutting speeds, feeds and depth of cut for each and every operation are selected.
7. The total time required per piece is determined. The total time includes the following time terms.

Automatic Lathes:
Automatic lathes or simply automats are machines tools in which all operations required to finish off the work piece are
automatically done without the attention of an operator. These machines are meant for producing identical parts without the
participation of an operator. All operations including loading and unloading are automatically done. By using the control
system, all working and idle operations are performed in a definite sequence.
Advantages of Automatic Lathes over Conventional Lathes:
1. Mass production of identical parts is highly achieved.
2. High accuracy is maintained.
3. Time of production is minimized.
4. Less floor space is required. 5. Unskilled labour is enough. It minimizes the labour cost.
6. Constant flow of production occurs.
7. One operator can be utilized to operate more than one machine.
8. The bar stock is automatically fed.
Classification of Automatic Lathes/Transfer Machines: Automatic lathes are classified in various way as follows.
1. Classification according to the type of work material used:
a. Bar Stock Machine: In these machines, collets are used for holding the work. The work material is in the form of
bar or pipe stock. Bar feeding mechanism is used for feeding the bar stock. Components such as screws, nuts,
bushes, rings, studs are produced in this machine.
b. Chucking Machine: These machines are used to produce components in the shape of separate blanks. These blanks
may be either forgings or castings. They are held in jaw chuck or special fixtures. The feeding of the blanks is done
by magnetic loading devices. Hence, this machine is called as magazine loaded automats.
2. Classification according to the number of Spindles:
a. Single Spindle Automats: These machines have only one spindle. So, one component can be machined at a time.
Automatic cutting off machines, automatic screw cutting machines and Swiss type machines belong to this type.
b. Multi Spindle Automats: These machines have 2 to 8 spindles. But, 4 and 6 spindle machines are commonly used.
Operations are performed simultaneously in all the spindles. Hence, the rate of production is very high. Multi
spindle machines are of two types. They are parallel action type and progressive action type.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 42 | P a g e

3. Classification according to the arrangement of spindles:
a) Horizontal Spindle Type: In this type, the spindles are in a horizontal position. They are used for machining long
jobs of small diameters.
b) Vertical Spindle Type: In this type, spindles are in vertical position. These machines are heavier and stronger. They
can accommodate larger blank diameter but shorter in length. But, they occupy less floor area.
4. Classification according to the feed control:
a. Single Cam Shaft Rotating At Constant Speed: Here, a single cam shaft controls the working and idle motions
of the tool. The idle motion and working motions take place at the same speed. Hence, the cycle time is longer.
b. Single Cam Shaft with Two Speeds: The cam shaft rotates at slow speed for working motions. It rotates at faster
speed during idle motions. Hence, the idle time is reduced.
c. Two Cam Shaft: This machine consists of two cam shafts.
(i) Main cam shaft
(ii) Auxiliary cam shaft.
The tool movements during working motions are controlled by a main camshaft. The main camshaft rotates at slow
speed. The tool movement during idle motion is controlled by an auxiliary camshaft. This camshaft rotates at faster
speed. Hence, the idle time is reduced.

5. Classification according to the use:

a. Single purpose machine: This machine is designed to produce a single component of fixed shape and size. It is
used in production lines of a single product.
b. General purpose machine: In this machine, a variety of components can be produced. The machine can be set for
components with slight variations in shape and size.

Single Spindle Automatic Lathes:

A single spindle automatic lathe is a modified form of turret lathe. These machines have an addition to a 6-station or
8-station turret, a maximum of 4 cross slides. These cross slides are operated by disc cams. The cams are mounted on a
shaft which draws the power from the main spindle through a set of gears called cyclic time change gears.
Turret operation is also synchronized with the cross slide operation and is driven by another cam called main cam.
The tools used on the cross slides are usually form tools and are plunged into the work piece at the desired feed rate. The
tools used in the turret may be turning tool, drilling tools etc. It is common to use more than one tool on a turret station.
External threading is usually carried out by a thread chasing attachment. Internal threads are made using taps. In addition,
milling of slots, flats, grooves, cross-drilling etc. can be carried out.

It can be performed
in an automatic lathe with
the help of special
attachments. It is one of
the outstanding features of
automatic lathe. The
reduction in number of set
ups and total machining
time enables the parts to
be produced at an
economical cost in an
automatic lathe. Because
of their application to
produce screws at low
cost, these are called
screw cutting machines.
Figure 2.83 shows
the single spindle automatic
lathe. The lathe has a geared

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 43 | P a g e

headstock. The spindle of the headstock has one slow speed and one fast speed. The spindle speed is changed by the trip dogs
on the drum A. At the end of bed, a square turret is provided. The travel of the turret slide is controlled by the adjustable cam
drum C. The turret indexed to the next at the end of each stroke.
Two cross slides are situated between headstock and turret. One cross slide is at the front side and the other at the
rear side. The cross slides have independent movements. The travel of cross slides are independently controlled by a cams B.
Overlapping of operations by the tool in the turret and the tools in the cross slide can be done. The correct feed for each
machining operation can automatically be selected by the feed selector pins on the drum D. The following types of single
spindle automatic lathe are mostly used.
1. Automatic cutting off machine
2. Swiss type automatic screw machine.
3. Automatic screw cutting machine

1. Automatic Cutting Off Machine

These machines are simple in design and they are used for producing large quantities of parts of smaller diameter
and shorter lengths. The components of simple shapes are produced in this machine.
The principle of an automatic cutting off machine is
shown in Figure 2.84.
In this machine, the headstock with the spindle is
mounted on the bed. Two cross-slides are located on the bed
at the front end of the spindle-cams on a camshaft actuating
the working movements of the cross-slides through a system
of levers. Cross slide tools can perform the operations such
as facing, chamfering, cutting off etc.
To cut threads and machining holes, special attachments are
used. It is also provided with a controlling movement for the
turret. This provision helps the tools to feed into the work at
desired speeds. It was accomplished by means of a
cylindrical cam or drum cam located beneath the turret. It
also consists of a mechanism for clamping the work in the
collet.
The bar stock is held in a collet chuck. A bar stop held on a slide is automatically advanced in line with the spindle
axis at the end of each cycle. The stock is fed out of the collet by a bar feeding mechanism up to the stop. Bar feeding is done
by a cam mechanism
In some machines, an end-working slide is
available. This slide travels along the spindle axis. Using this
slide, drilling and reaming operations can be carried out.
Various simple parts machined in this machine are shown in
Figure 2.85. The size of parts varies from 3mm to 20mm
diameter.

2. Swiss Type Automatic Lathes (Sliding Head Automatic Lathes)

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 44 | P a g e

 This type of automatic lathe is suitable for small parts but they should be long and slender parts such as parts of
wristwatches. There is a distinct difference between conventional automatic lathes and Swiss type automatic lathes. In the
latter, the work is fed against the tool. The headstock carrying the bar stock moves back and front for providing the feed
movement in the longitudinal direction. Hence, this type of automatic lathe is also called a sliding head automatic lathe. This
machine is used for producing long accurate parts of small diameter (2 to 25mm). In this, the parts can be machined to an
accuracy of 0.005mm to 0.0125mm.
There may be five cross slides in the case of automatic lathe. However, the productivity-wise, the conventional
automatic lathes are superior for short work pieces. The advantage of a sliding head automatic lathe is that the long slender
work pieces can be machined with very good surface finish, accuracy and concentricity in sliding head automatic lathes.
Further, Swiss type automatic lathes are capable of completely machining certain types of parts which may require second
and third operations in conventional automatic machines. Figure 2.86 shows a Swiss type screw cutting machine.
It consists of four major parts.
a) The sliding headstock through which the bar stock is passed and gripped by a carbide-lined guide bush.
b) The camshaft which controls the bar stock and cutting tool movements.
c) The tool bracket which supports five tool slides and a bush for stock.
d) Auxiliary attachments for performing various operations such as knurling, drilling, tapping, screwing, slotting,
recessing etc. description of various parts is given below.

a) Sliding Headstock: This headstock has a collet. The bar stock is held in the collet. The headstock slides along the
guide ways of the bed. A bell cam connected to the camshaft controls this sliding motion.

b) Tool bracket:

The tool bracket is mounted on the bed way near the

headstock. The tool bracket supports 4 or 5 tool
slides. It also has a bush for supporting and guiding
the bar stock.
➔ Two slides are horizontally positioned i.e. one at
the front and the other at the rear. The other slides
are arranged above these slides.
➔ All slides can move back and forth. These slides
are independently actuated by sets of rocker arms
and plate cams. Plate cams are fitted to the
camshaft.

c) Feed Base: The feed base is mounted at the right hand side of the headstock. It can move along the bed. Using this
attachment, operations such as drilling, boring, thread cutting etc., are done. The movement of the feed base is controlled
by the plate cam fitted to the camshaft.
d) Cam shaft: The camshaft is mounted at the front of the machine. It has a bell cam at the left end. It controls the sliding
movement of the headstock. Plate cams fitted at the centre of the shaft controls the movement of the tool slides. A plate
cam at the right end of the camshaft controls the movement of the feed base. The parts produced in this machine are
shown in Figure 2.88.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 45 | P a g e

 Working principle (Swiss type screw machine):
The bar stock is held in the rotating spindle by a collet chuck. Headstock slides along the bed ways with the rotating
bar stock. This headstock movement gives a longitudinal feed to the work. All tools in the tool slides remove material from
the work piece at the same time. The tool in the feed base attachment may also do operations such as drilling. After the work
piece is machined, the headstock slides back to the original position. One revolution of the camshaft produces one
component.
Most of the turning and forming operations are done by the tools held on the (horizontal) front and rear tool slides.
The vertical tool slides are mainly used for undercutting, chamfering, knurling and cutting off.

Advantages of Swiss type screw machine:

1. It is used to manufacture precision turning of small parts.
2. It has five tool slides.
3. Wide range of speeds is available.
4. It is rigid in construction.
5. Micrometer tool setting is possible.
6. Interchangeability of cams is possible.
7. Simple design of cams is enough.
8. Tolerance of 0.005 to 0.0125mm is obtained.
9. Numerous working stations are available.

3. Single Spindle Automatic Screw Cutting Machine:

These machines are essentially automatic bar type turret lathes. They are widely used for production of all sorts of
small turned parts. It mainly consists of a cross slide and turret. Two cross slides, one front cross slide and another rear
cross slide are provided for cross feeding tools. An additional vertical slide is also employed in this machine. This third
slide is installed above the work spindle.

The turret slide is placed at the right end of the bed. It carries the turret having six tool holes. The various tools used in
the machine are mounted around the turret in a vertical plane in line with the spindle. In this machine, the headstock is
stationary. It houses the spindle which rotates in either direction. The bar stock is held in a chuck. It is advanced by a feed
finger after each piece is finished and cut off. A camshaft is mounted at the front of the machine. It carries three plate cams.
These plate cams control the travel of cross slides. The turret head rotates about a horizontal axis. The turret slide travel is
controlled by a lead cam. The lead cam gives a slow forward and fast return movement to the turret slide.
The discs cams are used to control the cross slide. All operations such as turning, drilling, boring, threading, reaming,
spot facing, knurling can be performed on the machine. Special attachments are also available to perform slotting work,
milling flats, cross-drilling etc.
In this machine, any type of
bar stock round, square,
hexagonal can be machined.
These machines are made in
several sizes for bar work
from 12mm to 60mm
diameter.
The line diagram of this
machine is shown in Figure
2.89. The parts produced in an
automatic screw-cutting
machine are shown in Figure
2.90.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 46 | P a g e

Applications: It is used for producing small jobs, screws, stepped pins, taper pins, bolts etc.

Multiple Spindle Automatic Lathes:

Multiple spindle automatic lathes are machines which can produce larger work pieces than single spindle automats.
The principle advantage of the multi spindle automat is that it has a tool slide working simultaneously on the jobs on all
spindles and hence, the time for producing a piece is the time for the longest cut.
General Description
Figure 2.91 shows a view of a 6-
spindle automatic lathe. The headstock carries
spindle carrier. The spindle carrier is indexed
so that the work piece on each spindle can be
machined by a particular tool on the end tool
slide. The turret only moves back and forth to
provide the feed movement. The spindle
carrier is indexed by a Geneva mechanism.
The main tool slide moves
longitudinally on an extension of the spindle
which provides accurate alignment with the
spindle. The end tool slide is advanced and
retracted by a drum cam. Each spindle
position has a separate cross slide which is
operated by independent cams. Cross slides
are directly mounted on the headstock.
One of the spindle positions is used for stock loading in the case of magazine feeding or feeding of bar stock.

Classification of Multi-Spindle Automatic Lathes

Multi-spindle automatic lathes are classified as follows.
1. According to the type of work piece (stock) used.
a. Bar type machine
b. Chucking type machine.
2. According to the arrangement of the spindle.
a. Horizontal spindle type
b. Vertical spindle type.
3. According to the principle of operation.
a. Parallel action type
b. Progressive action type.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 47 | P a g e

1. Bar-Type Automatic Machine:
These machines operate on bar stock, usually round. Sometimes, a bar of hexagonal shape can also be used. These
machines can be specified by the largest diameter of stock that can be fed through the spindles. The size of bars ranges
from about 14mm diameter. The bar stock may be fed by either gravity or rollers.
2. Magazine-Loading Type or Chucking Type Machine:
These machines are similar to bar type machines. They handle several work pieces held in several chucks. It can be
specified according to the diameter of the work which can be swung over tool slides. The maximum size of bar stock that
can be used in this machine is 250mm.
3. Parallel Action Multi Spindle Automats:
These types of automatics are also called as multiple-flow machine. The line diagram of this machine is shown in
Figure 2.92. This machine consists of a frame with a headstock. The axes of work spindles are horizontal. These spindles
are arranged in a line one above the other. The work spindles are housed in the headstock. There are two cross slides, one
on left hand side and the other on the right hand side. The left hand side cross slide is called as front tool slide. The right
hand side cross slide is called as rear tool slide. .

Fig. 2.92 3. Parallel Action Multi Spindle Automatic Machine

These slides carry the cross feeding tools. Cams are used to obtain all working and auxiliary motions of the machine
units. In this type of machine, the same operation is performed on each spindle. In one working cycle, each work piece is
finished in each spindle. In a five-spindle machine, five components can be completed at a time. Similarly, in an eight
spindle machine, eight components can be completed at a time. Hence, it is called as parallel action multi spindle
machine. The production rate is very high in this machine. But only simple components can be machined since all
machining processes are done at one position.

4. Progressive Action Multi Spindle Automats or Cutting Off Machine:

In this type of machine, the work pieces are machined in stages. A six-spindle progressive action multi spindle
automatic lathe is shown in Figure 2.93.
The headstock is
mounted on the base of the
machine. The headstock has
a spindle carrier. This
carrier rotates about a
horizontal axis through the
centre of the machine. The
working spindles are
mounted in the spindle
carrier. Work pieces are
held in the collet in the
spindles. The bar stock is
fed to the spindle from the
rear. Cross slides are
mounted in a frame above
the face of the spindle
carrier. These tool slides

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 48 | P a g e

 carry forming, chamfering, facing and cutting off
tools. These cross slides travel radially inward. for
cutting operation. The cross slide movement is
controlled from a cam in the camshaft. In this type of
machine, the work pieces are machined in stages. A
six-spindle progressive action multi spindle automatic
lathe is shown in Figure 2.93.
The main tool side (or end tool slide) is situated
in front of the spindle carrier. It carries tool slides
around its periphery. There is one tool slide
corresponding to each spindle. The tool slides move
towards the spindle while machining. Operations such
as straight turning, boring and threading are done by
tools mounted on these tool slides. The spindle carrier
indexes on its own axis by 60° at the end of tool return. As the spindle carrier indexes, it carries the work from station to
station. In the first station, the bar stock is fed. In every station, various types of operations are progressively done (one
after another in each station). At the sixth station, the component is completed and cut off. A finished component is
obtained at each time the spindle carrier indexes. Some components produced in multi spindle automats are shown Figure
2.94.

Comparison of Parallel Action and Progressive Action Multi-Spindle Automatic Lathes

Sn Parallel Action Progressive Action

1 Same operation is done on all jobs in all Different operations are done on jobs at each station one after
spindles. another.

2 In one cycle, the number of components It is not so, (i.e.) the number of components produced in one
produced simultaneously is equal to the cycle is not equal to the number of spindles. For every indexing
number of spindles. of component (spindle), one component is produced.

3 The rate of production is very high. The rate of production is moderate.

4 If anything goes wrong in one station, If anything goes wrong in one the station, the production is that
production in particular station only is completely affected in all stations,
affected.

5 Small parts of simple shapes are produced. Parts of complicated shapes can be produced.

Comparison of Single Spindle and Multi Spindle Automatic Lathes Multi spindle

sn Single Spindle Single Spindle

1 There is only one spindle. There are 2, 4, 5, 6 or 8 spindles.

2 Only one work piece machined at a time. Number of work pieces are machined at a time.

3 The rate of production is low. The rate of production is high.

4 Machining accuracy higher. Machining accuracy lower

5 Tool setting time is less. Tool setting time is more.

6 Tooling cost is less Tooling cost is more.

7 It is more economical for shorter as well as longer It is more economical for longer runs only.
runs.

8 The time required to produce one component is the Time required to produce one component is the time of
sum of all turret operation times. the longest cut in any one spindle.

9 Tools in turrets are indexed. Work pieces held spindles are (Progressive machine).

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 49 | P a g e

 UNIT-3
[ SHAPING, SLOTTING AND PLANNING MACHINES ]
Shaper
The one and only basic machine is lathe. Except this lathe, other basic machines are shaper, planer,
slotter, drilling, grinding, boring, milling and broaching machines. Shaper, planer and slotter are used for
machining flat surface which may be horizontal, vertical or inclined surfaces. Single point cutting tools are mainly
used in these machines.
Drilling, grinding, boring, milling and broaching machines are not used for machining flat surfaces but
they are performing specific operations by using a multi-point cutting tool.

 Principle of Operation: The shaper having a reciprocating type of machine tool with single point cutting tool
is used to produce flat surfaces. The flat surface may be horizontal, vertical or inclined surfaces. It has the
three important parts such as
1. Table
2. Tool head
3. Ram
The tool head is fitted on the front end of the ram while the job is rigidly fixed on the table. The tool is
mounted on the tool post or head. The ram reciprocates along with the tool to remove the metal during forward
stroke called as cutting stroke. The tool does not cut the metal during return stroke called as idle stroke.
Therefore, one pass is the combination of one forward and return stroke or one cutting and one idle stroke. So, the
idle stroke time is reduced by increasing the speed of the return stroke. It means, the speed of cutting stroke will
be lower than the speed of return stroke. This is done to reduce the time required for one pass. Hence, the overall
time required will drastically be reduced. This quick return of the ram during idle stroke is obtained by a quick
return mechanism. At the end of each cutting stroke, the feed (depth of cut) is given.

Machining Various Types of Flat Surfaces

1. The table is moved in a cross-wise direction to machine the horizontal surfaces.
2. The tool head is moved perpendicular to the table in down ward direction to machine the vertical surfaces.
3. The tool head is fed at an angle to produce inclined surfaces.

Classification of Shaper: Generally, shapers are classified as follows.

1. According to the type of driving mechanism
a. Crank drive type
b. Whit worth driving mechanism type
c. Hydraulic drive type.
2. According to the position of ram
a. Horizontal shaper
b. Vertical shaper.
c. Travelling head shaper
3. According to the table design
a. Standard or plain shaper
b. Universal shaper
4. According to the type of cutting stroke
a. Push out type
b. Draw cut type.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 50 | P a g e

 Principle Parts of a Shaper
The different parts of a shaper are listed and described below.
1. Base
2. Column
3. Cross rail
4. Saddle
5. Table
6. Ram
7. Tool head.

1. Base: The base is heavy and robust in construction which is made of cast iron by a casting process. It is the
only part to support all other parts because all parts are mounted on the top of this base. So, it should be made
to absorb vibrations due to load and cutting forces while machining.
2. Column: The column has a box type structure which is made of cast iron. The inside surface is made as
hollow to reduce the total weight of the shaper. It is mounted on the base. The ram driving (Quick return)
mechanism is housed. The two guide ways are provided on the top. The ram reciprocates on this guide way.
Similarly, there are two guide ways at the front vertical face of the column to move the cross rail along these
guide ways.
3. Cross rail: It is also heavy in construction made of cast iron. It slides on the front vertical ways of the
column with two mechanisms. One is for elevating the table and the other one is for cross travel of the table.
A saddle slides over two guide ways already provided in the front face of the cross slide. The crosswise
movement of the table is obtained by a cross feed screw and the vertical movement of the cross rail is
obtained by an elevating screw.
4. Saddle: It is mounted on the cross rail which holds the table in position on its top without any shake.
5. Table: It is also a box type rectangular hollow cast iron block. This table slides along the horizontal guide
ways of the cross rail. The work is held in the table. The table has machined surfaces on the top and sides of
T-slots for clamping work. It can vertically be moved by the elevating screw. An adjustable table support
supports the front face of the table.
6. Ram: Ram of cast iron has cross ribs for rigidity. Generally, it is a reciprocating type which slides over the
guide ways on the top of the column. It is connected to driving mechanism of any one and also it carries the
tool head at the front end.
7. Tool head: It holds rigidly the tool having swivel base with degree graduation. So, the tool head can be
swiveled to any angle as required. The tool head has a vertical slide and apron to provide vertical and angular
feeds to the tool. A feed screw with graduated dial moves the vertical slide vertically to set the accurate
movement.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 51 | P a g e

8. Apron is clamped upon the vertical
slide which can be tilted to right or
left and also clamped at a correct
position. The clapper box hinges a
tool block already fitted with apron.
The tool block holds a tool post to
mount the tool. During cutting
stroke, the tool block fits rigidly
inside the clapper box. During
return stroke, the tool block lifts out
of a clapper box to avoid rubbing of
tool on the job.

Other Types of Shaper: The following other types of shaper are briefly described below:
i. Standard or Plain Shaper: This type of shaper has all above-described parts. In addition to this, it has a
plain table called plain shaper, and the horizontal and vertical movement of the table with or without vertical
supports at its front. So, it can be adjusted to any suitable height of the work piece. Usually, the metal is
removed during forward stroke called as push type shaper.
ii. Universal Shaper: It has all parts similar to a standard shaper. In addition to this, a special provision of table
which can be swivelled to an axis parallel to the ram movement. The swivel base is graduated in degrees.
iii. Draw Cut Shaper: It has all principal parts but it is heavier than plain type. The main difference in this draw
cut shaper is that the metal will be cut during return stroke. During cutting stroke, the tool draws the work
towards the column called draw cut shaper. So, the cutting is fitted in a reverse direction. Hence, heavy cuts
are possible and vibration is eliminated.

SHAPER SPECIFICATIONS
Generally, the specifications of a typical shaper are listed below.
1. Maximum length of stroke.
2. Maximum crosswise movement of the table.
3. Maximum vertical adjustment of the table.
4. Type of driving mechanism.
5. Power of the motor.
6. Available speed and feed.
7. Type of shaper-plain or universal
8. Floor space required.
9. Total weight of the shaper.
10. Ratio of cutting stroke time to return stroke time.

Drives: To convert the rotary motion of a motor into reciprocating motion of the tool, the various types of drives
are provided in the shaper because the metal is removed during forward stroke. But no metal is cut during return
stroke. Due to this, the time taken for the return stroke should be reduced by making the return stroke faster than
cutting stroke. It is achieved by some quick return mechanisms.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 52 | P a g e

 Types of Quick Return Mechanism
The following are three types of quick return mechanisms.
1. Hydraulic drive
2. Crank and slotted link mechanism
3. Whitworth quick return mechanism.

1. Hydraulic Drive:
A piston reciprocates inside the hydraulic cylinder. A piston rod is connected between piston and ram. So,
the ram reciprocates along with the piston. Two parts or elements are provided near each end of the cylinder. A
four-way control valve connects these two elements with the reservoir. The reservoir connects the value through a
drain pipe and a supply pipe.

The supply pipe is again connected to the reservoir by a pump and relief valve. The valve is actuated by
the lever and trip dog fitted to the ram. Oil is sucked by a gear pump from the reservoir at a particular pressure.
This high-pressure oil goes to the cylinder through a four-way valve. The oil is allowed from the pump to the left
side of the piston which forces the piston to move the ram towards right (R). It is called as forward or cutting
stroke. In this stroke, oil flows out on the right side entry to the reservoir through the four way valve and drain
pipe. The lever hits one trip dog (P₁) at the end of this stroke. Now, the lever position is changed. Due to this, the
supply pipe supplies the oil on the right side of the piston which moves the ram towards left (L) called as return
stroke or non- cutting stroke. In this stroke, the high-pressure oil covers less area on the cylinder. Due to this, the
pressure force will increase. Hence, this return stroke is faster by supplying the same quantity of oil.

Advantages of hydraulic drive:

1. Smooth cutting operation can be obtained by uniform speed.
2. Changing of cutting speed is easier.
3. Higher cutting to return ratio can be obtained.
4. Infinite range of cutting speeds is available.
5. The operation is more safety due to the relief valve fitted.
6. Stroke length can easily be adjusted without stopping the machine.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 53 | P a g e

2. Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism
In this mechanism, the ram is actuated by
gear drives associated with electric
motor. First, the electric motor drives the
pinion gear. Next, the pinion gear drives
the bull gear which rotates in the
opposite direction due to external gear
meshing. A radial slide is provided on
the bull gear. A sliding block is
assembled on this slide. The block can be
positioned in radial direction by rotating
the stroke adjustment screw.
The sliding block has a crank pin. A
rocker arm is freely fitted to this crank
pin.
The rocker arm sliding block slides in the slot provided in the rocker arm called slotted link.
The bottom end of the rocker is pivoted and its upper end has fork which is connected to the ram block by a pin.

When the pinion gear rotates along with the bull gear, the crank will also rotate. Due to this, the rocker
arm sliding block also rotates in the same circle. Simultaneously, the sliding block slides up and down in the slot.
This movement is transmitted to the ram which reciprocates. Hence, the rotary motion is converted into
reciprocating motion.

Quick Return Principle:

From Figure 3.5, P1 and P2 are rear and forward extreme positions of link. B1, and B₂ are two extreme
positions of a crank pin. During forward stroke, the link moves from A1, to A2 as the sliding block moves from
B1, to B₂ in the clockwise direction at an angle of β.
During return stroke, the sliding block goes from B2, to B1, in clockwise direction through an angle of α.
But, the speed of bull gear is constant throughout. Therefore, the time taken during these two strokes is directly
proportional to these angles β and α. But the angle α is smaller thanβ. So, the time taken by the return stroke will
be reduced.

m varies from 2:1 to 3:2

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 54 | P a g e
3. Whit-Worth Quick Return Mechanism:

o Whitworth quick return mechanism is the inversion of a single slider crank chain.
o Single slider crank chain consists of three turning pairs & one sliding pair.
o The main aim is to converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion but reversed stroke is quicker in
comparison with forwarding stroke.
o The name states itself that the forward stroke is slower as it is power stroke while return stroke is quick as it
is idle stroke.
o The Whitworth quick return mechanism is generally used in shaper machines & slotting machine in which
forward stroke is slower for machining purposes & return stroke is faster as there is no machining process is
to be done.
Whitworth quick return mechanism is consists of the following components:-
 Crank: The crank rotates with uniform angular velocity. It gets power from a pinion wheel or motor.
 Slotted bar & Slider: It is a bar with a slot for guiding a slider into it. The slider is connected to the end
of the crank. The slotted bar is pivoted at a fixed origin. Its other end is connected to the connecting rod.
 Connecting rod: The aim of connecting rod is to converts the rotary motion of the end of the slotted bar
into reciprocating motion.
 Ram: The ram reciprocates in the horizontal direction. The shaper or slotting tool is mounted onto the
ram.
The construction is as follows:-
1) As shown in the above figure, link AC is fixed.
2) Crank AB rotates about origin A with uniform angular velocity.
3) The slider b is mounted at end of crank AB which slides into the slotted bar.
4) Slotted bar is pivoted at C & rotates about point C.
5) At the end of the slotted bar, connecting rod is attached which converts rotary motion to reciprocating
motion.
6) The ram is connected at the end of the connecting rod. The ram reciprocates & has a cutting tool
mounted on it.
Whitworth quick return mechanism working: Whitworth quick return mechanism working consists of two
strokes:-

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 55 | P a g e

 1. FORWARD STROKE:
 For forward stroke, the crank AB is moves from B2 to B1 in a clockwise direction.
 At the same time point, X on connecting rod moves from B1 to B2 in a clockwise direction & the ram
move in forward direction from Y1 to Y2.
 [The movement of forward stroke is shown in the figure with a green dotted line]
 For forward stroke crank AB has to complete angle β.
2. RETURN STROKE:
 For return stroke, the crank AB is move from B1 to B2 in a clockwise direction.
 At the same time, the point X on connecting rod moves from B2 to B1 in a clockwise direction & the
ram moves in a reversed direction from Y2 to Y1.
 For reversed stroke, crank AB has to complete angle α .
 [The movement of return stroke is shown in the above figure by red dotted line]

The ratio of time for forward stroke & return stroke is given by,

Feed Mechanism
The mechanism in which the feed is given at the end of each return stroke is known as feed mechanism. It
may be anyone of the following three types such as horizontal, vertical and inclined feed mechanisms. Both
vertical and inclined feeds are given by rotating the hand wheel of the cross feed screw on the tool head by hand.

a. Hand Feed:
If the table is moved perpendicular to the ram

movement, it is called cross feed. It is given by

rotating the hand wheel of the cross feed screws

on the tool head. The vertical adjustment is made

by rotating the elevating screw through the

horizontal rod to hold the work piece at various

heights. Both vertical and angular feeds are given

by the tool head. But the only difference in

angular feed is that the feed will be given after

setting the work to its required angle.

b. Automatic Table Feed: The automatic feed for the shaper table is given by a pawl and ratchet mechanism.
This mechanism is connected with the rocker arm and connecting rod. Finally, it is connected with the
driving disc having T-slots through a crank pin. Before this, the pawl is connected with pin and knob through
the spring. The pawl is freely slipped up and down when the ratchet wheel rotates.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 56 | P a g e

 During the first half revolution of the disc in the
clockwise direction, the rocker arm rotates in the
same direction but the pawl slips over the teeth of
the ratchet wheel at that time and no movement is
given to the table. This movement takes place only
during cutting stroke.
 During the next half revolution of the disc in the
same clockwise direction, the rocker arm rotates in
the anticlockwise direction. Therefore, the pawl
again slips over the teeth of the ratchet wheel. It
takes place only on return stroke.
 The reverse feed mechanism is obtained by turning
the pawl through 180° after lifting the pawl. Then
the cross feed is varied by changing the crank pin
position radially on the disc.

 Work Holding Devices

The work piece should tightly be clamped by using some holding devices in a shaper called work holding
devices. These
devices are selected dependent on the shape and size of job, and the type of operation to be performed. Usually,
the clamping devices are wedge strip, step block, stop pin, toe dog, hold down, parallel, clamp and U-clamp etc.
The following methods are commonly used which is tabulated below.

 Methods of Clamping
1. Clamp in a Vise: Work is held quickly in a swivel base machine vice between two jaws. Parallels are
used to raise and set small works. It should not spoil the machined surface of work.
2. Clamping on the Table:

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 57 | P a g e

  The work is clamped by a T-bolt, step block and clamp as shown in Figure 3.12. The height of the step
should approximately be equal to the height of work. 'T' bolts should be placed near the work.
 The work is held between strip and stop pin. Tightening the stop pin screws are done by butting the
work with a strip. Due to no interference of clamps, the machining process can be performed on the
entire surface.

Fig.3.12.b Strip and Stop Pin Fig.3.12.c Strip and Stop Pin Fig.3.12.b wedge
Strip and Stop Pin

3. Clamping on a V Block: The small cylindrical work pieces are clamped by using 'T' bolts. Machining
can be done on the surface free from clamps. The work is clamped between two-wedge blocks. Then, it is
firmly gripped by tightening the stop pin screws.
4. Clamping on Angle Plate: The irregular shape of work piece is held on angle plates. The details are
shown in Figure 3.14. The work is clamped by bolts. The packing pieces or wedges are used to give
support the work wherever it is necessary.

5. Fixture: Fixture is a specially designed work holding device using T bolts, V-blocks and clamps.
Locating, clamping and unloading of work can easily and quickly be done. The total production time and
cost are reduced. The accuracy of machining is improved
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 58 | P a g e
 Types of Tool: Usually, the shaping tools are made of HSS or forged tools. It is a single point cutting tool. It
is made to various clearance angles. It should make to withstanding shock load during starting of cut.
The tools are classified as below.
1. According to the shape

a. Straight tool b. Cranked tool c. Goose necked tool.

2. According to the direction of cutting

a. Left hand tool b. Right hand tool.

3. According to the finish required

a. Roughing tool b. Finishing tool

4. According to the type of operation

a. Down cutting tool b. Parting off tool

c. Squaring tool d. Side recessing tool.

5. According to the shape of the cutting edge.

a. Round nose tool b. Square nose tool.

 Shaping Operations
The following operations can be performed on a shaper.
1. Machining horizontal surface
2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Machining slots, grooves and keyways
5. Machining irregular surfaces.

1. Machining Horizontal Surface: The work is held on a table and the tool is fitted on the tool post with
minimum overhung. It should prevent the rubbing of tool on the work while returning. The tool is vertically
adjusted by some clearance
and the stroke length is set
longer than work piece. i.e.
12mm tool approach and
8mm tool over run are
added to the length of the
work. Then the proper
cutting speed and feed are
chosen. During starting of
the shaper to machine the
work, the tool is just made
to touch the job.
Afterwards, the depth of

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 59 | P a g e

 cut is given at each end of the return stroke by rotating the down feed screw. In any machines, the roughing
cut is performed by giving more depth of cut with slow cutting speed and faster feed. Similarly, the finishing
cut is performed by giving less depth of cut with faster cutting speed and slow feed.

2. Machining Vertical Surface: The job is held on the table and the tool is set on the tool holder. The tool
position and the stroke length are adjusted to a required dimension. Then the value on the vertical slide dial is
set at zero. The apron is swiveled to avoid the rubbing of tool on the work surface during return stroke. The
depth of cut is given by raising or elevating the table. Feed is given by rotating the down feed screws of tool
head at the end of return stroke.

3. Machining Angular Surface: The job is mounted on the table and the tool is set at required angle on the tool
head position and stroke lengths are adjusted and also proper cutting speed and feed are chosen. The apron is
set away from the machining surface. The method of giving depth of cut and feed are similar to machining the
vertical surface. Dovetail is the surface having angular surface on both sides. To make dovetail shape, the
vertical slide with right hand tool is set at the required angle on the right side of the work. Just by giving feed
and depth of cut, the right side dovetail is finished. Then the vertical slide with left hand tool is set to the
required angle on left side of the work. Here also, just by giving feed and depth of cut, the left side dovetail is
finished.
4. Machining Slots, Grooves and Keyways: The work is held in a vice using 'V' blocks and parallels. First a
hole is drilled to a required keyway depth at the end of the work piece. The diameter of the hole should
greater than the width of keyway. Then, the position and stroke length are adjusted. The keyway-cutting tool
is set on the tool head. Finally, the external keyway is machined with reduced speed.

5. Machining Irregular Surface: For machining the irregular surface, a round nose tool is set on the tool head.
By giving both the cross feed and vertical feed at the same time, the
irregular surface is obtained. The cross feed is given through the table
and the vertical feed is given by the tool head. The apron is fitted to
some angle away from the machined surface to avoid the rubbing of
tool on the work during return stroke.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 60 | P a g e

 Machining Calculations
1. Cutting Speed (V): It is the velocity at which the metal is removed by the tool.

where L =Length or cutting stroke in mm N-Speed in rpm

m-Ratio between cutting time and return time.
2. Feed (f): The relative movement of tool with respect to the work piece axis is known as feed.
3. Depth of cut (t): The amount of metal removed in one revolution or in one cut is known as depth of cut.
4. Machining time (T): Time required for machining the work surface to the required dimensions.

where
L-length of stroke = l + approach + over run
N-Speed in rpm.
f-Feed.
l-Work piece length
L/V=Time for cutting stroke
m L/V-Time for return stroke.

5. No. of strokes required (SN): It is the ratio between the width of work and feed per stroke.

6. Total machining time (T): It is the time required for machining the entire surface of the work as per
requirements.
7. Metal removal rate (w): It is the volume of metal removed per unit time.
MMR (or) w = f t L S
Where f-Feed
T-Depth of cut
L-Length of work
S-Strokes per minute.
9. Power required:
P = k.w
where k-Machining constant.
9. Number pass:

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 61 | P a g e

 SLOTTER MACHINE

Definition: A slotter machine is a machine tool in which material is removed for producing desired shapes. It is
used for producing Machining cylindrical surfaces and flat surfaces.
The slotter machine can be classified into two types:
1. Puncher Slotter Machine
2. Precision Slotter Machine

1. Puncher Slotter Machine: The puncher slotter is a rigid and heavier machine designed mainly for the
removal of a large amount of metal from large castings or forgings. The length of the puncher slotter is
sufficiently large which may be as long as 1800 to 2000 mm.
The ram of the slotter is driven by a spiral pinion meshing with the rack teeth cut on the underside of the
ram and the pinion is driven by a variable speed reversible electric motor which is similar to the planer. The
feed is also controlled by electrical gears.
2. Precision Slotter Machine: It is a simple and lighter machine. It is operated at high speeds and the
machine is mainly designed to take light cuts for accurate surface finish. The machine can handle a number of
identical works on a production basis by using special jigs. These machines are fitted with a whit worth quick
return mechanism.

Slotter Machine consists of following Main Parts:

1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Cross-slide
5. Rotating table
6. Ram and Tool head assembly
7. Ram drive mechanism
8. Feed mechanism
1. Base or Bed: It is a rigid cast iron casting
built to take up all the cutting forces and the
entire load of the machine. The top surface of
the bed is accurately machined to provide
guideways on which the saddle is mounted and slides. These guideways are perpendicular to the
column face.
2. Column: It is a vertical member and cast integral with the base. Column houses the ram driving and
feeding mechanisms. Accurately machined guideways are provided on the front face of the column on
which the ram is made to reciprocate.
3. Saddle: The saddle is box-like casting mounted over the guideways on the bed surfaces and it moves
toward or away from the column and either by hand or power control to give the longitudinal feed to the
work. The top surface of the saddle is provided with accurately machined guideways perpendicular to the
guideways on the bed for moving the cross-slide.
4. Cross-slide: It is mounted over the saddle guideways and made to move parallel to the column face. The
movement of the slide may be controlled either by the power to give the cross feed.
5. Rotating or Rotary table: The slotter is provided with a circular table mounted on the top of the cross
slide. It can be rotated by rotating the worm which meshes with a worm gear connected at the underside
of the table. The table may be graduated in degree for indexing or dividing the periphery of the jobs. T-
slots are cut on its top surface for holding the work by clamping devices. The rotation of the table may be
affected either by hand or power.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 62 | P a g e

 6. Ram and Tool head assemble: The ram is
mounted on the guideways of the column and
reciprocates by holding the tool at its bottom
end of the tool head.

Slotter Machine Mechanism: Following are the

slotter machine ram drive mechanism:
1. Whitworth quick return mechanism
2. Variable speed reversible motor drive
mechanism
3. Hydraulic drive mechanism
For detailed Explanation Referee in shaper

Feed Mechanism: In a slotter, the feed is given

by a table either by hand or power.
The slotter table may have three movements:
1. Longitudinal feed: If the table is fed perpendicular to the column toward or away from its face is known
as a longitudinal feed
2. Cross feed: If the table is fed parallel to the face of the column is known as crossfeed.
3. Circular feed: If the table is fed by rotating the table about the vertical axis is known as a circular feed.
Power (Automatic) Feed Mechanism: The power feed mechanism as shown in the figure.

The following operations are performed in a slotter machine are:

1. Machining cylindrical surface.
2. Machining flat surface
3. Machining irregular surface and cam machining
4. Machining slots, keyways, and grooves.

Specification of Slotter Machine: The size of the slotter machine can be specified by the following
specification:
 Maximum stroke length of the ram.
 The diameter of the table.
 Amount of cross and longitudinal travel of the table.
 The number of speeds available.
 The number of feed available.
 Horsepower of the motor
 Type of quick return mechanism
 Floor space is required
 Net weight of the machine

Application of Slotter Machine: The following application of slotter machine is:

 It is used for cutting keyways,
 Grooves and slots of various shapes,
 For making regular and irregular surfaces both external and internal,
 Cutting internal and external gears,
 For holding large, awkward jobs.

Advantages of Slotter Machine: The advantages of slotter machine are:

 Slotter machine is a light machine comparatively other machine tools.
 The price of a machine is not so high.
 Low maintenance required.
 The machine produces a good surface finish for a workpiece.
The disadvantages of Slotter Machinis that The worker should have knowledge of machine to operate and
second one is the machine construction is not simple

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 63 | P a g e

 Planer Machine
Definition: Planer Machine is a machine in which unwanted material is cut from the workpiece to produce a flat
surface on the workpiece. Unlike Shaper Machine, in this machine, more than one tool can be set and perform an
operation.
The following Construction or Main Parts of Planer Machine are:

 Bed
 Column or Housing
 Table
 Cross Rail
 Tool Head
 Driving
 Feed Mechanism
Bed:
The bed of a planer having cross
ribs similar to box-like casting. It is
heavy in weight and very large in size
also it supports the column and
moving parts of the machine.
The bed is made generally
longer than the length of the table,
almost twice the length. So that the
full length of the table may across it.
Column or Housing:
 The housings also called columns like vertical structures placed on each side of the bed and are attached
to the sides of the bed. They are heavily mechanized to continue severe forces due to cutting.Cross rail
may be made to slide up and down for accommodating different heights of work to the front face of each
housing is accurately machined to provide precision ways.
 Two side-tool head also slide upon it. Planer housing encloses the Crossrail elevating screw, vertical and
crossfeed screws for tool heads, counterbalancing weight for the Crossrail. The planer screws can be
operated by hand or power.
Table:
 The table of the planer supports the workpiece and reciprocates along with the ways of the bed. The
planer table is a heavy rectangular casting that has T-slots provided on the entire length of the table so
that the work and work holding devices attached to it.
 In the end, a hollow space is left which acts as a carrier for collecting chips. Works can also rest upon the
troughs of the planer. The table is made up of one single casting but it is divided by the table of planer
there are two separate tables mounted upon the bed ways.
Cross Rail:
 The Crossrail is a casting that connects the two housings. Crossrail provides rigidity to the machine. It
occupies the face of the housing and can be clamped at the position by manual, hydraulic devices.
 The Crossrail when clamped should remain absolutely parallel to the top surface of the table, i.e. It must
be horizontal irrespective of its position.
 Two tool heads are mounted which are called railhead. It has screws for vertical and crossfeed of the tool
heads and a screw for elevating the rail. The planer screws can be operated by hand or power.
Tool Head:
 Tool head is a component assembled to saddle, which has the tool post in it. The tool post is attached to
the head so that on to and from of the table the cutting tool force is raised.
 The cutting edge of the tool will be saved as of being damage and permits the automatic supply to
function with no intrusion. It has Saddle, Swivel base, Vertical Slide, Apron, Clapper box, Clapper block,
Toolpost, Down feed screw, Apron, clamping bolt, Apron swiveling pin, Mechanism for cross and down-
feed of the tool.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 64 | P a g e

 Planer Machine Working Principle:
The worktable can be move and the tool head of the machine is in a stationary position. The workpiece is
fixed on the work table and The single point cutting tool is attached to the tool head and now we switch on the
machine that means power supply to the machine and the worktable moves forward. Hence it cuts the material
and it is called cutting stroke. The worktable moves downward there is no cutting of material so this is called the
return stroke. The process will be continued unless you change the power supply or others.

Planer Machine Types: Planer Machine have five different Types:

1. Double Housing Planer Machine
2. Pit Planer Machine
3. Open Side Machine
4. Edge Planer Machine and
5. Divided Table Planer Machine

1. Double Housing Planer Machine:

 Most of the workshops use a double housing planer machine. Double housing planers have a long heavy
base with machined guideways accurate on which a table reciprocates. The bed length is greater than
twice the length of the table. Two vertical housings are mounted one housing: One on each side and these
are connected at the top by a cross member. It has a horizontal cross rail that carries two tool heads slides
over the vertical faces of the machine housing.
 Tool heads are moved by hand or power in the cross or vertical direction for the feeding operation.
Double housing planer is a high speed, heavy-duty as well as rigid machines.
 It has a high degree of surface finish. Work is mounted on a table which reciprocates while the tool is
held on the machine frame. It can make deep cuts and heavy feeds can be applied to finish the work in a
short time. The tool is stationery and work is moving. Heavier, stronger, and larger tools are used.
 Throughout the stroke cutting and return, speeds are uniform. Double housing Planer consumes a power
of 150 horsepower and the double housing holds the large floor area.

1. Double Housing Planer 2. Pit Planer Machine

2. Pit Planer Machine:
 Pit planer has a massive construction in which the table is kept in a pit and kept stationary. The crosses
rail reciprocates on a horizontal rail mounted on both sides of the table.
 The table of the planer is leveled with the floor, so heavy work can be loaded. It has two tool heads and
these can be moved horizontally and vertically to have the feed. By means of a motor, a driving screw is
used for driving the column.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 65 | P a g e
3. Open Side Planer Machine
 One housing on one side of the base is attached or clamped on which a cross rail on a table moves.
 The open side planer machine has three tool heads mounted on the machine. Single housing will bear the
entire load, Therefore it should be rigid and robust to face the forces.
 It can slide along the guideways of the housing in the vertical direction which carries the tool heads.

Open Side Planer Machine Edge Planer Machine

4. Edge Planer Machine:

 Edge planer is also called plate planer and is used for bevelling and squaring the edges of steel plates used
for pressure vessels in different applications and in the ship buildings industry.
 The table holds the work that remains in a stationary position. The workpiece can be attached by air-
operated clamps. The tool-head that mounts on the carriage moves along two horizontal guideways.

5. Divided Table Planer Machine

 Divided table Planer Machine has two tables on the bed that can reciprocate separately or jointly. This
will saves the idle time when you set the work.
 Divided type planer is mostly suitable for mass production work that can Machine is to be done
identically, the work on one of the tables is loaded, the other part can reciprocate the cutting tool for the
finishing process.
 Finishing the work can be done after the table is stopped and the finished job is ejected by shifting the
table to the end. Heavy and large jobs are clamped together therefore given the reciprocating movement
by the tool.

The following advantages

 It has Greater accuracy,
 Good surface finish,
 More than one tool can perform on the workpiece at a time and
 Low maintenance is required

The following Disadvantages

 The cost of the machine is on the higher side.
 The power consumption is quite more.
 The skilled worker required.
 Only tool single point is used.
Application:
 The Planer machine is used for Flat surfaces on the workpiece.
 Cutting angular surfaces is one of the major applications.
 Cutting slots and grooves.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 66 | P a g e

 DRILLING

Drilling is the process of producing hole on the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill. The
machine on which the drilling is carried out is called drilling machine. The drilling machine sometimes is
called as drill press as the machine exerts the vertical pressure to originate a hole. The hole is produced either
by giving axial movement to the rotating drill or axially moving the work against the revolving drill. Though
drilling may be done in a lathe or a vertical milling machine, it can conveniently be done, quickly and at low
cost in a drilling machine. Drilling machine can also used for boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking,
reaming, tapping and spot facing operations. Drilling machines are used in machine assembly, repair shop, tool
room, maintenance work, agricultural machinery etc.

3.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINE: The drilling machines are classified as follows.
1. Portable drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine
a. Bench type
b. Floor type.
3. Upright drilling machine
a. Round column type or pillar type
b. Box column type or square section type.
4. Radial drilling machine
a. Plain type
b. Semi-universal type
c. Universal type.

5. Gang drilling machine

6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Automatic drilling machine
8. Deep hole drilling machine.

3.2.2. PORTABLE DRILLING MACHINE

This type of machine is light in weight, compact in a smaller unit and easily handled with respect to the work
piece. It is used for making small holes (up to 18mm) in large work pieces. It is operated by hand power,
pneumatic power or electric power. Figure 3.20 shows the schematic diagram of an electrically operated
portable drilling machine

3.2.3. SENSITIVE DRILLING MACHINE

Sensitive drilling machines are light-weight, high-speed machines which are generally bench type drilling
machines but pillar type machines are also available. It is used for light duty work and drill holes up to 15mm
diameter. There is no power feeding arrangement but feeding is purely on hand control of the operator so that the
operator can sense the feeding or can control the feeding. Therefore, the machine is called sensitive drilling
machine.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 67 | P a g e

The main parts of the sensitive drilling
machines are base, column, table, spindle
and driving mechanism.

1. Column: The column vertically stands on

its base. It is a cylindrical post. It supports
the table, the spindle head, motor and the
driving mechanism.
2. Table: The job on which the hole to be
produced is mounted on the table. It can
vertically be moved along the column and
clamped in any position. It can also radially
be adjusted around the column. It has T-slots
for clamping work piece or work holding
device.

3. Spindle and driving mechanism: It is mounted at the top of the column. It has an electrical drive motor on
one-side whereas it has the spindle assembly on the other side. The motor drives the spindle through a cone pulley
and V-belt arrangement. The belt can be shifted to different sets of pulleys to get different spindle speeds. The
spindle is manually fed into the work piece using a hand lever. The spindle has a Morse taper bore at its bottom
end to hold the drill chuck. Drill chuck holds the drill bit.

3.2.4. UPRIGHT OR PILLAR DRILLING MACHINE

Upright drilling machine is a higher capacity version of sensitive drilling machine. It is stationary floor
mounted drilling machine. It is used for medium sized work pieces and having medium speed. The spindle head
and the drive arrangement in this machine are similar to a sensitive drilling machine. But in this case, power-
feeding arrangements are available. The main parts of the machine are base, column, work table and spindle head.

1. Base: It is a supporting member on which all parts of the machine are mounted. It is generally made of cast
iron. The top surface of the base is accurately machined. The base has T-slots which are used for mounting
large work piece directly on it.
2. Column: It is a vertical member mounted on the base and it carries table, spindle and pulley drive
mechanism. It should be very strong to take
heavy cutting forces. It may be of a round
type or box type. In a round type, the
column is round in section also named as
pillar. The table holding work piece can be
rotated 360° about the column for locating
work piece under the spindle. The drill up
to 50mm diameter is possible in this type.
In a box type, the column is square in
section, heavier, more strength and rigid
than a round type. It can only be
raised or lowered by an elevator screw and
will not rotate. The drill diameter more
than 50mm and up to 75mm is possible by
this type.
3. Table: The worktable is attached to the
column by means of a clamping screw. It
has T-slots on the surface to hold work
pieces. It vertically move on the column
and it can radially be adjusted about the
column. As already stated, the column may
be rotated about its own axis only in a

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 68 | P a g e

 round column type.
4. Spindle head and drive mechanism: The spindle head is mounted on the top of the vertical column. It is
driven by a motor through a belt and step cone drive. The sensitive hand feed is available. A quick traverse
hand feed is also available quickly to bring down the drill to the hole location and withdrawn after drilling.
The different spindle speeds are obtained by using a step cone pulley arrangement.

3.2.5. RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

This type of machine is mounted on floor and it is more suitable for drilling medium to large and heavy
work pieces. The most significant feature of this machine is a radial arm which can swing about a column. The
arm can also be moved up and down with respect to the column which can be locked at any desired position as
per job size. Figure 3.23 shows the radial drilling machine.
The main parts of the machine are base, column, radial arm, drill head, spindle speed and feed mechanism.

1. Base: It is a large rectangular casting. It supports the vertical column and table. The top surface of the
base is accurately machined with T. slots to mount the large size work pieces.
2. Column: Column is a cylindrical casting mounted on the base. It supports radial arm, drill head and
motor. The column face should accurately be machined to slide the radial arm up and down. An elevating
screw is provided on the side of the column to move the radial arm up and down. The elevating screw is
rotated by the motor.
3. Radial Arm: It is a heavy casting mounted on the column. The drill head is mounted on the radial arm. It
has guide ways to move the drill head. The arm can be swiveled around the column. It can be moved up
and down by rotating an elevator screw.
4. Drill Head: The drill head is mounted on the radial arm. The drill head is equipped with a separate motor.
The drill head is manually moved along the arm or with power assistance. The drill head has a spindle
which carries the drill bit.
5. Spindle Head And Feed Mechanism: The spindle is driven through a gearbox. The feed can be manual
or automatic means. The depth settings for production work with automatic reversal are standard features.
Radial drilling machine may be classified with respect to the movements of radial arm and tool head. The
various types of radial drilling machines are:

(1) plain type

(ii) semi-universal type, and
(iii) universal type.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 69 | P a g e
3.2.6. MULTISPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE

This machine is more suitable for mass production. In this machine, several holes of different sizes can
simultaneously be drilled. It has several spindles. They are driven by a single motor by using a set of gears. The
center distance of spindles may be adjusted to any desired length. All spindles holding the drills are fed into the
work at the same time. The feed is given either by raising the table or by lowering the spindle head. Drill jigs are
sometimes used to guide drills accurately into the work.

1. Lead Screw
2. Column
3. Motor
4. Driving Belt
5. Spindle
6. Vice
7. Drill Holder
8. Base

3.2.7. GANG DRILLING MACHINE

When a number of single spindles with essential speed and feed are mounted side by side on one base and
have a common worktable known as gang-drilling machine. The number of spindles varies from four to six
numbers. The drilling heads of each spindle have individual driving motors. So, the speed and feeds of the
spindles are independently controlled. The gang drilling machine is a mass production type machine.
A series of operation can be done one by one. Each spindle of this machine is fixed with respective speed,
feed, tool and position of the spindle as per operations required for a production job with the arrangement of job
movement by using suitable a jig and fixture.

3.2.10. SPECIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINE: A drilling machine is specified by the following items.
1. Maximum size of the drill in mm that the machine can be operated.
2. Table size of maximum dimensions of a job can mount on a table in square metre.
3. Maximum spindle travel is in mm.
4. The number of spindle speed and range of spindle speeds are in rpm.
5. The number of automatic spindle feeds or feed ranges are available in mm/rev.
6. Morse taper number is of the drill spindle nose.
7. Power input of the machine is in H.P.
8. Floor space required is in m².
9. Net weight of the machine is in Tonne.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 70 | P a g e
3.2.12.DRILLING OPERATIONS: The various operations done in a drilling machine are explained as follows.

1. Drilling: Drilling is the operation of cutting a round hole by a rotating tool called drill. Before drilling, the
center of the hole is located on the work piece.
2. Reaming: Reaming is the process of sizing and finishing the already drilled hole. The tool used for reaming
is known as a reamer. It removes less amount of metal. The amount of metal removed in reaming is about
0.375mm. In reaming, the spindle speed is the half of drilling process.
3. Boring: Boring is an operation of enlarging a hole by a single point cutting tool. Boring is done where the
suitable size drill is not available.

4. Counter Boring: The operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically is known as counter boring.
5. Counter Sinking: The operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a hole is known
as countersinking.
6. Spot Facing: The operation of squaring and smoothing the surface around a hole is known as spot facing.
Figure 3.32 illustrates the process of spot facing.

7. Tapping: Tapping is an operation of cutting internal threads in a hole by using a cutting tool called tap. A
tap has cutting edges in the shape of threads. When the tap is screwed into the hole, it will remove metal and
cut internal threads. The drilled hole will be smaller than the tap size.
Tap drill size = 0.8 x Outside diameter of the thread.
8. Undercutting: The operation of enlarging the hole somewhere between its ends is known as undercutting.
9. Lapping: The operation of sizing hardened holes and extremely limited in stock removal is known as
lapping.
10. Honing: The operation of finishing relatively large holes in automobile cylinders by means of relatively slow
moving abrasives is known as honing.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 71 | P a g e

 DRILL TOOL NOMENCLATURE:
A drill or twist drill is a fluted end-cutting tool used for making holes in solid material. It basically consists
of two parts.

The various parts and angle of the twist drill are shown in Figure 3.36.
1. Body: The body of the twist drill has spiral flutes cut on it. These flutes serve to provide clearance to
chips produced at the cutting edge. They also allow the cutting fluid to reach cutting edges.
2. Shank: It is a part that fits into the drill chuck or sleeve. It may be a parallel shank or taper shank. Smaller
diameter drills have straight shank. Morse taper is commonly provided for large diameter tapered drills.
The taper shank carries the tang at the end of shank. It fits into a slot in the machine spindle, sleeve or
socket and gives a positive grip.
3. Neck: It is the undercut portion between body and shank. Generally, the size and other details are marked
at the neck.
4. Point: It is the cone shaped end of the drill. The point is shaped to produce lip, face, flank and chisel edge
or dead center.
5. Land or Margin: It is a narrow strip. It extends back on the edges of the drill flutes. The size of the drill
is measured across the lands at the point end. The land keeps the drill aligned.
6. Web: It is the central portion of a drill situated between roots of flutes and extending from the point
towards the shank.
7. Chisel Edge: The intersection of flanks forms the chisel edge. It acts as a flat drill. It cuts a small hole in
the work piece at the beginning. Then the cutting edges remove further material to complete the hole.
8. Lip or Cutting edge: The cutting edges of a drill are known as lips. Both lips should have equal length,
same angle of inclination and correct clearance.
9. Flank: The surface behind the lip to the following flute is called flank.
10. Face: This is the portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip. The chip impinges on it.
11. Heel: The edge which is formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance is known
as heel.
12. Point Angle: It is the angle between cutting edges. It is generally 118°. Its value depends on the hardness
of the work piece to be drilled. For harder material, larger angels are used.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 72 | P a g e

3.2.14.Drill Holding Devices

Both taper shank and straight shank drills can be mounted on the drilling machine spindle in a number of
ways. They are as follows.

1. Fitting directly in the spindle

2. By using a sleeve
3. By using a socket
4. By means of chucks.

1. Fitting directly in the Spindle: The drill is directly held in the spindle by friction. The spindle of the
drilling machine and the shank of the drill have a standard tapered bore. The taper shank of the drill is
forced into it. To get a positive drive, (without slipping) the tang of drill fits into a slot at the end of taper
bore in the spindle. To remove the drill from the spindle, a tapered wedge called drift is forced into the
slotted hole in the spindle referred in Figure 3.38.

2. By Using a Sleeve: If the taper shank of drill is smaller than taper in the spindle hole, a sleeve is used. The
sleeve with drill is fitted in the hole of the spindle. The sleeve has outside taper surface. It fits into the
tapered hole of the spindle. The inside taper of the sleeve can hold the drill or a smaller sleeve. In this
sleeve also, there is a tang which is used for the same manner as explained in previous case.
3. By Using a Socket: A socket is used to hold the tool into the spindle when the taper shank of the drill is
larger than taper hole of the spindle. The body of the socket has taper hole which is larger than drill spindle
bore. So, a bigger drill can be fitted into the socket.

4. By Using Chucks: Drill chucks are suitable for holding any smaller size drills, straight shank drills and
other tools not having taper at the holding end. Drill chucks have tapered shanks which fit into the machine
spindle. The body of the chuck has three slots at 120°. It is used to house three jaws. The jaws have threads
at the back to mesh with a ring nut. The ring nut is attached to a sleeve. The sleeve has bevel teeth on the
peripheral face. A key having bevel teeth is used to

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 73 | P a g e

 UNIT-IV Boring

Boring: Boring is an operation of enlarging a hole by a single point cutting tool. Boring is done where the suitable
size drill is not available.
Working Principle:
Boring is the process of enlarging and locating previously drilled holes with a single point cutting tool.
The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. Boring a small hole in a small work piece can be
done in a lathe. The boring machine is designed for machining large and heavy work pieces in mass
production work of engine frame, cylinder, machine housing etc. These machines can perform many operations
such as drilling, boring, counter boring, spot facing, internal and external thread cutting, face milling, facing
turning cylindrical surfaces, gear cutting etc.
The work piece where a hole already exists is mounted on the table. The single point cutting tool for
broaching operation is mounted on a bar called "boring bar". The work piece is rotated against the boring
tool while boring.

Jig Boring Machine

Jig boring machine is used for the production of jigs, fixtures, tools, and other parts.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 74 | P a g e

o That requires a high degree of accuracy. They are defined by terms of highest accuracy through rigidity, low
thermal expansion, and precise means of measuring distance for locating and spacing holes
o The machining accuracy is high, within a range of 0.0025 mm. A jig boring machine looks like a vertical
milling machine. But so far its operation and accuracy are concerned that there cannot be any comparison
between the two.
o The spindle and other parts of the machine are much hard to resist deflection and the vibration is low. A
Spindle runs in preloaded antifriction bearings. The spindle housings are made of invar having a very low
coefficient of linear expansion.
 Jig boring machines need to be operated in temperature-controlled rooms where the temperature can be
kept constant. This is essential to prevent inaccuracy in the machine and in the work being manufactured
due to the thermal expansion of the metal.
Parts of a Jig Boring Machine
Following are the parts of a jig boring machine:
1. Head-stock
2. Column
3. Bed
4. Pick-up devices
5. Table and saddle
Working Principle of Jig Boring Machine: Jig boring machine works on the principle of feed in the vertical axis of
the hole and its radius. In this process rotating tool is moved over the process is given with respect to static
work.
This principle is used for large workpieces. Whereas the small size workpiece tool is kept stable and the
work is done by applying force. Jig boring is a unique type of boring process. So its working principle is similar to
the boring process.

Applications of Jig boring Machine

Following are the applications of jig boring machine:
1. The jig borer is used for the pilot hole.
2. It is used to make compound and progressive dies.
3. It is also used for drilling holes in jig-bushing.
4. Jig borer is commonly used for jigs, fixtures and dies & bushing hole for grinding & A grinding the
hardened parts.
5. Also used in alignment post in stripper or die set.

Types of Jig Boring Machine: There are mainly two types of jig boring machine:
1. Vertical milling machine type
2. Planer Type
1. Vertical Milling Machine Type: It relates in construction to a vertical milling machine. The spindle
rotates on a vertical column and the horizontal table rests on the bed in front of the column. The
position of the work mounted on the table.
2. Planer Type: It has two vertical columns on the two sides of the table and is fixed on the base. The table
has a reciprocating action for adjustment of the work. The spindle is fixed on the crossrail bridging the
two vertical columns. In a planer type jig borer, two co-ordinate movements for hole location are given.

Types of Horizontal Boring Machines

The following are the four types of horizontal boring machine:
1. Table-type horizontal boring machine.
2. Floor-type horizontal boring machine.
3. Planner-type horizontal boring machine.
4. Multiple heads type horizontal boring machine.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 75 | P a g e

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 76 | P a g e
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 77 | P a g e
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 78 | P a g e
 MILLING (UNIT IV)

Milling is the process of removing metal by feeding the work past against a rotating multipoint cutter.
The metal is removed in the form of small chips. In milling operation, the ratio of metal removal is rapid as the
cutter rotates at a high speed and has many cutting edges.

Working Principle of Milling Machine

The working principle of the milling machine,

applied in the metal removing operation on a
milling machine. The work is rigidly clamped on
the table of the machine and revolving multi
teeth cutter mounted either on a spindle.

3.4.2. SPECIFICATION OF MILLING MACHINE or SPECIFICATION OF MILLING MACHINE

A typical milling machine is specified by the following
1. The table length and width
2. Maximum longitudinal cross and vertical travel of the table
3. Number of spindle speeds and feeds
4. Power of driving motor
5. Floor space and net weight
6. Spindle nose taper size
7. Type of milling machine.

3.4.3. CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machine are classified in a variety of ways. The broad classification of these machines can be
done as follows.
1. Column and knee types
a. Plain milling machine
b. Vertical milling machine
c. Universal milling machine
d. Ram-type milling machine
e. Omniversal milling machine.
2. Bed-Type milling machine
a. Simplex milling machine
b. Duplex milling machine
c. Triplex milling machine.
3. Plano-type milling machine
4. Special purpose milling machine
a. Rotary table milling machine
b. Drum milling machine
c. Profile milling machine.

3.4.3.1. Column and Knee Type Milling Machines

Column and knee type milling machines are most commonly used for general shop floor works,
maintenance work, tool room work, etc. It has a vertical column on its base. The column has machined guide
ways on its front face. A knee slides up and down on these ways. The column serves as a housing unit for speed
and feed mechanisms. The knee carries the saddle and worktable.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 79 | P a g e

There are two types of column and knee type milling machines
(i) Horizontal type
(ii) Vertical type.

 In a horizontal type milling machine, the axis of rotation of arbor is horizontal.

 In a vertical type milling machine, the axis of rotation of arbor is vertical.

1. Plain or horizontal milling machine: It is a horizontal column and knee type-milling machine, otherwise,
simply a horizontal milling machine. A description of the principle parts of a milling machine is as follows.

1. Base: It is the foundation of the machine made of grey cast iron. All other parts are mounted on it. It also
serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
2. Column: It is the main support of the machine. The motor and other driving mechanisms are housed in it. It
supports and guides the knee in its vertical travel.
3. Knee: The knee projects from the column and slides up and down through dove' tail guides. It supports
saddle and the table. An elevating screw provides its vertical movement (up and down).
4. Saddle: The saddle supports and carries the table and it provides traversed movement.
5. Table: The top surface of the table is accurately machined. There are T- slots along the length of the table
for holding the work. The table rests on the guide ways of the saddle and longitudinally travels in a
horizontal plane. It supports the work piece, fixtures etc.
6. Over arm: It is mounted and guided by the top of the column. The over arm is used to hold the outer end of
the arbor to prevent it from bending.
7. Arbor: Arbor is an accurately machined shaft. Cutters are mounted on the arbor which is rigidly supported
by the over arm, spindle and end braces. It is tapered at one end to fit the spindle nose and has two slots to
fit the nose keys for locating and driving it.

2. Vertical milling machine:

A vertical milling machine can be distinguished from a horizontal milling machine by the position of its
spindle which is vertical or perpendicular to the worktable. It carries a vertical column on its heavy base. The
spindle head which is clamped to the vertical column may be swiveled at an angle permitting to work on angular
surfaces. The over arm in this machine is made integral with the column and it carries a housing at its front.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 80 | P a g e

 The machine is used for
machining grooves, slots and flat
surfaces. Generally, the vertical milling
machine is used to perform end milling
and face milling operations. Figure 3.65
illustrates the vertical milling machine.
The knee carries an enclosed
screw jack by means of which it is moved
up and down along the parallel vertical
guide ways provided on the front side of
the column. The saddle is mounted on
the knee and can be moved along the
horizontal guide ways provided on the
knee towards or away from the column.
It enables the table to move
in cross direction. The table is mounted
on guide ways, provided on the saddle
which is in a direction normal to the direction of the guide ways on the knee. By means of a lead screw provided
under the table, the table can be moved in the longitudinal direction. Thus, the work gets up and down
movement by the knee, cross movement by saddle and longitudinal movement by the table. Power feeds can be
employed to both the saddle and the table. Mostly, the face milling cutters and shell-end type cutters are used
on these machines.

3. Universal Milling machine:

It is the most versatile of all milling machines with its applications.
The use of large number of other
machine tools can be avoided. In
appearance, a universal milling machine is
similar to a horizontal milling machine. The
worktable of this machine is provided with
another extra swivel movement with an
index or dividing head located at the end of
the table. Thus, the universal milling
machine table has the following
movements.

1. Vertical movement-through the knee

2. Cross wise movement-through the saddle
3. Longitudinal movement of the table

4. Angular movement of the table by swivelling the table on the swivel base.
The swiveling attachments provided on these machines help in cutting spirals, gears and cams in
addition to normal milling operations. These machines are very accurate and used mainly for tool room work.
The various controls of a universal milling machine are shown in Figure 3.66.
Comparison between pain and universal milling machine:

1. In a plain milling machine, the table is provided with three movements such as longitudinal, cross and vertical.
In universal milling machines. There is a fourth movement to the table in addition to these three movements.
The table can horizontally be swiveled and can be fed at angle to the milling machine spindle.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 81 | P a g e

5. Omniversal milling machine:
It is a modified form of a plain (horizontal) milling machine. It is provided with two spindles, one of which is in
the horizontal plane while the other is carried by a universal swiveling head. The latter can be fixed in vertical
position or can be set at any desired angle up to 90° on both sides of the vertical plane. The knee of this machine
can also be swiveled in the horizontal plane. Thus, it enables to carry out a large number of operations such as
spiral grooves in reamers, bevel gears etc. Figure 3.67 shows this type of machine

3.4.5. TOOL OR CUTTER HOLDING DEVICES

Depending on the design of the cutter, the following cutter holding devices are used on milling machines.
1. Arbors
2. Adaptors
3. Collets.

1. Arbors: There are two type of arbors used in milling machines.

(i) Standard arbor
(ii) Stub arbor.
(i) Standard arbor:

Cutters having a central bore are mounted on the standard arbor of a milling machine. It is a long slender
shaft. It has a taper shank at one end. The shank has internal threads. A draw bolt holds the arbor in a position.
The draw bolt is introduced into the spindle bore from the back of the milling machine column. The draw bolt is
screwed in the threaded hole of the arbor. The draw bolt is used to pull in or push out the arbor from the
spindle.
(i) Standard arbor: The arbor is supported at the other end by the yoke of the milling machine. The
yoke can be adjusted on the over arm. At the end of the arbor, a bearing bush is inserted. It rests on
the yoke.
(ii) Stub arbors: It is a short arbor. Its construction is similar to a standard arbor. But it has a short shaft
to hold the cutter. Its taper shank fits into the taper hole of the spindle.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 82 | P a g e

2. Adaptor: Many cutters have tapered shank. If the size of the shank is smaller than that the hole in the
spindle nose, adaptors are used to hold these cutters.
It has internal taper hole to receive the
taper shank of the cutter. It has external
taper corresponding to the spindle nose
hole taper. The flange of an adaptor is
made to have two slots to engage the
driving dogs of the spindle. The rear end
of the adaptor carries internal threads to
engage the threaded front end of the
draw bar. It is held in the spindle in the
same way as the arbor

3. Spring collet: Milling cutters which carry straight shanks held in a collet chuck carrying a spring collet.
Figure 3.79 illustrates the construction of a spring collet and collet chuck. The collet chuck has a taper shank
to fit into the milling machine spindle. It has internal threads for tightening it with the spindle by means of a
draw bolt. It has an external threaded body. The body has a taper hole to receive the collet.

3.4.7.1. Classification of Cutters

These are multi tooth rotary cutting tools generally made of high speed steels or sintered carbides.
Milling cutters are classified into different ways.
1. According to the shape of the tooth, milling cutters
i. Milled tooth cutters
ii. Form relieved cutters.
2. According to the type of operation
i. Plain milling cutters
ii. Side milling cutters
iii. End mill cutters
iv. Angle milling cutters
v. T-slot milling cutters
vi. Slitting saws
vii. Form milling cutters
viii. Fly cutters

3. According to the way of mounting on the machine

i. Arbor cutters
ii. Shank cutters
iii. Face cutters.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 83 | P a g e
 1. Plain Milling Cutter: It is also known as a mill cutter. It is a disc or cylindrical shaped cutter having teeth
on its circumference. It is used to machine the flat surface parallel to its axis. There are two types of
plain milling cutters commonly used.
(i) Plain straight teeth cutter
(ii) Plain milling helical teeth cutter.

2. Side Milling Cutter: It has cutting edges on its periphery and also on sides. This cutter is used for
removing metal from the side of work pieces. It is also used for cutting slots. These cutters may have
plain, helical orstaggered teeth. Among these three, helical cutters are preferred on milling machines
since they require less power for machining. Also it provides smoother operation as more than one
tooth performed a milling operation at a time.

3. End milling Cutters: The end milling cutters have cutting teeth on the end as well as on the periphery of
the cutter. The peripheral teeth may be straight or helical. It is similar in construction to a twist drill or
reamer. These cutters are generally provided with a shank on one end. The shank may be of straight or
tapered. Tapered shank cutters are fitted to the spindle using adapters. Straight shank cutters are fitted
to the spindle using collets.

4. Angle Milling Cutters: All cutters which have their cutting teeth at an angle to the axis of rotation are
known as angular cutters. Their specific use in milling V-grooves, notches, dove tail slots, reamers teeth
and other angular surfaces. Angular cutters are classified into single angle cutters and double angle
cutters.
5. T-slot Milling Cutter: It is a single operation cutter which is used only for cutting T- slots. The
arrangement of cutting teeth is similar to that of a side milling cutter. But this cutter has a tapered
shank. A neck is formed between cutting face and shank. The cutter has cutting edges on its
periphery and sides.
6. Slitting Saws: These are very thin cutters in varying thickness from 0.5 mm to 5mm. They are used for
cutting deep slots and parting off materials into pieces. These cutters are thinner at the centre than
edges to provide clearance and reduce friction.
7. Form Milling Cutter: The cutters which are designed to cut definite shapes are known as form milling
cutters. These cutters can be classified according to their shape as convex or concave cutters, gear
cutters, flute cutters and corner rounding cutters.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 84 | P a g e

 Milling Operations:
Many different kinds of operations can be performed on a milling machine but a few of the more common
operations will now be explained.
Following different operations can be performed on a milling machine:
1. Plain milling operation
2. Face milling operation
3. Side milling operation
4. Straddle milling operation
5. Angular milling operation
6. Gang milling operation
7. Form milling operation
8. Profile milling operation
9. End milling operation
10. Saw milling operation
11. Slot milling operation
12. Gear cutting operation
13. Helical milling operation

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 85 | P a g e

 Milling Method:
There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-milling
2. Down milling or climb milling.
1. Up-milling or conventional milling:
In the up-milling or conventional milling, the metal is removed in the form of small chips by a cutter
rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece. In this type of milling, the chip thickness is minimum at
the start of the cut and maximum at the end of the cut. As a result the cutting force also varies from zero to the
maximum value per tooth movement of the milling cutter. The major disadvantages of the up-milling process
are the tendency of cutting force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained. But being a
safer process, it is a commonly used method of milling.

2. Down-milling or climb milling

In this method, the metal is removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the workpiece.
Chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum in the end. In this method, there is less friction
involved and consequently less heat is generated on the contact surface of the cutter and workpiece. Climb
milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to increase the number of pieces per sharpening and
to produce a better finish. With climb milling, saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard
milling. Another advantage is that slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling since there is
no need to drive the table against the cutter.

Milling Indexing
Milling operations sometimes, require the rotation of job correct to fractions of minutes, for each
groove, slot etc., to be cut evenly on the job surface. The accuracy of spacing of teeth is very important
particularly when the work is of precision character e.g., gear teeth, shafts, cutter teeth etc.
The operation of rotating the job through a required angle between two successive cuts is termed as
indexing. This is accomplished with the help of a milling attachment known as dividing head, which is an
accessory to the milling machine. It helps to divide the job periphery into a number of equal divisions, i.e.,
square, hexagonal octagonal, etc.

Dividing Head:
To rotate a job through required angle, one needs:
i. A device to rotate the job and
ii. A source which can ensure that the job has been rotated through the desired angle.
 In dividing head, the first requirement is met by an index-crank and the second by the index plate. The
index-plate has a number of holes arranged concentrically, so that each circle has a number of holes
equally spaced.
 The crank has an arrangement in connection with the plunger-pin, which can slide through the slot and
the crank is pivoted at the centre of a disc. This crank can be rotated about the axis and the plunger can
be fixed at any desired hole.
 The rotation of crank is transmitted through a gear to the job, so that the number of complete revolutions
will result in certain revolutions of the job. The ratio of crank and the shaft on which job is mounted is 40 :
1, i.e., when the index plate makes 40 revolutions, the job makes one revolution.
 For quick-placing of plunger and in order to avoid the counting of holes, fixed arms (sectors) are provided
which can be set apart at any number of holes desired.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 86 | P a g e

The following types of index-plates having the holes given against them are available.
Brown and Sharp:
Plate 1 : 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
Plate 2 : 21, 23, 27, 29, 31 and 33.
Plate 3 : 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47 and 49.
Parkinson:
Plate 1 : 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43.
Plate 2 : 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62 and 66.

Common Methods of Indexing: There are five methods of indexing.

(1) Direct indexing,
(2) Simple or plain indexing,
(3) Compound indexing,
(4) Differential indexing,
(5) Angular indexing.

1. Direct Indexing: In this case, the dividing head has an index plate, fitted directly on the spindle. The
intermediate use of worm and worm-wheel is avoided. The index plate has 24 holes and the periphery of
job can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12 equal parts directly. This type indexing is most commonly used
for indexing fixture.
2. Simple or Plain Indexing: In this case, different index plates with varying number of holes are used to
increase the range of indexing. The index is fixed in position by a pin called lockpin.
3. Compound Indexing: The principle of operation of compound indexing is the same as that of simple
indexing, but the only difference is that compound indexing uses two different circles of one plate and
hence also sometimes referred to as hit and trial method.
The principle of compound indexing is to obtain the required division in two stages:
i. By rotating the crank or handle in usual way keeping the index plate fixed.
ii. By releasing the back pin and then rotating the index plate with the handle.

For example, if a 27 teeth gear is to be cut, then T = 40/27 i.e., the rotation required for one tooth spacing is
40/27 which may be written as 2/3 + 22/27 or 12/18 + 22/27.
So for each tooth, the worm will be rotated by 12 holes of 18 hole circle with the help of the crank and then the
index plate is rotated by 22 holes of the 27 hole circle.
4. Differential Indexing: Available number of index plates with different hole circles, sometimes confine the
range of plain indexing. In such cases, differential indexing is found to be more suitable. Between the
indexing plate and spindle of dividing head, a certain set of the gears is incorporated extra. Dividing heads
are provided with such standard set of gears.
During the differential indexing, the index-plate is unlocked and connected to a train of gears which
receive their motion from the worm gear spindle. As the handle is turned, the index plate also turns, but at
a different rate and perhaps in the opposite direction. Differential indexing makes it possible to rotate the
work by any fraction of revolution with the usual index plates furnished with the equipment.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 87 | P a g e

 Finishing Processes (Unit-6)
Grinding
Grinding is the process of removing metal by the application of abrasives which are bonded to form a
rotating wheel. When the moving abrasive particles contact the work piece, they act as tiny cutting tools, each
particle cutting a tiny chip from the work piece.

 The grinding process is capable of producing very accurate sizes, equally accurate geometry like flatness
or circles, and an extremely good surface finish. It is capable of machining hard, high-speed steel, which
cannot be done by other machining processes.
 Abrasive wheels are an impure form of aluminum oxide. A grinding wheel or bonded abrasive is made up
of thousands of tiny abrasive particles inserted in a matric called as ‘bond’.
 In bonded abrasives, porosity is essential to provide clearance for the chips being produced and to
provide cooling. Otherwise, chips would interfere with the grinding process.

Classifications of Grinding machines / TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES: The grinding machines may be
classified.
1. According to the type of operation
a. Tool Grinders
b. Cut off grinders.
2. According to the quality of surface finish
a. Precision grinders
b. Rough grinders.
3. According to the type of surface generated
a. Cylindrical grinders
b. Internal grinders
c. Surface grinders
d. Tool grinders
e. Special purpose grinding machines
f. Surface finishing grinders.

 Rough Grinders  Precision Grinders

a. Cylindrical grinders
a. Floor stand grinders
i. Centre type plain grinders
b. Bench grinders
ii. Centreless grinders.
c. Portable grinders
d. Abrasive belt grinders b. Internal grinders
i. Chucking type grinders
e. Swing frame grinders.
ii. Planetary type grinders

Centre less Grinders.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 88 | P a g e
 c. Surface grinders
i. Reciprocating table-horizontal spindle
ii. Rotary table-horizontal spindle
iii. Reciprocating table-vertical spindle
iv. Rotary table-vertical spindle

Cylindrical Grinding Machines:

This operation is carried out on a cylindrical grinding machine which is made in two varieties ‘‘plain’’ and the
‘‘universal’’ type. The fundamental design is the same in both cases, but the universal machine can be adopted
for internal grinding operation as well.
In cylindrical grinding operation, the work is mounted between two centres and is rotated. A grinding wheel
is mounted on a spindle and revolves at much higher r.p.m. than the work. The work centres are mounted on a
table which can traverse at various feeds so that the entire length of the work passes to and fro in front of the
wheel. The depth of cut is very small, about 0.015 mm. When the entire length of work has passed infront of the
wheel, the wheel advances forward by another 0.015 mm at the end of the traverse and so the cycle of
machining goes on, until the desired daimeter of the work piece is reached. The result is a long cylinder of
perfectly circular profile with very fine surface finish.
A schematic diagram of the plain cylindrical grinder is given in Fig

Surface grinding machines:

Surface grinding machines are used to produce and finish flat and plane surfaces. By using special
fixtures and form dressing devices, angular and formed surfaces can also be ground.
Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterised by the movement of their
tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:
a. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
b. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
c. Horizontal spindle and rotary table
d. Vertical spindle and rotary table

1. Horizontal Spindle Reciprocating Table Surface Grinder:

The line diagram of this type of grinder is shown in Figure 4.18. It consists of a horizontal spindle
carrying the grinding wheel and rectangular worktable. The table is mounted on a base. The horizontal
guide ways of base is a rectangular box such as a casting. The driving mechanisms are housed inside the
base.
The table reciprocates along the guide ways for giving longitudinal feed. The table top has T-slots for
mounting the magnetic chuck or fixtures. The cross feed to the grinding wheel is given by moving the
column perpendicular to the table as shown in Figure 4.18. The wheel head is mounted on the column. It

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 89 | P a g e

 has an independent motor for driving the wheel. The wheel head can move up and down along the vertical
guide ways of the column. The depth of cut is given by the foresaid arrangement.

Figure 4.18 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

Working:
The workpiece is clamped on the table. The trip dogs are suitably adjusted to get the correct stroke
length of the table. The work piece reciprocates under the table. The periphery of the grinding wheel does the
grinding. The cross feed is given to the work piece after every stroke. The depth of cut is given by lowering the
wheel head.
For rough grinding of work piece, the depth of cut may be from 0.02mm to 0.06mm. For finishing
operation, the depth of cut may be from 0.005mm to 0.01mm.

2. Horizontal Spindle Rotary Table Surface Grinder

 In horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinders, the work pieces are mounted on magnetic chucks or on
fixtures slowly rotating under the rotating grinding wheel in its horizontal axis.
 The circular table rotates at specific speed and the wheel can axially feed (cross-feed). The wheel head is
lowered to give the
 required depth of cut. The periphery of the grinding wheel takes the cut. This machine is used for small
and medium size works.

Figure 4.19 Horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 90 | P a g e

 3. Vertical Spindle Reciprocating Table Surface Grinder
The work piece is clamped on the reciprocating worktable using a magnetic chuck or fixture. The
grinding wheel rotates about a vertical axis. It may be of a cup or cylindrical type for faster stock removal. It is
used where the accuracy is not stringent. The longitudinal and cross feed are given through the table. The face
or side of the grinding wheel cuts the metal. The wheel head is lowered down for giving the depth of cut. This
grinding machine is used for grinding flat surfaces on medium size works.

Figure 4.20 Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

4. Vertical Spindle Rotary Table Surface Grinder

 This machine has all parts similar to a horizontal type machine except that the grinding wheel rotates about
a vertical axis as shown in Figure 4.21. The grinding spindle is vertically mounted on the face of a column
and rotates in a fixed position.
 The vertical spindle carries a cup type-grinding wheel. The grinding wheel is lowered for giving the depth of
cut. The rotary table rotates with the work piece. The work piece is clamped on the table using a magnetic
chuck.
 This grinding machine is used for grinding large quantity of small work piece.

Figure 4.21 Vertical spindle rotary table surface grinder

GRINDING WHEEL:
Grinding wheels are made up of small abrasive particles held together by bonding materials. Thus, it
forms a multi-edge cutter.

Grinding Wheel Abrasives: Abrasive is a hard material. It can be used to cut or wear away other materials.
Small sizes of abrasive particles are used in grinding wheels. They are called abrasive grains. Abrasives may be
classified into two types.
i. Natural Abrasives
ii. Artificial Abrasives.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 91 | P a g e

1. Natural Abrasives:
These are produced by uncontrolled forces of nature. These are obtained from mines. The following are
the natural abrasives.
a. Sandstone or solid quartz.
b. Emery (50 to 60% crystalline Al2O3 + Iron oxide).
c. Corundum (75 to 90% crystalline Al2O3, + Iron oxide)
d. Diamond.
Natural abrasives lack the uniformity of properties and the reliability has largely been replaced by
manufactured or artificial abrasives.

2. Artificial Abrasives:
These are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed electric furnace in order to avoid the
introduction of impurities and to achieve the necessary temperature for the chemical reaction to take place.
These abrasives have better cutting properties and higher efficiency than natural abrasives. The various
manufactured abrasives are:

a. Aluminium oxide(Al2O3)
b. Silicon carbide
c. Artificial Diamond
d. Boron carbide
e. Cubic boron nitride.

a) Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3):

It is the crystalline form of aluminium oxide. This abrasive carries very hard and tough grains having
sharp cutting edges. It is manufactured by fusing mineral Bauxide in an electric are furnace mixed with coke
and iron scrap. Here, iron scrap acts as a flux. After fusing, it is crushed, washed and treated with alkalis.
Again, it is washed and finally ground.

 Aluminum oxide is tough and less brittle. It is used for grinding high speed steel, malleable iron, wrought
iron etc.
 Aluminum oxide is represented by a letter A.

b) Silicon carbide:
It is made from Silicon dioxide, coke, sawdust and salt. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed and heated
in an electric furnace about 2000°C for 34 hrs. The mass under the action of intense heat fuses and the
following chemical reaction takes place.
SiO2+3C SiC + 2CO
 The silicon carbide mass is crushed, washed and treated with alkalis. It is again washed and finely ground
into small particles.
 Silicon carbide is hard and brittle. It is used for grinding Grey cast iron, brass, copper, aluminium etc.
 It is represented by a letter C.

c) Artificial Diamond:
Artificial diamond is a form of pure carbon which is mainly used for truing and dressing other grinding
wheels for sharpening carbide tools, and for processing glass, ceramics and stone.

d) Boron carbide (B,C):

It is harder than silicon carbide but not as hard as diamond. It is produced from coke and boric acid at
tremendously high temperatures in an electric furnace. Boron carbide is mainly used for grinding and lapping
very hard metals, hard alloys, glass and jewells.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 92 | P a g e

4.3. TYPES OF BONDS:
Bond is an adhesive substance which holds the abrasive grains together to form the grinding wheel. The
bonds must sufficiently be strong to withstand the stresses of high speed rotating grinding wheel. There are
various types of bonds used and their choice depends on operating conditions of the abrasive tool such as
grinding speed, pressure on the tool, heat formation in the grinding zone etc.
Repressentations of bonds by the symbol given below
1. Vitrified Bond ----> V
2. Silicated Bond ---> S
3. Resinoid Bond ---> B
4. Rubber Bond ---> R
5. Shellac Bond ---> E
6. Resinoid Bond ---> O

1. Vitrified Bond
 It is denoted by letter V.
 About 80% of the wheels used in the industry are of this bond.
 It is also called as ceramic bond.
 They are strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to oils, acids, and water. They are brittle and lack resistance
to mechanical and thermal shock.

2. Silicate Bond
 It is denoted by letter S.
 Silicate of soda (commonly known as water glass) is the main component of this bond.

3. Resinoid Bond
 It is denoted by letter B.
 Resoniod bonding materials are thermosetting resins, and the bond is an organic compound, so the
wheels with resinoid bonds are also called as organic wheels.
 Some of these wheels are made from bakelite and other resinous material.

4. Rubber Bond
 It is denoted by letter R.
 This process involves mixing crude rubber, sulfur, and abrasive grains, rolling them into sheets, cutting
out circles, and heating them under pressure to vulcanize the rubber.
 The wheels can be made like this and used as saws for cutting-off operations.

5. Shellac Bond
 It is denoted by letter E.
 Shellac (a naturally available material) is the main component of the bond.

Specifications of a grinding wheel : Grit, Grade, and Structure

1. Grit:
 Grit indicates the size of the abrasive grain. It is indicated by a number. Higher the number, the
smaller the size of the grains. Abrasives finer than 200, are called “flours” and designated as F, FF, and
FFF.
 smaller grit size abrasive wheels are used. But their metal cutting capacity is limited.
 Large size abrasive wheels, finish is rough but metal removal rate is higher.

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 93 | P a g e

 Grinding Operation GRIT or Grain size
Coarse 10, 12, 14, 16, 20,24
Medium 30, 36, 46, 54, 60
Fine 80, 100, 120, 150, 180
Very Fine 220, 240, 280, 320, 400, 500, 600

2. Grade
 The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called the grade of the wheel and indicates the
strength of the grip with which the abrasive grains are held in the bond.
 It indicates the type and the amount of bond in the wheel. It is also referred to as the hardness of a
bonded abrasive. A hard wheel has a stronger bond and a larger amount of bonding material between
the grains than a soft wheel.
Type Grade
Soft A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H
Medium I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P
Hard Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

3. Structure
 The structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of porosity (spacing between the grains). The
structure of the bond material in a wheel varies from about 10% to 30% of its total volume.
 Structure of the bond depends upon this percentage.
 If the abrasive grains are too strictly packed, the percentage of bond material will be on the lower side
this is called a closed structure.
 If the abrasive grains are less strictly packed in the same volume, the wheels are called an open
structure.
 The structure is indicated by a number varying from 1 (very Closed Structure) to 15 (very Open
Structure).
Structure Symbol
Dense 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Open 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, or more

4.5. DESIGNATION OF GRINDING WHEEL

 Standard wheel – markings specify all the important wheel characteristics. The marking system
comprises of seven symbols which are arranged in the following order.
 Specification of grinding wheels A grinding wheel is specified by the standard wheel markings
like diameter of the wheel, bore diameter of the wheel, thickness of the wheel type (Shape) of the
wheel. Example 32 A 46 H8V, 250X20X32, Straight wheel

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 94 | P a g e

 Lapping
Lapping is the method of obtaining a fine finish.
Lapping is basically an abrasive process in which
loose abrasives function as cutting points finding
momentary support from the laps. Following
Figure represents the lapping process. Material
removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03
mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in certain
cases.

 Broaching Machine
 Broaching is performed using a multiple-teeth cutting tool by moving the device linearly about the work
in the direction of the tool axis, as in Figure 1. The machine tool is called a broaching machine and
the cutting tool is called a broach.
 In some jobs for which broaching can be used, it is a highly productive method of the machining process.
Advantages of the broaching process include good surface finish, close tolerances and a variety of work
shapes. Owing to the complicated and often custom shaped geometry of the broach, tooling is
expensive.

Figure 1: Broaching operation

There are two principal types of broaching:
1. External (surface broaching) and
2. Internal
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 95 | P a g e
 Honing
 Honing is an abrasive process (similar to grinding) at comparatively slow speed from which the stock is
removed from metallic or non-metallic surfaces by a bonded abrasive sticks called honing sticks/tools.
 Honing oils improve the accuracy and finish of automobile cylinder bores, hydraulic cylinders, and similar
parts. The honing machine consists of four fine-grain abrasive stones attached to an expandable tool
that is then slowly revolved and oscillated inside the cylinder until the desired finish and diameter are
obtained. In honing oils process simultaneous rotating and reciprocation motion is given to the stick and
the surface thus produced will have a characteristic cross-hatch lay (Honeycomb type) pattern

 Jigs and Fixtures

Jigs are tools that hold a cutting tool in place or guide it as it performs a repetitive task like drilling or
tapping holes. Fixtures, on the other hand, do not guide a cutting tool, but hold a workpiece steady in a fixed
position, orientation, or location.

What is a Jig?
A jig is a specialised, custom-made work-holding device designed to position and control the movement
of workpieces and tools precisely. In CNC machining, jigs are commonly employed to align workpieces and
cutting tools, ensuring the correct spatial relationship during operations. While the jig guides the workpiece, the
cutting tool remains stationary, and clamping typically secures the workpiece to the jig for machining.

Types of Jigs: Following are the different types of jigs.

1. Template jig
2. Plate jig
3. Channel jig
4. Diameter jig
5. Leaf jig
6. Ring jig

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 96 | P a g e

1. Template Jig:
 It is the simplest type, consisting of a plate with holes serving as a template.
 The drill is guided through these template holes to drill corresponding holes in the workpiece.
2. Plate Jig:
 Unlike fixtures, jigs both hold and guide the tool.
 Jigs are lighter for easier handling and often do not require clamping.
 Typically used for drilling, reaming, or tapping operations.
3. Channel Jig:
 It features a channel-like cross-section.
 The workpiece is fitted within the channel and located using a knob.
 The tool is guided through a drill bush.
4. Diameter Jig:
 Used for drilling radial holes in cylindrical or spherical workpieces.
 The workpiece is placed on a fixed V-block, clamped by a clamping plate, and guided by a drill bush.
5. Leaf Jig:
 Includes a hinged leaf or plate for easy loading and unloading of the workpiece.
 Work is located by buttons and clamped using set screws.
 The tool is guided through a drill bush.
6. Ring Jig:
 Designed for drilling holes in circular flanged parts.
 Work is clamped on the drill body, and holes are drilled using drill bushes.

What is a Fixture?:
A fixture is a work-holding device utilised to securely position, support, and affix a workpiece in a stable
position, ensuring its conformity and interchangeability. When the fixture is in motion, the tool moves relative
to the workpiece. Fixtures guarantee the stability of the workpiece, streamlining the workpiece mounting
process, enabling efficient transitioning between parts, and facilitating smooth operations. Unlike jigs, fixtures
do not guide the tool.

TYPES
1. Turning fixtures.
2. Milling fixtures.
3. Broaching fixtures.
4. Boring fixtures.
5. Indexing fixtures. Etc

Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 97 | P a g e

1. Turning Fixtures:
 Used for holding irregularly shaped components during turning operations.
 Provides stability, minimises overhang, and ensures secure clamping.
2. Milling Fixtures:
 Positioned and secured on the milling machine table.
 Workpieces are located on the fixture base and clamped before milling.
3. Broaching Fixtures:
 Used on broaching machines to locate, hold, and support workpieces during broaching operations.
 Facilitates keyway and hole broaching.
4. Grinding Fixtures:
 Essential for holding and supporting workpieces during grinding operations.
 Can include chucks, mandrels, magnetic chucks, and more.
5. Boring Fixtures:
 Designed for boring operations with two common designs.
 May incorporate a drilling jig or focus on workpiece positioning.
6. Indexing Fixtures:
 Used for evenly spaced machining of multiple surfaces on components.
 Features indexing mechanisms for precise positioning.
Mr. G. Veerendra Kumar 98 | P a g e