BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM AND GAS | v. 10 n. 2 | p.

077-087 | 2016 | ISSN 1982-0593

EMPIRICAL EVALUATION OF STIRRING PROCEDURES IN THE

PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM CASTOR OIL

a
Nazário, J. L.; a Soletti, J. I.; a Carvalho, S. H. V.; a Delcolle, R.; a Meili, L. 1; a Peiter, A. S.

a
Laboratory of Separation Systems and Process Optimization (LASSOP), Center of Technology, Federal University of Alagoas
- UFAL, Maceió – AL, Brazil
Received: 21.01.2016 / Revised: 22.03.2016 / Accepted: 29.03.2016 / Published on line: 12.07.2016

ABSTRACT
Aiming to evaluate how stirring procedures impact biodiesel production from castor oil, this work
employed a fractional factorial design to study the influence of some parameters on the alkaline catalytic
transesterification of castor oil for biodiesel production. Biodiesel was produced in a pilot plant equipped
with a stirring tank reactor and a thermostatic bath. The study used a 27-2 factorial design. The variables
were stirring rate, presence or absence of deflection, impeller type, oil/methanol molar ratio, reaction
time, temperature, and catalyst type. Gas chromatography afforded the reaction yields. Analysis of each
variables as well as evaluation of binary interactions helped to determine how the parameters affected
biodiesel production. The best conditions for a yield of 99.3 % were: turbine impeller, absence of
deflection in the reactor, stirring rate of 500 rpm, 1:7 oil/alcohol molar ratio, sodium hydroxide as catalyst,
reaction time of 30 min, and temperature of 50 °C.

KEYWORDS
experimental design; biofuel; transesterification; stirring rate; reaction

1
To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
Address: Laboratory of Separation Systems and Process Optimization (LASSOP), Center of Technology, Federal University of
Alagoas, Av. Lourival de Melo Mota, s/n, Tabuleiro de Martins, Maceió – AL – Brazil.
ZIP Code: 57072-970 | Telephone: +55 82 3214-1292 |e-mail: [email protected]
doi:10.5419/bjpg2016-0007

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1. INTRODUCTION acid or basic catalysts (Atadashi et al., 2013;

Knothe et al., 2005; Motasemi & Ani, 2012). The
Biodiesel is a renewable biofuel originated from transesterification reaction requires three moles of
various sources, such as a vegetable oil (soybean, alcohol for each mole of triglyceride to yield a
corn, palm, and castor oils), an animal fat (beef product with three moles of esters and one mole of
tallow, chicken fat), and used cooking oil (Adewale triglyceride. The larger the oil/alcohol molar ratio is
et al., 2015; Sánchez et al., 2015). Compared with (1:5-1:9), the higher the conversion of triglycerides
the petroleum-derived diesel, biodiesel generates into esters and the shorter the time necessary for
less carbon dioxide and practically eliminates sulfur the reaction to proceed are. Also, the
dioxide emissions. Interestingly, any diesel cycle transesterification is reversible. The use of reagents
engine can run on biodiesel, with little or no need in excess (alcohol) ensures that the reaction shifts
for adaptation (Almeida et al., 2015; Çetinkaya & toward the products.
Karaosmanoglu, 2004; Leung et al., 2010; Patil &
Deng, 2009; Rodríguez-Guerrero et al., 2013; The transesterification is very sensitive to the
Vasudevan & Briggs, 2008). effects of alcohol, oil/alcohol molar ratio, catalyst
type and quantity, stirring and mixing system,
When studying the use of oilseeds in biodiesel process temperature, and reaction time
production, the seeds of castor beans have (Stamenkovic et al., 2007). Over the last decades, a
attracted a huge interest, for they are abundant in number of authors have reported on the
northeastern area of Brazil, the world’s third larger transesterification of ricin oil. At large, literature
producer of castor beans, accounting for 8 % of the has described how the physicochemical variables
world’s production in 2010/2011 (Baron et al., affect this transesterification. Only a few works
2014). The amount of oil extracted from these have dealt with the influence of mechanical
seeds ranges between 40 and 50 % in weight variables on this type of reaction, which directly
(Sánchez-Cantú et al., 2013). A comparison impact the stirring and mixing processes and have
between castor oil and most vegetable oils reveals a fundamental role in reaction efficiency (Brásio et
an atypical feature: it contains triglycerides of al., 2011; Kiliç et al., 2013; Reyes et al., 2010; Silva
ricinoleic acid, a hydroxylated fatty acid that rarely et al., 2009). The effective use of a stirring system
occurs in vegetable oils, which represents between depends on impeller type, angular velocity, reactor
80 to 90 % of the castor oil composition (Barbosa geometry, fluid properties, and reaction features
et al., 2010; Hincapié et al., 2011; Sáez-Bastante et (Brásio et al., 2011; Frascari et al., 2009). Stirring is
al., 2015; Scholz & Silva, 2008). Despite featuring a determining factor in biodiesel production
these favorable characteristics, castor oil is not process, since in conventional processes, at
considered the best raw material to produce extreme reaction conditions, it is not possible to
biodiesel. Nonetheless, its study is important obtain acceptable yields by regulatory agencies of
because the castor oil biodiesel has high viscosity fuels.
and density, factors that cause undesirable
outcomes, such as longer residence times, low It is noteworthy that the study of the effect of
yields, and high costs related to the use of stirring has the aim to provide better conversions
chemicals. In general, animal fats and vegetable and reduce costs associated with reaction time and
oils present high viscosity. Unfortunately, this use of chemicals. This type of study is
characteristic prevents their direct use in engines underexploited in the literature applied to
that run on diesel (Muniyappa et al., 1996; Scholz transesterification reaction. Several studies have
& Silva, 2008). Transformation of crude plant oil focused on the reaction kinetics using magnetic
into esters (biodiesel) reduces the viscosity of the stirrers. These works, however, have not provided
starting oil (Ferella et al., 2010). relevant data for performing industrial equipment
designs. Therefore, the study on the use of
Conventionally, the transesterification reaction different impellers in biodiesel production process
is employed to produce biodiesel. This reaction is critical in the decision-making stage during the
basically consists of introducing a load of vegetable implementation of an industrial project.
oil into a reactor coupled with a stirrer and heating
system, where excess alcohols (methanol or In this context, this work aimed to study how
ethanol) attack the glycerides in the presence of some stirring parameters (impeller type, presence

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and absence of deflection, and stirring rate) impact

biodiesel production from castor oil. This work also
examined other process variables such as reaction
time, temperature, oil/alcohol molar ratio, and
catalyst. A fractional factorial design helped to
analyze the influence of the assessed variables and
their binary interactions on biodiesel production,
to determine the best operational/reaction
conditions to obtain the desired biodiesel.

Figure 1. Impeller geometry: turbine (a) and inclined

blade (b).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
This work has investigated how physicochemical
and mechanical variables affect biodiesel (TECNAL/TE 2003/02) and a thermostatic bath
production by transesterification via methylic (TECNAL/TE 184). Gas chromatography analysis
route, with the goal of proposing the use of high- was carried out on a VARIAN chromatograph
performance equipment that maximizes the (model CP 3800). Figure 1 shows the geometry and
biodiesel output, whist minimizing the reaction dimensions of the impellers.
time and costs. Physical variables like reaction time
and temperature were also assessed. Also, stirring 2.2 Methods
variables, namely, impeller type (impeller
dimensions are shown on Table 1), presence or For the transesterification process, a 1.5-L batch
absence of deflection, and stirring rate were reactor coupled to a thermostatic bath was
examined. All conditions were evaluated in order employed. This arrangement allowed for
to improve mixing of the reagents temperature control throughout the reactions.
(homogenization) and minimize the formation of Physicochemical analysis aided the characterization
vortices. The quality of the oil and the resulting of the castor oil and the resulting biodiesel in terms
biodiesel was analyzed on the basis of the existing of viscosity, density, acidity index, and moisture
regulations issued by the National Agency of content, according to ASTM D445, D4052, D664,
Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Biofuels (ANP, Brazil). and D6304 guidelines, respectively.

2.1 Materials 2.2.1 Experimental design

For the transesterification reactions, To optimize biodiesel production from castor

commercially available castor oil (SUCROQUÍMICA), bean oil, a 27-2 fractional factorial design was
methanol PA (Synth), sodium hydroxide and employed. The main response was the biodiesel
potassium hydroxide PA (Synth), and magnesium yield. The adopted variables and levels were as
sulfate (Dinâmica Ltda) were employed. The follows: oil/methanol molar ratio of 1:5 or 1:7;
reactions were conducted in a stirring tank reactor temperature of 25 °C (close to room temperature)

Table 1. Impellers dimensions.

Impeller Dimensions
Impeller Impeller Diameter Disc Diameter Width Lenght
Number of Blades
(D / cm) (d / cm) (w / cm) (L / cm)

Inclined Blades 4 6.7 2.0 1.2 2.4

Turbine 6 5.0 3.3 1.0 1.2

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or 50 °C (a temperature closer to the boiling point

of methanol); a higher stirring rate of 500 rpm (1)
(because higher rotations improve contact
between the reactants) or a lower stirring rate of Where:
300 rpm; sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide at a concentration of 0.8 % w/w (oil) as MIS = Mass of the internal standard tricapryllin
catalyst; reaction times of 15 or 30 min; turbine or (used to prepare the solution for injection);
inclined-flat-blade impeller; and presence or
absence of deflection. All experiments were AB = Area corresponding to biodiesel (peaks
performed in duplicate. corresponding to biodiesel in the chromatogram);

AP = Area corresponding to the internal standard

2.2.2 Biodiesel production
(peaks corresponding to tricapryllin in the
The transesterification reaction was conducted chromatogram);
according to the procedure described in the
MB = Mass of biodiesel (used to prepare the
preview sections. At the end of the reaction, the
solution for injection);
mixture was transferred to a separating funnel and
allowed to rest for phase separation. The phases FC = Correction factor (calculated from standard
separated spontaneously in all reaction assays. The biodiesel, for a 100% conversion).
upper and lower phases were rich in biodiesel and
glycerin, respectively. The biodiesel was washed
three times with 0.7-M aqueous H2SO4, followed by
two washings with distilled water, to adjust the pH 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
and to remove tri-, di-, and monoacylglycerides as
well as impurities like unreacted oil and alcohol, 3.1 Analysis of the physicochemical
glycerin, and catalyst, among others. Next, the properties of castor oil and biodiesel
purified biodiesel was submitted to drying with
approximately two grams of magnesium sulfate Table 2 shows the physicochemical properties
(dessicant), for an average of 30 min, to remove of castor oil, compared with literature values, and
moisture acquired along the washing steps. Finally, biodiesel. To be commercially viable, biodiesel
the biodiesel samples were filtered and analyzed must comply with certain regulation requirements.
by gas chromatography, to determine the reaction Analyses of the final product (purified biodiesel)
yield. aided its characterization. According to Table 2,
viscosity and moisture contents of the biodiesel
2.2.3 Reaction yields obtained in this work were below literature values.
High viscosity is typical of castor oil, its distinct
A gas chromatograph equipped with a flame molecular structure favors intermolecular
ionization detector and a 2.2-m capillary column interactions, such as dipole-dipole forces and
helped to determine the reaction yield, the hydrogen bonds, because a hydroxyl group is
percentage of castor oil conversion into biodiesel. present in the twelfth carbon of ricinoleic acid,
The detector and injector temperatures were 250 which is the major component of castor oil.
and 240 °C, respectively; the oven temperature Blending of ricin biodiesel with other vegetable oils
was programmed to rise from 150 to 260 °C at a or mineral diesel reduces biofuel viscosity. The high
heating rate of 10 °C/min. Glycerol trioctanoate moisture content in the biodiesel obtained herein
(tricapryllin) was the internal standard; high-purity might result from ineffective drying during the
hydrogen gas (99.95 %) was the carrier gas. The purification.
injection volume was 1.0 μL. The biodiesel yield
was calculated by means of Equation 1 and the 3.2 Influence of process variables and their
experimental error obtained was, for all main interactions
experiments, below 5.00 %.
This work analyzed the effect of each variable
and the impact of binary interactions in terms of
biodiesel yield (oil conversion to methyl esters),

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Table 2. Physicochemical properties of castor and biodiesel oils.

Castor Oil

Properties Values Literature Values

Viscosity (cst or mm²/s) 242.22 289.57 (Encinar et al., 2012)

3
Density (g/cm ) 0.957 0.965 (Kiliç et al., 2013)

Saponification Number (unity) 220.04 182 (Kiliç et al., 2013)

Acid Value (mgKOH / g) 0.65 2.1 (Dias et al., 2013)

Moisture (%) 0.26 0.2 (Encinar et al., 2012)

Biodiesel

Properties Values ANP range (ANP, 2012)

Viscosity (mm²/s) 15.4 (ASTM, 2013a) 3.0 – 6.0

Density (g/cm³) 0.90 (ASTM, 2011) 0.85 – 0.90

Acid Value (mgKOH / g) 0.23 (ASTM, 2013b) < 0.50

Moisture (%) 0.95 (ASTM, 2007) 0.35

with a 95 % confidence. The following variables (3) was significant and positive. Therefore,
afforded significant effects: catalyst, stirring rate, conservation of the individual trends of the main
impeller type, and oil/methanol molar ratio. The variables should raise the reaction yield.
experiments were carried out randomly. Table 3
lists all the assays according to the 27-2 fractional The variable that led to the largest estimate
factorial design and the mean yield of each effect (according to the experimental design) was
duplicate. Table 4 summarizes the estimated the catalyst. NaOH was the ideal catalyst for
effects of the variables and their binary biodiesel production from castor oil. The
interactions, pure error, and the results of Student mechanical variables turbine impeller and high
and p-value tests. The main negative effects, stirring rate (500 rpm) also elicited higher reaction
catalyst and impeller type, provided a lower yields. No literature work has evaluated how
reaction yield. The top positive effects, stirring rate impeller type influences biodiesel production.
and oil/alcohol molar ratio, contributed to achieve Herein, the application of turbine impeller aimed to
an increased reaction yield. The order of produce mass transfer during the stirring process.
significance of the effects on transesterification Indeed, this type of impeller dissolved reagents and
were: catalyst type > impeller type > stirring rate > catalyst to a larger extent, which improved the
oil/alcohol molar ratio, irrespective of the algebraic yields. This is because high rotation increased the
sign. Interactions (3) and (7), (3) and (4), and (3) collision rate and the number of effective collisions
and (6) were significant and negative. This indicates (which favored the formation of the higher-energy
that, as long as the individual trends of each main activated complex for product formation), thereby
variable (stirring rate, temperature, oil/alcohol raising the ester production rate. According to
molar ratio, and time at the lower stirring rate) Reyes et al. (2010), the biodiesel conversion ratio
remain in order of priority, the result is a lower clearly depends on the turbulence degree, and
transesterification yield. On the basis of this larger Reynolds numbers give higher conversion
statistical analysis, the reaction yield should rises ratios. Li et al. (2013) also achieved similar results,
upon inversion of the trend of the main variables that is, higher stirring rates improved product yield
that were less significant than the interactions. The during the esterification-transesterification of
effect due to interaction between variables (1) and soybean oil in the presence of solid catalysts.

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Table 3. Level of variables and biodiesel yield: n - experimental number; dup. – duplicate; I – impeller; C – chicanes;
A – agitation velocity; R – molar ratio of oil/methanol; Cat – catalyst; t – reaction time; T – reaction temperature; Y
(%) – yield.

Run/ Variables Average Yield

(%)
(n. dup.)
I C A R Cat T T
1 1-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 300 1:5 NaOH 30 50 99.3 ± 1.0
2 2-1 BLADES WITHOUT 300 1:5 NaOH 15 25 88.4 ± 4.7
3 3-1 TURBINE WITH 300 1:5 NaOH 15 25 94.3 ± 3.1
4 4-1 BLADES WITH 300 1:5 NaOH 30 50 89.5 ± 4.5
5 5-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 500 1:5 NaOH 15 50 92.1 ± 1.1
6 6-1 BLADES WITHOUT 500 1:5 NaOH 30 25 93.1 ± 2.5
7 7-1 TURBINE WITH 500 1:5 NaOH 30 25 88.9 ± 3.8
8 8-1 BLADES WITH 500 1:5 NaOH 15 50 96.7 ± 2.0
9 9-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 300 1:7 NaOH 15 25 92.4 ± 1.1
10 10-1 BLADES WITHOUT 300 1:7 NaOH 30 50 99.1 ± 1.2
11 11-1 TURBINE WITH 300 1:7 NaOH 30 50 97.9 ± 3.0
12 12-1 BLADES WITH 300 1:7 NaOH 15 25 88.7 ± 2.3
13 13-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 500 1:7 NaOH 30 25 99.3 ± 0.2
14 14-1 BLADES WITHOUT 500 1:7 NaOH 15 50 92.1 ± 0.8
15 15-1 TURBINE WITH 500 1:7 NaOH 15 50 97.1 ± 0.2
16 16-1 BLADES WITH 500 1:7 NaOH 30 25 98.9 ± 1.6
17 17-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 300 1:5 KOH 30 25 87.5 ± 0.8
18 18-1 BLADES WITHOUT 300 1:5 KOH 15 50 77.5 ± 0.4
19 19-1 TURBINE WITH 300 1:5 KOH 15 50 87.8 ± 2.7
20 20-1 BLADES WITH 300 1:5 KOH 30 25 81.1 ± 2.1
21 21-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 500 1:5 KOH 15 25 97.2 ± 0.8
22 22-1 BLADES WITHOUT 500 1:5 KOH 30 50 90.7 ± 2.1
23 23-1 TURBINE WITH 500 1:5 KOH 30 50 93.5 ± 3.7
24 24-1 BLADES WITH 500 1:5 KOH 15 25 87.1 ± 4.0
25 25-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 300 1:7 KOH 15 50 96.3 ± 3.3
26 26-1 BLADES WITHOUT 300 1:7 KOH 30 25 86.3 ± 2.5
27 27-1 TURBINE WITH 300 1:7 KOH 30 25 91.4 ± 1.1
28 28-1 BLADES WITH 300 1:7 KOH 15 50 87.3 ± 1.1
29 29-1 TURBINE WITHOUT 500 1:7 KOH 30 50 86.2 ± 3.1
30 30-1 BLADES WITHOUT 500 1:7 KOH 15 25 93.1 ± 1.9
31 1-1 TURBINE WITH 500 1:5 KOH 15 25 89.6 ± 0.7
32 32-1 BLADES WITH 500 1:7 KOH 30 50 87.9 ± 2.3

Stamenkovic et al. (2007) and Noureddini and Zhu The ideal reaction time for biodiesel production
(1997) verified that higher stirring rates produced from castor oil was 30 min. The reversibility of
biodiesel within a shorter reaction time. Together, transesterification may favor reaction between the
these facts attest to the importance of studying the products, which form reactants after a prolonged
stirring and mixing processes along biodiesel reaction time. As a consequence, the yield of
production. methyl esters is lower. In this sense, Falahati and
Tremblay (2012) obtained an interesting result:

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Table 4. Main interaction effects, pure error, Student and p-values.

Variables Effects Standard Deviation t(32) p-value

Mean 91.54 0.30 303.38 < 0.05

(I) -3.36 0.60 -5.57 < 0.05
(C) -0.84 0.60 -1.39 0.1716
(A) 2.46 0.60 4.08 < 0.05
(M) 2.40 0.60 3.97 < 0.05
(c) -5.41 0.60 -8.96 < 0.05
(t) 0.80 0.60 1.32 0.1943
(T) 0.82 0.60 1.36 0.1811
IxC 0.46 0.60 0.76 0.4490
IxA 2.75 0.60 4.56 < 0.05
IxM 1.28 0.60 2.12 < 0.05
Ixc -1.50 0.60 -2.49 < 0.05
Ixt 1.20 0.60 1.99 0.0541
IxT -0.28 0.60 -0.46 0.6443
CxA 0.25 0.60 0.41 0.6814
CxM 0.10 0.60 0.16 0.8694
Cxc -0.35 0.60 -0.58 0.5659
Cxt -0.68 0.60 -1.13 0.2630
CxT 1.41 0.60 2.34 < 0.05
AxM -1.85 0.60 -3.07 < 0.05
Axc 1.40 0.60 2.33 < 0.05
Axt -1.64 0.60 -2.72 < 0.05
AxT -2.24 0.60 -3.71 < 0.05
Mxc -0.49 0.60 -0.81 0.4192
Mxt 0.54 060 0.90 0.3742
MxT -0.31 0.60 -0.52 0.6010

during shorter residence times, the non-reacted transesterification reaction will only reach
chemicals increased the internal pressure in the equilibrium. However, reactions conducted at
reactor, but the residence time did not affect the temperatures close to the boiling point of the
resulting biodiesel obtained from different sources. alcohol give better outcomes (Murugesan et al.,
This information further highlights the result 2009). Based on the results of the present work,
achieved with castor oil, because longer reaction the ideal temperature for biodiesel production
times yielded larger conversion ratios. from castor bean oil is 50 °C, which is close to the
boiling point of the alcohol. Bearing in mind that
According to the classic literature on biodiesel the optimized reaction time is 30 min, our results
(Freedman et al., 1986), temperature plays an resemble those that literature works consider ideal
important role in biodiesel production. At room for transesterification reactions.
temperature and up to a certain time, the

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Figure 2. Response surface of yield of biodiesel production as a function of catalyst type and stirring rate. Catalyst
concentration = 0.8 %.

Figure 3. Response surface of yield of biodiesel production as a function of molar ratio of oil/methanol and
impeller type.

This work analyzed the yield of biodiesel Therefore, the impeller geometry, turbine or
production from castor oil in the presence of two inclined-flat-blade impeller, was one of the most
catalysts, KOH or NaOH, under various operational significant variables for achievement of higher
conditions. Figure 2 illustrates the response surface biodiesel yield. Here, turbine impeller provided
for the interaction between the catalyst and the higher conversion ratios in the presence of NaOH
stirring rate. Figure 3 shows the surface response as catalyst. The oil/methanol molar ratio 1:7
for the interaction between the impeller geometry provided better biodiesel yields than the
and the oil/methanol molar ratio. Stirring the oil/methanol molar ratio of 1:5. Molar ratios
reactional mixture at a high rotation speed, 500 ranging between 1:7 and 1:9 afforded higher
rpm, significantly increased the final biodiesel yield. biodiesel yields.

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4. CONCLUSIONS Almeida, V. F.; García-Moreno, P. J.; Guadix, A.;

Guadix, E. M. Biodiesel production from mixtures
This work investigates how stirring variables of waste fish oil, palm oil and waste frying oil:
affect biodiesel production from castor oil via Optimization of fuel properties. Fuel Processing
methyl transesterification and alkaline catalysis. Technology, v. 133, p. 152–160, 2015.
The 27-2 fractional experimental design proved to http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2015.01.041
be an excellent tool to evaluate the main effects of
ASTM - American Society for Testing and
the variables and the interaction between them.
Materials. D 445: Standard test method for
This design determined the variables that favored
kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque
the transesterification process.
liquids(and calculation of dynamic viscosity),
The variables that impacted the 2013a.
transesterification reaction most significantly were
ASTM - American Society for Testing and
the stirring rate, impeller type, catalyst type, and
Materials. D 664: Standard test method for acid
oil/alcohol molar ratios. The other studied
number of petroleum products by potentiometric
parameters did not influence this process
significantly. Considering the variables and the titration, 2013b.
studied ranges, the best conditions to produce ASTM - American Society for Testing and
methyl biodiesel from castor oil via alkaline Materials. D 4052: Density and relative density of
transesterification were: turbine impeller, absence liquids by digital density meter, 2011.
of deflection, stirring rate of 500 rpm, oil/alcohol
molar ratio of 1:7, NaOH as catalyst, reaction time ASTM - American Society for Testing and
of 30 min, and temperature of 50 ºC. Proper design Materials. D 6304: Test method for determination
of biodiesel production units require relevant of water in petroleum products, lubricating oils,
laboratory data. Thus, this study shows that the and additives by colorimetric Karl Fisher titration,
choice of appropriate agitation system in the 2007.
production can impact economic viability.
ANP - Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural
e Biocombustíveis. Resolução nº 14, de 11.05.2012.
Available at: <http://www.anp.gov.br/ >. Accessed
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in: 11/10/2013.
The authors thank Coordination for the Atadashi, I. M.; Aroua, M. K.; Abdul Aziz, A. R.;
Development of Higher Education Personnel Sulaiman, N. M. N. The effects of catalysts in
(CAPES) for providing a scholarship to the graduate biodiesel production: A review. Journal of
student of the Chemical Engineering Graduate Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, v. 19, p. 14-
Program at Federal University of Alagoas. 26, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2012.07.009

Barbosa, D. C.; Serra, T. M.; Meneghetti, S. M.

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