Climate Change Effects and Sustainability Needs, The Case of Morocco

Springer Climate
Kholoud Kahime
Mohamed El Yamani
Stéphane Pouffary Editors
Climate Change
Effects and
Sustainability
Needs
The Case of Morocco
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Kholoud Kahime · Mohamed El Yamani ·
Stéphane Pouffary
Editors
Climate Change Effects

and Sustainability Needs
The Case of Morocco
Editors
Kholoud Kahime Mohamed El Yamani
School of Technology Essaouira School of Technology Essaouira
Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh; Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh
CI2RC Marrakesh, Morocco
Essaouira, Morocco
Stéphane Pouffary
ENERGIES 2050
Biot, Alpes-Maritimes, France
ISSN 2352-0698 ISSN 2352-0701 (electronic)

Springer Climate
ISBN 978-3-031-59602-5 ISBN 978-3-031-59603-2 (eBook)
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Foreword
Morocco’s geographical location is both a curse and a blessing. The kingdom’s

natural borders are the Atlantic Ocean and the Sahara. Both will expand as a result of
climate change and either flood or dry up the livelihoods of thousands of Moroccans.
Many are already being driven from the countryside to large urban centres such as
Casablanca. In 2022, Morocco experienced the longest period of drought in more
than 40 years, which resulted in serious crop failures and real price explosions for
agricultural products.
Moroccans will continue to feel the effects of climate change in the coming years,
particularly in the form of water shortages. According to calculations by the World
Bank1 , the amount of sustainably available water per inhabitant has fallen from more
than 2500 cubic metres in 1960 to just 600 cubic metres in 2020. This means that
Morocco is on the verge of sliding from an unproblematic supply situation to a state
of water emergency within half a century.
On the other hand, Morocco has immeasurable potential for renewable energy.
This is thanks to the high level of solar radiation, the reliable trade winds in the
south and—albeit increasingly less—the water flowing from the Atlas Mountains.
According to an estimate2 by the German Society for International Cooperation
(GIZ), Morocco could cover its entire electricity needs with hydro, wind and solar
energy in the medium term and at the same time export surplus energy, for example
in the form of green hydrogen.
Morocco pursues an ambitious climate and environmental policy. The country
already covers almost 20% of its electricity needs with renewable energy. If all
installed capacities were utilised, this figure could even rise to almost 40%. By 2030,
more than half of the electricity is to be generated by water, wind and sun. This
makes the kingdom a leader among developing countries and an important partner
1 https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/news/press-release/2022/07/20/moroccan-economy-slows-
in-wake-of-drought-and-commodity-price-rises.
2 https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/March/Renewable-Ene
rgy-Transition-Africa_Country_Studies_2021.pdf?la=en&hash=46D8ADDF378CD917C90F8
5F899B3F2B33A787CB8.
v
vi Foreword
in the international fight against climate change. A highly professional academic

community and an extraordinary active civil society support this ambition.
This book is the product of the 4th edition of the International Congress on
Climate Change (CI2C_2023) on the topic of “Climate, Security and Development:
Challenges and Opportunity for a Just Transition” which took place in Essaouira,
on 24–26 October 2023, organised by the International Center for Research and
Capacity Building (Centre International de Recherche et de Renforcement de
Capacités, CI2RC, Essaouira, Morocco), the Friedrich Naumann Foundation for
Freedom (FFN, Germany), the ENERGIES 2050 international association (France)
and the Higher School of Technology of Essaouira, Cadi Ayyad University (ESTE,
UCA, Morocco). This congress gathered researchers from a dozen countries and
provided the authors of this book with a platform to present and discuss their findings
and hypotheses.
May this book also inspire you and provide you with new insights and perspectives.
Enjoy the read!
February 2024 Sebastian Vagt

Director
Friedrich Naumann Foundation for
Freedom Morocco
Rabat, Morocco
Contents
Part I Climate Observation and Prediction in Morocco

1 Exploring Climate Change: Morocco in Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Mohamed El Yamani, Abdelali Boussakouran,
Moulay Abdelmonaim El Hidan, and Kholoud Kahime
2 Are the Heat Waves Recorded in Morocco During the Summer
of 2022 Exceptional? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Jaafar El Kassioui and Mohamed Hanchane
3 Climate Change Projection and Numerical Climate Modeling
in the Rheris Watershed (Region Draa Tafilalet—Morocco) . . . . . . . 35
Abdelmoumen Benchattou and Mohamed El Ghachi
Part II Climate Change Effects on Ecosystems and Water

Resources: Politics of Adaptation
4 Genetic Control of Bactrocera oleae Gmelin (Diptera:
Tephritidae) for Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Tariq Nacimi, Driss Hmouni, and Yamna Ouguas
5 Climatic Drought in the Hydraulic Basin of Oum Er Rbia,
Morocco (1980–2021): Statistical and Cartographic Analysis . . . . . . 65
Meriem Hamid, Jalal Aguerd, and Mohamed El Ghachi
6 Analysis of Hydrological Regime Variability from 1980
to 2014 of the Source of Ain Asserdoune in Beni Mellal,
Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Khouldia Nafia, Mimoun Goumih, and Mohamed El Ghachi
vii
viii Contents
Part III Climate Change and Adaptation: Focus on Agricultural

Sector
7 The Drought Resilience of Vast Livestock Reared
in Agropastoral Versus Sylvo-Agro-Pastoral Systems
in Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Bouchra El Amiri, Reda Azmi, Said Laaribya, Brahim Dani,
Mounia Sibaoueih, and Berkat Omar
8 Moroccan Durum Wheat Breeding to Keep Pace with Climate
Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Abdelali Boussakouran, Yahia Rharrabti, Kholoud Kahime,
and Mohamed El Yamani
9 Symbiotic Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi as a Soil Essential
Component Contributing to Soil Fertility for Sustainable
Agriculture in Arid Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Lahcen Ouahmane, Hanane Dounas, Mohamed El Yamani,
and Kholoud Kahime
Part IV Urbanism, Green Building and Land Use: What can We

Do in the Face of Climate Change
10 Life Cycle Assessment for Green Buildings: A Mini Literature
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Redouan Assadiki, Gérard Merlin, Hervé Boileau,
Catherine Buhé, and Fouzi Belmir
11 The Impact of Industrial Activities on the Land Surface
Temperature (LST) in the Urban Environment of the City
of Kenitra (Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Rhita Nasraoui and Khalid Benzidiya
12 The Effect of Incorporating Alfa Fibers on Physical,
Mechanical, and Durability Properties of Compressed
Stabilized Earth Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Reda Sadouri, Youssef Cherradi, and Mustafa Benyoucef
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Part I
Climate Observation and Prediction
in Morocco
Chapter 1
Exploring Climate Change: Morocco
in Focus
Mohamed El Yamani, Abdelali Boussakouran,

Moulay Abdelmonaim El Hidan, and Kholoud Kahime
Abstract Manifestations of climate change have been occurring more frequently in

recent years, posing major challenges that require that require measures, and even
strategies, for adaptation and mitigation. This review starts by providing an overview
of climate change, focusing first on defining key concepts and understanding the
emergence of associated events beyond natural phenomena. The causes of these
changes are then explored, with a heightened emphasis on human-induced factors,
including the contribution of industrial activities, agricultural practices, burning of
fossil fuel, and greenhouse gas emissions responsible for global warming. After-
wards, the various possible future evolutions of these changes were presented,
addressing fundamental principles, scenario construction models, as well as their
similarities and differences. This first part concludes by an analysis of the repercus-
sions of such changes on water resources—currently considered the most affected
environmental element and will continue to face more impacts—along with water-
related sectors and their vulnerability in the face of these challenges. The second part
of this review highlights climate change in Morocco, beginning with the country’s
particular climatic features based on its topography and geographical location. Future
projections are produced on the basis of previous scenarios, mainly for temperature
and precipitation, to gauge the extent of climate change at national level. Subse-
quently, the repercussions of changes that have already occurred, as well as potential
impacts resulting from future changes, are examined with a particular focus on the
M. El Yamani (B) · K. Kahime

Laboratory of Applied Sciences for the Environment and Sustainable Development, Essaouira
School of Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, Km 9, Route d’Agadir, B.P. 383, Essaouira Al
Jadida, Morocco
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Kahime
A. Boussakouran
Laboratory of Natural Resources and Environment, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Taza, Sidi
Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, B.P. 1223, Taza-Gare, Taza, Morocco
M. A. El Hidan
Laboratory of Biotechnology and Valorization of Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Ibn Zohr University, Agadir, Morocco
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

K. Kahime et al. (eds.), Climate Change Effects and Sustainability Needs, Springer
Climate, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59603-2_1
4 M. El Yamani et al.
water, agriculture, and food security sectors. In fact, the rise in temperatures, coupled
with irregularity and decreased precipitation, have led to a 35% reduction in surface
compared to the period of 1940–1970 and a 60-m decline in piezometric levels in
certain aquifers. These changes significantly impact water supply, especially for the
agriculture sector, which heavily relies (87%) on rainfall conditions, putting food
security at risk. Overcoming these critical situations will require substantial efforts,
especially as the driving factors are expected to worsen.
Keywords Climate change · Anthropogenic factors · Water resources ·

Agriculture · Morocco
Introduction
Climate change is currently recognized as a significant global concern for humanity.

This is evident in the shifting weather patterns, which play a crucial role in the
development and growth (Bazzaz and Sombroek 1996; Hirich et al. 2016).
In Morocco, climate change is a significant challenge, as it is in all Mediterranean
countries. Indeed, according to Rochdane et al. (2014), North African countries,
including Morocco, are projected to be heavily impacted by the negative conse-
quences of climate change. This includes further decreases in precipitation and
increases in temperature, as indicated by Simonneaux et al. (2015) and Tramblay
et al. (2014a, b). Its effects include environmental deterioration, reduced agricultural
output, and heightened concerns over water, food availability and economic and soci-
etal stability in these regions (Ouhamdouch et al. 2018; Trabelsi and Zouari 2019;
Bahir et al. 2020; Schilling et al. 2020).
Focusing on Morocco, a rising temperature trend has been well recorded over
the past 30 years, exceeding the global average (+ 0.42 °C/decade on average since
1990 for Morocco versus + 0.28 °C/decade for all countries) (Woillez 2019). As
for rainfall, El Ajhar et al. (2018) noted a shift over the period 1980–2015 towards
drier conditions. These changes have led to disastrous natural phenomena such as
drought, flooding, salinization, silting, etc. (Bouaicha and Benabdelfadel 2010). As
a result, there is increasing pressure on natural resources, especially those used by
the agricultural sector, which is integral to Morocco’s economic, social, and environ-
mental development, contributing 13–14% to the country’s GDP (Abdelmajid et al.
2021). In relation to water resources, crucial for agricultural production, Morocco is
currently classified as one of the countries with high water stress (Mason et al. 2019).
In fact, water availability in Morocco has declined from over 2500 m3 per person in
1960, to 730 m3 per person in 2005 and 650 m3 per person in 2015, and is expected
to drop below 500 m3 by 2030 (Mason et al. 2019; Bennouna 2020).
Risks of food insecurity, conflict and population displacement can increase under
severe water scarcity and drought conditions. Coastal flooding from sea-level rise,
environmental degradation, deforestation and loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
services pose serious challenges to current development initiatives, leading to a
1 Exploring Climate Change: Morocco in Focus 5
significant increase in vulnerability to risks and hazards. Hence, there is a growing

importance attached to the implementation of sustainable adaptation and resilience
measures (USAID 2016).
The objective of this review is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the evolu-
tion, impacts, and challenges associated with climate change, both on a global level
and with a specific focus on the Moroccan context. We initiate our examination
by exploring fundamental concepts, history, and evolution of climatic events, as
well as the diverse factors contributing to climate change. Subsequently, we provide
readers with a nuanced understanding of models and future projections of this
complex phenomenon. Our review extends beyond a simple presentation of facts
and statistics related to climate change, moving towards an in-depth discussion of
the resulting impacts on crucial sectors, along with adaptation and mitigation chal-
lenges. In the second section, attention turns to the national level, highlighting first
meteorological characteristics and their specific future projections. This exploration
concludes by examining the repercussions of climate change on the water sector and
its related activities, while analyzing their influence on agriculture and food security.
Furthermore, we address the complex challenges that arise, requiring adaptation and
attenuation strategies to cope with these major changes.
Comprehensive Insights into Global Climate Change
History and Meaning
Climate change refers to a long-term disruption of the Earth’s climate and weather
patterns. It includes changes in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns and other
climatic factors (Kumar et al. 2018). These modifications can be ascribed to both
natural processes and human activities. Actually, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change in the broadest sense as “any change
in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or human actions”. However,
discussions on climate change in the recent decades have mostly focused on linking
it to human-induced alterations. This is especially evident in the rise of greenhouse
gas emissions resulting from activities like the combustion of fossil fuels, deforesta-
tion, and industrial processes. In fact, the Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC) specifically characterizes climate change as “a change of climate which is
directly or indirectly attributed to anthropogenic activity, altering the global atmo-
sphere’s composition and contributing to natural climate variability over comparable
time periods” (Pielke Jr 2004).
Historically, discussion of climate change dates back to the nineteenth century,
when Greeks and Americans were worried about the impact of human activity on local
climate, especially that of deforestation on rainfall in a specific region. However, the
most significant climate changes have occurred naturally. In 1896, evidence emerged
that fossil fuel combustion releases carbon dioxide, thereby contributing to global
warming, although some critics minimized the human influence on extended climate
cycles. By the 1930s, observations had confirmed significant warming in the United
States and the North Atlantic region. During the 1950s and 1960s, when govern-
ment funding increased, a number of scientific studies corroborated carbon dioxide
accumulation in the atmosphere as a cause of global warming. In fact, while climate
models predicted rising temperatures over the next century, there was no consensus
on the need for immediate political actions. At the end of the 1970s, a resump-
tion of global temperature increases was recorded, giving many climatologists the
conviction that this trend would continue as greenhouse gases accumulated. Since
1988, experts have determined that without measures to reduce emissions, a doubling
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would occur by the end of the twenty-first
century, leading to a temperature increase of 2–3 °C at the Earth’s surface. In 1990,
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was
adopted following recognition by the international community of the need for coor-
dinated action, giving birth to annual Conferences of the Parties (COPs) designed to
discuss climate-related issues. Then, in 1989, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
change (IPCC) was created under the United Nations auspices to develop a scientific
approach of climate change and the related political and economic outcomes. Two
years later, IPCC reached a consensus emphasizing the significant risk of global
warming. It stressed that future climate change primarily depended on the human
policies chosen to manage greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific evidence of climate
change has been strengthened, and the IPCC reports (2007) highlighting its effects
on ecosystems, sea levels, extreme weather events and human societies (Agrawala
1998; Weart 2008; Sharma et al. 2012).
Causes and Future Projections
Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate Change
Climate change can be driven by both natural and human-induced (anthropogenic)

factors that alter the radiation received from the Sun or emitted to space, or that
modify the redistribution of energy within the atmosphere as well as between the
atmosphere, land, and ocean (USEPA 2017). Human activities that contribute to
climate change involve fossil fuel burning, deforestation, agricultural practices, urban
expansion and pollutant emissions. These activities release greenhouse gases (GHGs)
into the atmosphere, including but not limited to carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrous oxide
(N2 O), methane (CH4 ), and water vapor (Meehl et al. 2007). These play a key role in
climatic regulation. In fact, without GHGs the average temperature on Earth would
be − 18 °C instead of + 14 °C and life might not exist (Omer 2008). However, GHGs
from human activities are the main driver of climate change. Since the nineteenth
century, humans have significantly increased the level of GHGs in the atmosphere.
As a result, the natural climatic balance is being altered and the climate is being
readjusted by a warming effect or positive climate forcing. In the period from 1990
to 2015, the worldwide net GHGs emissions generated by human activities had risen
by 43% (Oreggioni et al. 2021). Additionally, carbon dioxide emissions accounting
for about three-quarters of total emission, increased by 51% during the same period.
Moreover, the total warming due to anthropogenic GHGs in Earth’s atmosphere
has increased by 45% from 1990 to 2019. The global warming effect attributed to
carbon dioxide alone had increased by 36%. Population and economic factors are
the main drivers of rising CO2 emissions, with those from fossil fuel combustion and
industrial processes accounting for around 78% of the total increase in greenhouse
gas emissions (Oreggioni et al. 2021).
As for the global agri-food sector, more than 30% of global energy demand is
primarily fulfilled by fossil fuel sources, leading to the emission of approximately
22% of total anthropogenic GHGs (FAO 2011). Burning fossil fuels, cement produc-
tion, and other activities, elevate CO2 levels, which reduce the CO2 absorbed by trees.
In addition, human activities related to farming using nitrogen fertilizers, raising live-
stock, paddy rice cultivation, landfill disposal and natural gas use, increase concen-
trations of nitrous oxide (N2 O) and methane (CH4 ) in the atmosphere, making a
substantial contribution to climate change (Fakana 2020).
Forests are well-known for their ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmo-
sphere and convert it via photosynthesis into biomass, thereby acting as CO2 sinks in a
natural state (Fakana 2020). This process significantly contributes to the regulation of
air and surface temperatures (Haghipour and Burg 2014; Güçlü 2014; IPCC 2019).
The various forms of deforestation release the accumulated carbon dioxide stock
into the atmosphere (Tahir et al. 2011; Ellison 2018). Periods of catastrophic rainfall
followed by prolonged periods of drought have resulted from the disappearance of
forest cover (Strasser et al. 2014).
Many other industrial and agricultural processes emit pollutants (other than
GHGs) that generate aerosols including black carbon particles, which can induce
either a warming or cooling effect (Melillo et al. 2014; Sims et al. 2015; IPCC 2019).
Furthermore, fluorinated gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlo-
rofluorocarbons (HCFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 ),
commonly employed in refrigerants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents,
pesticides, and aerosol propellants, possess extended atmospheric lifetimes and
impact the climate for several decades (Stocker et al. 2014).
Alongside the anthropogenic activities that are driving climate change, there are a
number of major natural factors that influence the climate system, notably variability
in solar intensity, volcanic activity, circulation of ocean currents, orbital changes
(Milankovitch cycles), melting glaciers and rising sea levels, in addition to natural
greenhouse gas emissions (Stocker et al. 2014).
Future Climate Scenarios
The climate modeling community has offered various time-dependent scenarios for
climate change, forming the foundation for the majority of future projections in
IPCC assessment reports. These standardized scenario sets have undergone evolution
with each new generation, as the initial SA90 scenarios were replaced by the IS92
emissions scenarios of the 1990s, which were then succeeded by the Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios (SRES) in 2000 and the Representative Concentration Pathways
(RCP) in 2010 (Leggett et al. 1992; Nakicenovic et al. 2000; Moss et al. 2010).
The first scenarios namely; SA90, IS92 and SRES are all emission-based
scenarios. They start with a set of assumptions based initially on demographic
projections. In SRES, they are much more refined, providing a consistent pattern
of demographics, international trade, information and technology flows, and other
social, technological and economic characteristics of future worlds. Multiple inte-
grated assessment models (IAMs) were used for the SRES, resulting in multiple
emissions patterns corresponding to each scenario. However, one scenario for each
scheme was chosen as representative “marker” scenario to be used as input to the
global models in order to derive the resulting atmospheric concentrations, radiative
forcing, and climate change. Thus, the following scenarios could be distinguished:
A1FI (fossil fuel intensive), A2 (medium high), B2 (medium low), and B1 (low).
In contrast, RCPs, the most recent set of time-dependent scenarios, is the result
of more than two decades of scenario development, and differ from previous stan-
dard scenario sets in at least four key respects. Firstly, RCPs are radiative forcing
scenarios, and not emission scenarios. Radiative forcing quantifies the additional
heat retained by the lower atmosphere due to the increased presence of greenhouse
gases, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ) (Jubb et al. 2013). Each RCP
scenario is based on four distinct assumptions about the amount of greenhouse gases
expected between 2000 and 2100, giving a likely climate variant related to the chosen
emission levels considered as a working hypothesis. The four scenarios are assigned
a number according to the change in radiative forcing by the year 2100 compared
with pre-industrial levels: RCP 2.6 corresponds to a forcing of + 2.6 W/m2 , RCP 4.5
to + 4.5 W/m2 , and similarly for RCP 6 and RCP 8.5. A higher numerical value indi-
cates a greater amount of energy gained by the Earth-atmosphere system, resulting
in more significant warming (van Vuuren et al. 2011; Thomson et al. 2011; Masui
et al. 2011; Riahi et al. 2011). The second difference lies in n the fact that, from these
radiative forcing values, MAIs are applied in a reverse process to generate a spectrum
of emission trajectories and their corresponding technology policies and strategies
for each RCP that would have the same final impact on radiative forcing (Cubasch
et al. 2013). Thirdly, the PCRs stand out from previous scenarios by incorporating
explicit climate policies (for PCR 2.6, PCR 4.5 and PCR 6.0) to limit climate forcing.
RCP 8.5 is a scenario in which CO2 and CH4 emissions persistently increase, despite
a significant reduction in emission growth rates in the second half of the century.
Atmospheric CO2 levels in RCP 8.5 are projected to reach 936 ppm by the end of the
century, surpassing 1200 ppm by 2100. Global temperature is projected to rise by
3–5.5 °C in 2100 compared to the 1986–2005 average. In contrast, the RCP 4.5 and
RCP 2.6 scenarios keep atmospheric CO2 levels below 550 and 450 ppm by 2100
respectively (Collins et al. 2013; Melillo et al. 2014). Fourthly, a variety of socio-
economic scenarios were developed independently of the RCPs. A subset of these
scenarios has been constrained using emission limitation policies consistent with their
underlying storylines, thus forming Shared Socio-Economic Pathways (SSPs) with
climate forcing corresponding to RCP values. This combination of SSPs and RCPs
is designed to meet the needs of communities responsible for impacts, adaptation
and vulnerability (O’Neill et al. 2014).
As consequences, the environmental abiotic and biotic systems will increasingly
degrade and the socio-economic component will undergo these transformations,
which may cause the scarcity of resources, the upheaval of ecosystems or even
crises and problems of insecurity.
Water Vulnerabilities in the Face of Climate Change: Issues

and Impacts
Water is a primary natural resource crucial to sustaining life. It’s evident that water
has a vital abiotic role in maintaining the health of ecosystems and ensuring human
survival on this planet, because of its importance to people’s lives, agriculture and
production processes (Bayart et al. 2010; Layani et al. 2021). Consequently, its crucial
socio-economic influence profoundly shapes the well-being of human communities.
Many published investigations have revealed that all sectors of water, whether
direct or otherwise, are experiencing the effects of climate change, in particular
agriculture, hydropower, the economy, industry, tourism, biodiversity, food security,
forestry, health, etc. This confirms the importance of considering water as a crucial
aspect of adapting to climate change (Hall et al. 2015; Watts et al. 2015; Alhassan
2021; Wernberg et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2017; Manes et al. 2021; Abbass et al.
2022).
Given that the repercussions of climate change are mainly water-related
phenomena, notably changes in the severity and occurrence of extreme weather
events, water will be a key factor in adapting to climate change. In fact, such impacts
can be classified into three main categories: water insufficiency (droughts and water
shortages), water excess (floods) and contaminated water (pollution) (Wehrey et al.
2023).
In terms of water-related disasters, floods are ranked the most frequent, accounting
for 47% of all weather catastrophes, affecting 2.3 billion people worldwide. Mean-
while, storms, although occurring less frequently than floods, were responsible for
over 242,000 deaths in the last 21 years, thus being rated the most fatal of all sever
weather-related events. Furthermore, even though low-income countries experience
only 26% of these natural disasters, an estimated 89% of storm-related fatalities
occur within this group of nations (UNISDR 2015; Bhatt et al. 2020).
In addition to these meteorological disasters, there are waves of extreme temper-
atures, mainly heatwaves, which have been particularly deadly (with an average of
405 deaths per disaster). High-income countries rank second, behind lower-middle-
income countries, in terms of the average number of victims per disaster (UNISDR
2015).
On the other hand, climate change-induced warming results in more intense,

widespread and persistent extreme weather events, such as droughts (Meehl et al.
2007; Trenberth 2011; Mukherjee et al. 2018).
Climate change is expected to further exacerbate the pressures on available water
resources posed by population growth, economic drivers and land-use changes. In
fact, water reserves, particularly run-off, are projected to decrease by 10–30% in
certain dry regions as a result of lower precipitation and higher evapotranspira-
tion rates. It is also highly plausible that climate change will significantly reduce
water resources in all semi-arid zones. Such variations in water availability, driven
by climate change, would certainly have adverse consequences for many sectors,
including agriculture, water supply, energy production and health (Raneesh 2014).
Water scarcity is complicated by the deterioration of water quality. Indeed,
2 million tons of wastewater as well as industrial and agricultural waste are discharged
into waterways. A high portion of this wastewater is released untreated into surface
waters (particularly in developing countries), resulting in more than 2 million
deaths annually from diarrheal diseases. Additionally, the World Health Organization
(WHO) reports that over 80% of all diseases are waterborne (WHO 2014).
Taken together, these data emphasize the key role of water as a multi-purpose
resource for human security, environmental sustainability and sustainable develop-
ment.
Climate Change in Morocco
Geographic Location and Climate Characteristics
Morocco lies in the north-western part of the African continent, surrounded by the
Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. Morocco’s climate
varies widely among regions, as it is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and plains to
the west, the Mediterranean Sea and the Rif Mountains to the north, the Atlas Moun-
tains in the central region, plateaus to the east, and the Sahara Desert to the south and
southeast. Consequently, Morocco’s climate is heavily shaped by its topography. In
fact, most of the country, especially along the coast, is subject to the typical Mediter-
ranean climate, marked by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The northern
Mediterranean coastal regions and the southern inland areas are geographically sepa-
rated in the center by the Atlas Mountains, constituting a natural boundary (USAID
2016; Clement et al. 2021; World Bank Group 2021).
The average annual temperature in Morocco is around 17.5 °C, with monthly
fluctuations ranging from 9.4 (December, January) to 26 °C (July, August) (Fig. 1.1).
However, there is considerable seasonal and regional variability. Temperatures along
the coast vary from 18 to 28 °C in summer, and from 8 to 17 °C in winter. Inland,
they can reach up to 35 °C in summer and drop below 0 °C in inland mountain areas.
The southern zone is much more arid, recording an average annual precipitation of
Fig. 1.1 Average monthly temperature and rainfall for Morocco, 1991–2020 (World Bank Group
2021)
100 mm. Whereas nationwide, the average annual precipitation is 318.8 mm, with the
rainy season extending from November to March, and extremely low precipitation
between June and August (Fig. 1.1). The influence of extratropical weather conditions
originating from Europe and the Atlantic Ocean introduces cooler air, resulting in a
reduction in the rainfall gradient from the northern to the southern part of the country,
a phenomenon also influenced by the presence of the Atlas Mountains (Verner et al.
2018; Clement et al. 2021).
Climate Forecasts and Trends in Morocco
Morocco is recognized as one of the main hotspots of climate change due to the
acceleration of global warming, notably because of the increase in average tempera-
tures and decrease in precipitation levels in recent decades. Additionally, the country
experiences noteworthy inter-annual seasonal variations and shifts in precipitation
patterns.
Future Temperature Projections
Temperatures are expected to continue to rise throughout the North African region
according to all emission scenarios. Increase of the average annual temperatures is
projected to range within 1.5 and 3.5 °C of the mid-century horizon, and to exceed
5 °C by the end of the century (Fig. 1.2). Inland areas are expected to experience
heightened warming, particularly with an anticipated increase in the frequency of
“hot days” and “hot nights” (Fig. 1.3). The most substantial rise is projected to occur
during the months of July, August, and September. Concurrently, there is a forecasted
decrease in the occurrence of “cold days” and “cold nights,” with their prevalence
expected to dwindle to approximately 4% of days and nights by the end of the century
(McSweeney et al. 2012).
Fig. 1.2 Projected average temperature for Morocco (reference period, 1986–2005) (World Bank
Group 2021)
Fig. 1.3 Projected change in hot days (TMax > 35 °C) (RCP 8.5, reference period, 1986–2005)
(World Bank Group 2021)
Rising temperatures are also projected to reduce snow cover in the Atlas Moun-
tains, leading to a reduction in the country’s water supply and storage. Heat augmen-
tation and extreme heat conditions will significantly affect human and animal health,
agriculture, ecosystems as well as energy production.
Future Precipitation Projections
Precipitation projections for Morocco are widely divergent; however, scenarios fore-
cast a substantial decrease in average annual precipitation throughout the entire
country, varying from 10–20 to a 30% reduction in the Saharan region. According
to the predictions, the reduction in water resources in Morocco will be due to an
increase in arid periods and droughts (Fig. 1.4). Furthermore, even if precipitation
remains unchanged, the elevated temperatures will lead to an increase in evaporation,
causing a decline in surface soil moisture. Thus, the available irrigation water sourced
from rivers and mountain streams will face escalating challenges, contributing to
pronounced water shortages in the arid southern regions (McSweeney et al. 2012;
World Bank Group 2021).
Fig. 1.4 Projected annual average precipitation in Morocco (reference period, 1986–2005) (World
Bank Group 2021)
Perceived and Potential Effects of Climate Change in Morocco
Water Availability and Supply
Morocco’s water resources are unevenly distributed throughout the country. In fact,
the coastal plains are frequently flooded, while the south experiences water shortages
throughout the year. The availability of renewable water resources per capita has
fallen by around 60% since 1960, as a result of non-climate-related stress drivers
including population growth in the north, irrigation expansion, and urban, industrial
and tourism development. Meanwhile, rising temperatures and irregular rainfall have
reduced river flows and accelerated evaporation and silting of storage dams, causing a
20% reduction in global water resources over the latest 30 years (Verner et al. 2018).
These alterations add complexity to the management of dams and flood control.
Thus, maintaining a steady supply of water to ensure a sustainable socio-economic
development of the country is becoming a long-term concern (WWC 2018).
Drought is a natural recurring phenomenon, and has been experienced over the
years. Nevertheless, current climate change forecasts predict an increase in the
frequency, intensity and duration of droughts, with significant repercussions in the
food, water, energy and health sectors (Godde et al. 2021). Morocco is also subject to
more pronounced hydro-meteorological extremes, with locally more intense precipi-
tation and a higher frequency of intense flooding causing significant economic losses
and property damage. With climate change, demand for irrigation will increase,
consuming around 80–85% of available water, although this will differ depending
on the area and the allocation of irrigation water. Climate change will significantly
alter fertile zones, transforming them from semi-arid to arid and from sub-humid to
semi-arid. These zones, already in decline since the 1970s, are projected to continue
diminishing. The temperature increase has led to water shortages from 2020, espe-
cially in the south, by reducing river flow. Additionally, the reduction of moun-
tain snow cover will increase the flooding risk in October and November, affecting
seasonal water availability. Irregular precipitation and intensification of drought will
accelerate spring thaw, leading to a reduction in snow reserves in plains, an increase
in irrigation demand, and promoting dam siltation due to heavy rainfall and riverbank
erosion (USAID 2016; World Bank Group 2021).
The water storage capacity of all existing dams has exhibited declines, reaching
20% against the period 1970–2005 and a more substantial 35% decrease when
compared with the 1940–1970 timeframe (Aoubouazza et al. 2013). Projections
indicate that the Hassan Addahkhil and Idriss I reservoirs, crucial water sources, are
anticipated to experience reductions ranging from 7 to 40% by the 2080s (Verner
et al. 2018). Presently, 18% of cultivated lands rely on irrigation. Escalating water
stress is bound to result in the excessive exploitation of groundwater resources, a
phenomenon already unfolding in several regions. Another major concern, espe-
cially for water managers and decision-makers, revolves around the depletion of
groundwater reserves. Current estimates indicate an annual extraction of approxi-
mately 5 billion m3 of water, compared with a renewable potential of 4 billion m3
(Hssaisoune et al. 2020). Similarly, Aoubouazza et al. (2013) reported an alarming

drop in piezometric levels in most aquifers; a 40-m decline in the Souss region, a 30-
m drop in the Haouz region, and a substantial 60-m decrease in the Saïss region. This
swift decline in groundwater levels, averaging 1.5 billion m3 annually, is commonly
linked to insufficient groundwater recharge and excessive expansion of agricultural
activities (Bouchaou et al. 2011; Ait Kadi and Ziyad 2018). This excessive utilization
has lowered piezometric levels, diminished spring flows and degraded groundwater
quality due to pollution, whose main sources are agriculture, industry and house-
holds (DRPE 2014; Verner et al. 2018). Moreover, Morocco’s Mediterranean coast
and the Moulouya river delta, both of which are of great economic and ecological
importance, are endangered by rising sea levels and the associated coastal erosion
and saline intrusion (Snoussi et al. 2008; World Bank Group 2021). The deterioration
in water quality is worsened by fluctuations in hydrological regimes, in particular
the reduction in water flows during the dry summer season.
Agriculture and Food Security
Agriculture, the primary source of income for impoverished rural communities, is

the most sensitive socio-economic sector to climate fluctuations (Ortiz-Bobea 2021).
Research confirms that climate change will have adverse implications for agriculture,
thereby placing global food security under serious risk, especially for vulnerable
populations in emerging nations (Ziervogel and Zermoglio 2009; Stocker et al. 2014;
Nelson et al. 2009; USEPA 2017). Certainly, the current and expected fall in annual
precipitation coupled with escalating temperatures and heightened spatiotemporal
irregularities, will intensify water scarcity in numerous warmer regions. This, in
turn, is bound to have a profound impact on agricultural production (Abdelmajid
et al. 2021).
In Morocco, agriculture is also of crucial interest to the economy, food security
and rural livelihoods. It is responsible for 13–14% of the national GDP. As regards
the national food security, agriculture covers a large portion of Moroccans’ food
needs, primarily vegetables, fruits, dairy products and meat. In social terms, agricul-
ture employs nearly 40% of the working population nationwide, and 74% in rural
areas (Ministry of Economy 2019). Nevertheless, this vital socio-economic sector
is facing challenges posed by demographic pressure, erratic rainfall and land degra-
dation (MAFRDWF 2020). Most agricultural production (87%) depends on rainfall
and as a result is vulnerable to increasing variability (Achli et al. 2022). In recent
decades, the consequences of climate change on Morocco’s natural resources have
been felt (Ouraich 2015). Investigations on the impact of climate change on agri-
culture indicate that crops will be especially affected by drought. Cereal production,
for instance, varies from 100 million quintals per year in good rainfall periods to
18 million quintals annually in dry times with respective yields fluctuating between
17 and 4 quintals per ha. In fact, dry periods seem to exert an overriding influence
on the growth phase (Aoubouazza et al. 2013; World Bank Group 2021). Extreme
weather conditions, notably drought, have already caused significant declines in
yields, especially a 70% drop in winter cereal yields for 2016 compared to 2015
(Verner et al. 2018). Projections indicate an increase in crop water requirements (up
to 12%), putting further pressure on limited water resources. The forecast impacts
involve yield reductions of up to 75% due to higher temperatures and lower rain-
fall in dry years. Reduced water availability also affects irrigation, compromising
the viability of irrigated agriculture. Despite a high theoretical allocation of water,
the actual average allocation in recent years was 58% of this amount, highlighting
difficulties in water management in Morocco (USAID 2016). Available data also
suggests that climate change (drought conditions) could lead to disappearance of
certain crops and trees, emergence of new diseases, and disruption of agriculture-
related activities (i.e., livestock breeding and production) (Aoubouazza et al. 2013;
World Bank Group 2021).
To address this alarming situation, Morocco needs to step up its efforts and put
in place a comprehensive and appropriate policy and risk management framework
to mitigate the risks of climate change. This includes establishing mechanisms for
strategic monitoring and financing of adaptation and mitigation measures.
Conclusions
The major challenges posed by climate change increase the urgency of adapta-
tion and vulnerability reduction measures. In Morocco, policies concerning both
sectors—water and agriculture—were initiated many years ago, and are currently
being pursued through the “Water Highway Project”. However, there is a pressing
need to further strengthen national policies and plans aimed to increase the country’s
resilience and adaptability to climate events and disasters. Such improvement
requires measures directed towards preserving productive assets and exploiting the
range of technological innovations. Furthermore, it is essential to set up schemes
that meet both the specific needs of the agricultural sector and socio-economic
developments, in order to ensure social equality and stability.
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Chapter 2
Are the Heat Waves Recorded in Morocco
During the Summer of 2022 Exceptional?
Jaafar El Kassioui and Mohamed Hanchane
Abstract This study deals with the heat waves recorded in June and July 2022 in
Morocco, in comparison with the chosen reference period 1980–2019. The objective
of this study is to clarify whether the heat waves of the year are exceptional in
terms of record values, duration and frequency of heat waves in our study area. The
study is based on the daily data of the maximum temperature (Tmax) observed. The
identification of heat waves is based on the criterion that the Tmax exceed the 90th
percentile for at least 3 consecutive days. Our results show that the extreme values
associated with the heat waves of the months of June and July of the year 2022
did not exceed the records of the reference period 1980–2019 for all the stations
analyzed. On the other hand, records for the duration of heat waves exceeded those
of the reference period 1980–2019. In addition, all the stations studied recorded a
large annual number of heat waves and longer durations during the second half of
the reference period.
Keywords Heat wave · Summer · Absolute record · Morocco · June and July 2022
Introduction
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) classified heat waves as

extreme weather events. This phenomenon is expected to increase in the future in
terms of frequency and severity (IPCC 2019). McGregor et al. (2015) defined a heat
wave as “periods of unusually hot dry or hot humid weather that have an insidious
onset and cessation, a duration of at least 23 days with a discernible impact on
human and natural systems as demonstrated clearly by a number of devastating heat
wave events over the last decade”. Studies carried out in different regions of the
world show that heat waves and hottest days become more frequent and intense
(Founda and Santamouris 2017; Kueh et al. 2017; Wie et al. 2021; Awasthi et al.
J. El Kassioui (B) · M. Hanchane

Department of Geography, Laboratory Territory Heritage and History, FLSH Dhar El-Mehraz,
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, 30050 Fez, Morocco

22 J. El Kassioui and M. Hanchane
2022; Founda et al. 2022; Serrano-Notivoli et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022). In this
study, a heat wave is defined when Tmax values exceed the 90th percentile for three
or more consecutive days. This criterion remains the most usable in climate studies
(Tomczyk and Sulikowska 2018).
Overall, the summer months of the year 2022 were marked by a very hot summer
that attracted worldwide attention (Lu et al. 2023). The maximum temperature
(Tmax) was more severe in several climatic regions in the world, including Europe,
North Africa, North America and Southeast Asia (Lu et al. 2023). The abnormality
of the summer 2022 heat waves has led many studies to focus on their analyzes and
explanations (Lu et al. 2023; Jiang et al. 2023; Tobías et al. 2023; Yule et al. 2023;
Zhang et al. 2023). Indeed, summer 2022 Tmax exceeded records in several European
regions (Yule et al. 2023) where at least 15,000 recorded deaths were specifically
caused by this heat wave (Henri and Kluge 2022).
In Morocco, the effect of heat has negatively affected forest ecosystems, water
resources and agricultural production. The results of Lu et al. (2023) show that
Morocco is among the regions that experienced a positive maximum temperature
anomaly during the summer of 2022. If particular weather conditions related to the
hot winds from east (Chergui) are responsible for heat waves, the question is to
know the degree of their exceptionality compared to a reference period. To answer
this question, we use a statistical approach based on the daily Tmax data for the
months of June and July. The objective of the study is to show the location of the
heat waves that Morocco experienced during the months of June and July 2022 in
the context of climate change. Because any increase of the frequency and duration
of the heat waves can cause serious consequences on many living sectors. Including
human health and safety, as demonstrated by numerous studies around the world
(Parente et al. 2018; Cheng et al. 2019; Stillman 2019; Basarin et al. 2020).
The Study Area
The geographical position of Morocco in the North-West of the African continent

(Fig. 2.1) is favorable to the advent of heat waves, especially during the summer
season. Indeed, the geographical position of Morocco makes it under the influence
of the subtropical Azores anticyclone and a warm air ridge at altitude, especially
during the summer. This situation is favorable to the installation of hot meteorolog-
ical conditions which are amplified under the effect of the Saharan depression. In
association with the Azores ridge in the north of the country, the depression directs
hot and dry easterly winds over the country which further increase the Tmax.
2 Are the Heat Waves Recorded in Morocco During the Summer of 2022 … 23
Fig. 2.1 Geographical location of the stations studied
Data
In this study, we used maximum daily temperature (Tmax) data from the National
Department of Meteorology (DNM). These data concern the months of June and
July of the year 2022 relating to ten stations (Table 2.1). In addition, we use the
daily Tmax of a reference period 1980–2019 of the same month (June and July).
The total sample for June and July equals 2440 observations. We have some missing
data which is corrected by the average of the day before and after the missing data
(Table 2.2).
The choice of data is based on the geographical representativeness of three main
factors:
• The latitudinal gradient (North/South);
• The differentiation between the coast and the mainland;
• The altitudinal gradation.
Table 2.1 Geographical position and descriptive statistics of the climatic stations studied for daily
Tmax
Station X (°N) Y (°O) H (m) Mean SD Tmax Tmin 90th
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
Agadir 30.26 − 9.39 18 26.17 3.8 48.5 20.2 29.4
Inzegane
Casa Anfa 33.3 − 7.38 56 25.58 2.5 44.4 19.6 28.1
Fez Sais 33.93 − 4.98 571 33.38 4.87 46.4 16.6 39.8
Ifrane 33.32 − 5.7 1663 28.27 4.6 37.7 8.9 33.4
Laayoune 27.09 − 13.12 63 29.31 3.32 47 22.4 33.2
Marrakech 31.37 −8 464 35.9 4.66 49.6 17.4 42.3
Ouarzazate 30.93 − 6.9 1136 36.99 2.66 42.8 19.7 39.9
Oujda 34.78 − 1.93 465 32.81 4.41 46.2 16.6 38.3
Safi 32.2 − 9.23 43 27.92 4.46 46.5 14.1 33.9
Tanger Aero 35.72 − 5.91 14 28.28 3.92 43.5 18.6 33.7
Table 2.2 The missing days

Station Number of days missing
for daily Tmax during the
months June and July Agadire Inzegane 0
(1980–2019) Casa Anfa 17
Fez 2
Ifrane 0
Laayoune 0
Marrakech 2
Ouarzazate 0
Oujda 0
Safi 2
Tangier Airo 5
Method
In this study, we defined heat waves when Tmax exceeds the 90th percentile for at
least three consecutive days (Perkins 2015; Zhang et al. 2005). The use of the 90th
allows us to have a high number of heat waves (Perkins and Alexander 2013).
The availability of daily Tmax for a reference period 1980–2019 made it possible
to calculate the climate indices recommended by “the team of experts on the sectoral
climate index (ET-SCI: https://climpact-sci.org/indexes/)” using the Climpact appli-
cation which is developed in R. The indices used are Tx50 and Tx90 which correspond
to days where the percentage of Tmax above the 50th median and the 90th percentile
successively (Peterson et al. 2001; Nairn and Fawcett 2011). These indices were
calculated for the summer season (JJA) and the annual average. The time series of
both indices were used to analyze their trends. So, if there is an upward trend for
these two indicators, it is likely that heat waves will become more pronounced over
time. Indeed, we rely on all the summer months in order to also know the seasonal
variation days greater than or equal to Tx50 and Tx90 for the Tmax, especially since
the summer season tends to increase more than the season winter (Born et al. 2008),
and we compare this season (JJA) with the annual evolution in order to know its
weight.
Afterwards, we analyzed the heat waves for the months of June and July 2022
by comparing them to the reference period 1980–2019 for the same months (June
and July). This comparison concerned the duration and the overtaking of the record
values. For example, the Fez station recorded the maximum duration of the reference
heatwave, which lasted 8 days (between July 11 and 18, 2017), while the maximum
heatwave duration was recorded in the current period, which lasted 10 days (between
July 8 and 17, 2022).
First, we extract all days exceeding the 90th threshold (Table 2.1) from the total
number of observations of 2440 days at each station for the reference period of June
and July (1980–2019) for the daily maximum temperature. Second, we only retain
observations that occupy at least three consecutive days greater than or equal to the
90th. Finally, we extract the heat waves for the months of June and July 2022 from
this reference threshold, that is to say they are here applied to 61 observations at each
station.
Results and Discussion
Trend of the Two Indices Tx50 and Tx90
In this first step, we studied the trends of two climatic indices Tx50 and Tx90 which
are calculated from daily maximum temperature data based on the Climpact computer
application. After determining the two indices, the calculation of trends is based on
the slope estimator of Theil-Sen (Sen 1968). This nonparametric method of trend
estimation is robust to outliers and nonnormality based on Kendall’s rank correlation
(Winslow et al. 2015).
The results obtained show a trend towards an increase in the two indices Tx50
and Tx90 in all the stations studied (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3). The tendencies towards the
increase of the summer season are stronger compared to the annual scale, which
means that this season is among the seasons which evolve towards the increase more
strongly than the other seasons.
During the summer, the rate of increase in the number of hot days exceeding
the 50th per decade records its minimum at the Tangier-Airo station (4.29 days per
10 years) and its maximum at the Ouarzazate station (12.73 days per 10 years). Also,
on an annual scale, the rate of increase in the number of hot days that exceeds the
50th per decade recorded its minimum at the Ifrane station (3.2 days per 10 years)
Fig. 2.2 The rate of increase in hot days per decade according to the Tx50th index (orange color
shows the annual scale, red color shows the summer season (JJA))
and its maximum at the Casa-Anfa station (7.86 days per 10 years). As for the rate
of increase in the number of hot days exceeding the 90th per decade, it is moving
upwards at a slower pace. Indeed, during the summer season, the minimum rate is
recorded at the Safi station (1.29 days per 10 years) and the maximum rate is recorded
at the Ouarzazate station (6.13 days per 10 years). Furthermore, on an annual scale,
the minimum rate is recorded at the Casa Anfa station (0.98 days per 10 years) and
the maximum rate is recorded at the Ouarzazate station (4.08 days per 10 years).
Thus, it emerges from the results associated with the two deciles that the sub-desert
regions (ex. Ouarzazate) experience a higher trend towards an increase in hot days
than that recorded in the coastal resorts (ex. Tangier and Safi) or in the mountains (ex.
Ifrane). However, the greater metropolis of Casablanca records the highest maximum
increase for the 50th decile.
Fig. 2.3 The rate of increase in hot days per decade according to the Tx90th index (orange color
shows the annual scale, red color shows the summer season (JJA))
These results suggest that the increase in hot days could have an impact on the
overcoming of the record daily maximum temperatures. To examine this hypothesis,
we study in the following approach the absolute records of Tmax and the advent of
heat waves based on data from the reference period 1980–2019 in comparison with
the records of June and July 2022.
Absolute Maximum Temperature Records
The absolute records for maximum temperature were extracted from daily temper-
atures for the reference period 1980–2019. These reference record values were
compared with the maximum daily temperatures recorded during the months of
June and July of the year 2022, during which the country experienced heat waves
over the majority of its territory. According to the results obtained, we observe that
the record reference values were not exceeded during the months of summer 2022
(Fig. 2.4). However, all stations recorded their maximum record values during the last
two decades of the period 1980–2019. This may confirm the trend of increasing hot
days observed in the previous section, because there is an increase in the chance of
values exceeding the 90th in two ways: first, hot days can last much longer; secondly
the increase in these hot days can contain extreme or even record values. Neverthe-
less, the criteria relating to the number of hot days and record temperatures do not
express the occurrence of heat waves that we will develop in the next section.
Fig. 2.4 The absolute maximum values (the red color is the reference value of the base period
1980–2019; the orange color represents the current value of June and July 2022)
Heat Waves in Morocco
The Maximum Annual Number of Heat Waves
The maximum annual number of heat waves recorded during the reference period
and the months of June and July 2022 show that four stations among all the stations
studied recorded the same number calculated during the reference period (Fig. 2.5);
these are the Tangier-Airo, Fez, Oujda and Marrakech station. This maximum annual
number increased during the second decade of the 1980–2019 reference period.
Fig. 2.5 The maximum annual number of heatwaves during the reference period (red color) in
comparison with the record for the months of June and July 2022 (orange). The indication of two
dates for the same station indicates that the maximum number recorded in the reference period and
in the months of June and July 2022
The Longest Maximum Duration of Heat Waves
The longest maximum duration of heat waves recorded in June and July 2022
exceeded the reference period in two out of 10 stations (Fig. 2.6). These are Casa-
Anfa and Fez stations. The highest record was recorded at the Fez station during
the summer of 2022 with a duration of 10 days compared to 8 during the reference
period. For Casa-Anfa, this record went from 6 to 8 days.
The results confirm the increase in maximum temperatures over the last decades
in Morocco (Khomsi et al. 2015; Filahi et al. 2016; Kamal et al. 2018; Driouech
et al. 2020; Hadri et al. 2021; Zittis et al. 2021; Balhane et al. 2022; Hammoudy et al.
Fig. 2.6 Comparison of the longest heat wave duration recorded during the reference period 1980–
2019 (red color) with the longest heat wave during June and July 2022 (orange color). Years indicate
referential or current records. The indication of two dates for the same station indicates that the
maximum duration recorded in the reference period and in the months June and July 2022
2022). This increase stipulates an increase in the frequency of heat waves as well as
an increase in their duration.
Conclusions
In recent years, Morocco, as for all Mediterranean countries, has experienced more
and more the passage of summer heat waves which constitute a threat to water
resources and human health. The summer of 2022 was marked by a repetitive passage
of heat waves which were widely publicized. They were considered exceptional and
attributed to climatic changes due to global warming.
This meteorological situation in the summer of 2022 led us to verify the exception-
ality of heat waves by comparing them with a climatic reference period of 1980–2019.
This is the only approach that allows us to verify the exceptionality of heat waves.
To do this, a heat wave was defined when daily maximum temperatures exceed the
90th percentile for 3 consecutive days.
In a second step, the results of this study show that the assertion relating to the
exceptionality of the heat waves of summer 2022 in comparison with the reference
period is not fully verified. Indeed, the maximum temperatures and extreme values
recorded during the heat waves of summer 2022 did not exceed the record values
recorded during the reference climatic period. Thus, the extreme temperatures of
summer 2022 cannot be considered exceptional. On the other hand, we have observed,
for certain stations, during the summer of 2022, the increase in duration and number
of heat waves.
The trend towards an increasingly hot summer with more frequent and longer
duration heat waves could be the most dominant weather pattern over the next few
years. It would be associated with a positive trend of hot and dry circulation types
of Saharan origin. To validate this last hypothesis, we will address in our next work
the link between heat waves and the types of atmospheric circulation.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank all officials of the Moroccan National Meteorological
Directorate for their assistance in obtaining the approved data for this study.
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Chapter 3
Climate Change Projection
and Numerical Climate Modeling
in the Rheris Watershed (Region Draa
Tafilalet—Morocco)
Abdelmoumen Benchattou and Mohamed El Ghachi
Abstract Climate change is a widely recognized reality today in the scientific

community. During the three decades, scientific researchers in Morocco spoke of
climate variability, since the Rio Summit in 1992, we speak rather of climate change.
This subject, of a transversal nature, interests many actors, coming from several
climatological, economic, political, sociological fields, … Each discipline has its
own visions, objectives, means, problems etc. … In the context of climate change,
the Moroccan climate is characterized by a strong spatial and temporal irregularity.
The Rheris basin is located in the South-East of Morocco, it covers an area of
12,702 km2 , it is characterized by a semi-arid climate. At the level of the watershed
of the wadi Rheris, this climatic irregularity favors the occurrence of hydrological
extremes (floods and floods), these hydrological risks have constituted in recent years
a major risk in our study area. This scientific contribution has allowed us to focus
on the recent, current and future climate of the Rheris watershed, based on opti-
mistic and pessimistic scenarios of GEIEC to make the projection of future climate
scenarios of the Rheris watershed and its impact on the occurrence of floods, which
cause each time material damage and sometimes human losses.
Keywords Climate change · Rheris watershed · Climate variability ·

Hydrological risks · Impacts
A. Benchattou (B) · M. El Ghachi

Laboratory for Landscape, Risk and Heritage Dynamics, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Sultan
Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco

36 A. Benchattou and M. El Ghachi
Introduction
In recent decades climate change has become a major issue in the modern world,
climate change is a natural phenomenon, but can sometimes lead to dramatic conse-
quences in some regions of the planet. Since the early 1980s, the southern Mediter-
ranean region has experienced a series of dry years (Pachauri and Reisinger 2007).
The southern and eastern Mediterranean countries are particularly vulnerable to
climate variability because they are exposed to accelerated desertification, soil aridity
and water scarcity in a context of population growth and increasing water demand.
Due to its geographical position, Morocco has not escaped global climate change.
It has an arid to semi-arid climate with a strong Mediterranean influence, which
may be linked to local effects, a general trend, or in relation to broader phenomena
(Study program “Climate change: impacts on Morocco and global adaptation options:
2019”). It is located in one of the regions where the impacts of climate change
would be marked due to the amplification and increase in the frequency of extreme
phenomena (floods). The Rheris basin is located in the South-East of Morocco, it
covers an area of 12,702 km2 , it is characterized by a semi-arid climate. The interest
in doing climate modeling in the Rheris watershed which is located in the South-East
of Morocco in particular is undoubtedly related to the great importance of climate
variability in the study area. Despite the arid and Saharan climate of the study area,
the latter remains one of the regions of Morocco that experience floods and floods
sometimes very devastating causing very costly damage, these hydrological extremes
are generally due to heavy rains generalized that it is of short or long duration, the
majority of floods occur in summer and autumn, This scientific contribution has
allowed us to focus on the recent, current and future climate of the Rheris watershed,
based on optimistic and pessimistic scenarios of GEIEC to make the projection of
future climate scenarios of the Rheris watershed and its impact on the occurrence of
floods, which cause each time material damage and sometimes human losses, and a
feeling of insecurity among residents and tourists.
Materials and Methods
Presentation of the Study Area
The Rheris basin is part of the action area of the agency of the hydraulic basin of
Oueds Guir-Ziz-Rheris (ABHGZR), it is located in the South-East of Morocco, it
extends over an area of 12,702 km2 the Rheris basin is limited to the North and
East by the Ziz basin, to the North-West by the Oum-Rbia basin, to the West by the
Draa basin and to the South by the Maider basin. The geology of the basin consists
of Paleozoic (sandstone, quartzite and shale), Jurassic (predominantly limestone),
Cretaceous (mainly limestone and sandstone) and plio-quaternary (alluvium, silt
and dune sand). The climatic context is semi-arid, rainfall and temperature show
3 Climate Change Projection and Numerical Climate Modeling … 37
Fig. 3.1 Geographical location of the Rheris basin
irregularities in space and time, the study basin is characterized by rainfall concen-
trated in time and space, which favors the occurrence of floods and the damaging
floods in the area (Fig. 3.1).
Methods and Data
According to the climate databases, the curve of the average temperature of the planet
shows an increase in temperature, which gives a warming of the planet, and if we
want to understand this curve and to interpret it, we need a climate model. In this
scientific contribution, we used a climate model, which allowed us to focus on the
recent, current and future climate of the Rheris watershed, based on optimistic and
pessimistic scenarios of GEIEC to make the projection of future climate scenarios
of the Rheris watershed and its impact on the occurrence of floods, which cause
each time material damage and sometimes human losses, and a feeling of insecurity
among residents and tourists (Fig. 3.2).
The KNMI Climate Change Atlas is a climate model for statistical analysis of
climate data. It is developed by the Meteorological Institution of the Ministry of
Infrastructure and Environment of the Royal Netherlands and contains more than
10 TB of climate data and dozens of analysis tools. It is part of the WMO Regional
Climate Center at KNMI. Regarding the observed data used, a large part of the
observation data is updated monthly, a part of the daily data is updated daily. Other
data are updated as needed.
Fig. 3.2 Climate change scenarios (GEIEC)
The KNMI Climate Change Atlas model has developed four new scenarios for
future climate change in the Netherlands around 2050 and 2085. The KNMI’14
climate scenarios provide a consistent picture of changes in 12 climate variables,
including temperature, precipitation and sea level. Each scenario has a different
storyline, depending for example on the amount of CO2 emission. The four KNMI
scenarios differ in the amount of global warming (moderate or warm) or possible
changes in the air circulation pattern (low or high) (Fig. 3.3).
The KNMI’14 climate scenarios form the boundaries of likely future climate
change. The scenarios will be used to map the impacts of climate change in order to
assess the importance and urgency of climate adaptation measures. In this way,
KNMI’14 climate scenarios help to make decisions for a safe and sustainable
environment.
Fig. 3.3 The KNMI model interface and its different scenarios
Global Numerical Temperature Modelling on the AR5 CMIP5

Subset Model
According to the AR5 CMIP5 subset model, in all cases the planet will experience
a warming in the future, all scenarios whether optimistic or pessimistic indicate that
there is an increase in temperature, which will disrupt the climate system of the world
and also will accelerate the appearance of a set of hydrological extremes (drought
and floods) (Fig. 3.4).
Numerical Modeling of the Climatic Situation of Morocco on the AR5

CMIP5 Subset Model
As a North African country located between two climatic zones, temperate in

the North and tropical in the South, Morocco is characterized by four types of
climate: humid, sub-humid, semi-arid and arid. The data measured during the last
decades attest to the progression of the semi-arid climate towards the north of the
country. Climate projections for Morocco foresee a worsening of the climatic situ-
ation throughout the twenty-first century, as shown in Fig. 3.5 of temperature and
precipitation compared to those of the period 1986–2020.
Fig. 3.4 Global numerical temperature modeling on the AR5 CMIP5 subset model
Fig. 3.5 Numerical modeling of the climate situation in Morocco on the AR5 CMIP5 subset model
Numerical Temperature Modeling of the Rheris Watershed

on the AR5 CMIP5 Subset Model and on the SSP370 Model
CNRM-CM6-1 Scenario
The Rheris watershed is located in the South-East of Morocco, it is characterized by

a semi-arid climate. In the context of climate change, this watershed is experiencing
a climatic disturbance, according to the AR5 CMIP5 subset model, in all cases the
Rheris watershed will experience a warming in the future, all scenarios, whether
optimistic or pessimistic, indicate that there is a temperature increase (Fig. 3.6).
Numerical Modeling of Precipitation in the Rheris Watershed

on the AR5 CMIP5 Subset Model and on the SSP370 Model
CNRM-CM6-1 Scenario
Regarding the projection of precipitation in our watershed, the AR5 CMIP5 subset
model indicates that there is a decrease in precipitation in the future (2100) (Fig. 3.7).
According to the figures representing the spatial and temporal variation of rainfall
in relation to the flows of the wadis of Rheris, we can observe that during the last
years there is a decrease in rainfall and also we can observe that the majority of
rainfall is summer rainfall in the form of thunderstorms, this type of rainfall that
favors the appearance of floods and floods that cause each time material damage and
sometimes human.
Fig. 3.6 Numerical temperature modeling of the Rheris watershed on the AR5 CMIP5 subset
model and on the SSP370 Scenario CNRM-CM6-1
Potential Impacts of Climate Change in the Rheris Watershed
In the context of climate change and its impacts on the hydro-climatic system in the
study area; during the last years the watershed of Rheris has experienced a climatic
disruption, this climatic disruption represented in the form of rainfall concentrated
in time and space, which directly promotes the occurrence of floods damaging, and
an increase in temperature, Fig. 3.8 represent the temporal variability of rainfall in
relation to the flows of wadis.
According to the figures representing the space–time variation of rainfall in rela-
tion to the flow of wadis of Rheris, we observe that during the last years there is a
decrease in rainfall and also we note that the majority of precipitation are summer
precipitation in the form of stormy rainfall, This type of precipitation favors the
Fig. 3.7 Numerical modelling of precipitation in the Rheris watershed on the AR5 CMIP5 subset
model and on the SSP370 model CNRM-CM6-1 scenario
appearance of floods and floods that cause each time material damage and some-
times human, in addition we find that the watershed of Rheris has experienced a
climatic disturbance during the last years this area has a semi-arid climatic character
knows snowy precipitation, as they shown in Fig. 3.9.
Analyse de relation pluie/débit de la station Lhmida Analyse de relation pluie/débit de la station Ait Bouijane
1000 0,0
2500 0,0
900 10,0
10,0
2000 800 20,0
20,0
700
30,0 30,0
1500 600
40,0 40,0
50,0
500
1000 50,0
60,0 400
60,0
70,0 300
500
200 70,0
80,0
0 90,0 100 80,0
1976/1977
1978/1979
1980/1981
1982/1983
1984/1985
1986/1987
1988/1989
1990/1991
1992/1993
1994/1995
1996/1997
1998/1999
2000/2001
2002/2003
2004/2005
2006/2007
2008/2009
2010/2011
2012/2013
2014/2015
2016/2017
2018/2019
0 90,0
P en mm Q en l/s P en mm Q en l/s
Analyse de relation pluie/débit de la station Tadighoust Analyse de relation pluies/débits de la station Merroutecha
2500 0,0
1000 0,0
900 10,0
800 10,0 2000
700 20,0 20,0
600 1500
500 30,0 30,0
400
40,0 1000
300 40,0
200 50,0
100 500
50,0
0 60,0
0 60,0
Q en l/s P en mm P en mm Q en l/s
Fig. 3.8 Analysis of rainfall-flow relationship of the stations used
Fig. 3.9 Photo plate of the fieldwork 27/01/2022 in the upstream part of the Rheris BV
Conclusion
During the three decades, scientific researchers in Morocco were talking about
climate variability, especially that of precipitation, in this scientific work we worked
on the projection of climate change and numerical modeling of climate in the water-
shed of Rheris. In this study, the projections of climate variables (temperature and
precipitation) were examined for the year 2100. All projections show an increase in
temperature and decrease in precipitation in the study basin. The watershed of Rheris
is already known a climatic disturbance, according to the analysis of the climatic data
of the basin of Rheris, we noticed that our zone of study knew during the last years
of the pluviometric precipitations concentrated in the time and in the space, this
irregularity favors to the appearance of the hydrological extremes (the highs and the
floods), these hydrological risks constituted a major risk for the national territory
Especially for areas located at the foot of the mountain as the case of the basin of
Rheris, the study basin is characterized by a very significant variability in rainfall,
which negatively influences the operation of the wadi Rheris that can result in prop-
erty damage and sometimes human losses, and cause a feeling of insecurity among
residents and tourists.
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Part II
Climate Change Effects on Ecosystems
and Water Resources: Politics
of Adaptation
Chapter 4
Genetic Control of Bactrocera oleae
Gmelin (Diptera: Tephritidae)
for Climate Change Mitigation
Tariq Nacimi, Driss Hmouni, and Yamna Ouguas
Abstract The olive tree (Olea europaea) is a highly prized resource in the Mediter-
ranean basin due to its significant economic role. However, the olive tree is susceptible
to various pests, which can exacerbate the effects of climate change. One major pest
is the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae Gmelin (Diptera; Tephritidae), which inflicts signifi-
cant damage on olive orchards by directly feeding on the drupes of the olives, leading
to considerable yield reductions. Several control measures have been attempted to
combat this pest, but some of these methods have limitations and can even have
adverse effects on the environment and human health. Genetic control, based on
the genetic resistance of olive cultivars, is considered an effective and environmen-
tally friendly approach to combat B. oleae. In this study, we provide a description
of the olive fly, including its distribution and life cycle, as well as an overview of
the techniques used to control this pest. Furthermore, we delve into the topic of
genetic control by presenting relevant studies conducted in this field. We discuss the
factors involved in genetic control and the parameters used to determine the genetic
resistance of olive tree cultivars against B. oleae.
Keywords Bactrocera oleae · Olea europaea · Control technics · Susceptibility ·

Genetic resistance
T. Nacimi (B) · D. Hmouni

Department of Biology, Laboratory of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Faculty
of Sciences of Kenitra, Ibn Tofail University, 133-14000 Kenitra, Morocco
T. Nacimi · Y. Ouguas
Plant Protection Unit, Laboratory of Entomology, Regional Center for Agronomic Research of
Marrakech, National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA), 533-40000 Marrakech, Morocco

48 T. Nacimi et al.
Introduction
With approximately 11.5 million ha of cultivated land worldwide, olive tree, Olea
europaea L., is present in more than 50 countries mainly in the Mediterranean region
(IOC 2022). The Mediterranean basin represents 91.83% of the world’s olive crop
(FAOSTAT 2019). The olive fly, Bactrocera oleae is considered a major pest of olive
in the Mediterranean basin (Alfonso et al. 2014; Garantonakis et al. 2017). Females
lay their eggs in the olive fruit and the emerged larvae feed on the mesocarp of the
fruit (Pavlidi et al. 2017), significantly reducing the olive oil quality by deteriorating
the olives and increasing the acidity of the oil produced (Zygouridis et al. 2009).
The table olives become unpalatable (Daane and Johnson 2010), resulting in severe
economic harm (Ponti et al. 2009). Several means of control have been tried namely,
like the use of traps (Haniotakis 2005), biological control agents (Müller et al. 2019),
sterile insect release (SIT), and chemical control (Vontas et al. 2011). Similarly, other
control methods include the use of cultural practices, such as pruning, fertilization,
plowing, and harvesting in appropriate time periods (Navrozidis et al. 2007), as well
as the use of chemical repellents (Roessler 1989). These methods can contribute to
the reduction of damage produced by the olive fly and to the protection of olive trees
from infestation by this pest. The olive tree has a large varietal diversity, with more
than 1200 cultivars spread around the world (Genç 2016). This high diversity could
be used to select cultivars that show genetic resistance to B. oleae. The preference
of olive flies for oviposition varied among olive cultivars. Studies carried out in
this sense have shown that the susceptibility of certain cultivars is strongly related
to the specific characteristics of the fruits of each cultivar, despite the fact that the
cultivars studied are planted in the same site and under the same climatic conditions.
Therefore, the evaluation of genetic resistance could exploit for the selection of olive
cultivars less susceptible to the olive fly.
Overview of the Olive Fly (Bactrocera oleae)
The olive fly (B. oleae) is the main olive tree pest in the Mediterranean basin countries,
causing important economic losses by degrading the quality and quantity of the olive
crop.
The olive fly (B. oleae) is a species that belongs to the Brachycera suborder, the
Diptera order, the Tephritoidea superfamily, and the Tephritidae family (Norrbom
et al. 1999). The adult of this small species is about 5 mm long, with a wingspan of
± 10 mm.
4 Genetic Control of Bactrocera oleae Gmelin (Diptera: Tephritidae) … 49
Distribution of B. oleae
B. oleae Gmelin (Diptera: Tephritidae) is an insect found in many regions of the

world. Across the Mediterranean basin, where 90% of the world’s olive-growing
areas are located, the olive fly is widespread in the Middle East, southern Europe
and North Africa, regions in which 90% of the world’s olive-growing areas are
concentrated (Ponti et al. 2009). Similarly, this pest has been encountered in Asia,
California (USA) and Mexico (Zygouridis et al. 2009). While, a study carried out
by Müller et al. (2019) was demonstrated the potential establishment of B. oleae in
olive growing regions where the species is absent.
The Life Cycle of B. oleae
The life cycle of the olive fly passes through four phases of development: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult.
Egg: Adult females of B. oleae lay their eggs (usually only one egg per olive) inside
the olives in the pulp (Fig. 4.1a, b), just under the epicarp, which allows the future
larvae to have immediate access to nourishment after the egg emerges (Neuen-
schwander and Michelakis 1978, 1981). According to Zalom et al. (2009), under
laboratory conditions, a single female can lay between 200 and 500 eggs over her
lifetime, and about 10–40 eggs per day. However, in the wild, a female can lay around
12 eggs per day, and between 200 and 250 eggs over her lifetime (Ahmadi et al. 2018).
Oviposition sites are simple to identify with the naked eye because a brown mark
develops following oviposition (Fig. 4.1d). Olive fly eggs cannot survive at temper-
atures above 30 °C or below 32 °C (Tsitsipis 1977). In ideal circumstances, eggs can
develop inside the mesocarp into larvae in just one day and make the galleries in the
fruit.
Larva: According to their developmental stage, larvae are categorised as L1, L2,
and L3 (Fig. 4.1c). Temperatures for larval development should range from 10 to
32 °C (Tsitsipis 1977). The B. oleae larvae may attain full maturity in 8 days, with an
interval of 8–37 days, while ingesting 45–150 mg of olive pulp under ideal conditions
(Neuenschwander and Michelakis 1979).
Olive fly larvae are monophagous as they feed exclusively on O. europaea species,
on the other hand, adults of B. oleae species are polyphagous as they can use diversi-
fied sources for their nutrition. They obtain their nutrient from fruit exudates (Athar
2005; Ben-Yosef et al. 2014), plant nectar and pollen, bacteria, yeast, and insect
honeydew (Daane and Johnson 2010).
Pupa: It is a transitional stage between the larval and adult state, also the conservation
of the species during unfavorable periods, especially winter (Margier 2012). The pupa
is elliptical, whitish yellow at the beginning of this stage and dark brown at the end
50 T. Nacimi et al.
Fig. 4.1 An adult olive fly undergoing oviposition (a); olive fly egg (b); olive fly larva (c);
oviposition site (d)
of this stage, measuring 5.1 mm in length and 2.1 mm in width (Genç and Nation
2008).
Adult: The adult is 4–5 mm long (same for the male and female). The head is orange
with large blue-green faceted eyes and contains small antennae (Rice 2000). The legs
are orange. The thorax is yellow-red, black-backed with four gray stripes ending in a
yellow to white scutellum with several yellow-white spots on each side of the thorax.
The wings are transparent with a characteristic black spot on the tips of the wings.
The wing veins are slightly darkened.
Female olive flies can be distinguished from males by a dark abdominal base and
the presence of an ovipositor for egg laying (Margier 2012).
Damage Caused by B. oleae
B. oleae is the most damaging pest for olive cultivation in the whole Mediterranean
basin due to the direct destruction of the olive pulp caused by the development of the
larvae, the premature fall of the infested fruits and the general reduction of the quality
of the olive oil, which can lead to a loss of up to 40% of the production (Boccaccio
and Petacchi 2009; Pereira et al. 2004).
Control Techniques Against B. oleae
To control the population of B. oleae and reduce the harmful effect on olive orchards
several measures are used.
Cultivation Practices
The availability of water and the presence of stagnant water in the orchards favor
the survival of the adults of the olive fly, especially during the hot periods of the
year. Therefore, it is necessary to control the leakage of irrigation systems that can
leave abundant water for the adults of this pest. Also, harvesting at the right time
is much recommended to avoid the development of a large population of B. oleae
adults in the orchard, minimizing damage and losses. After harvesting, it is highly
recommended to turn the soil (plowing) in order to eliminate the pupae remaining in
the soil. Also, the correct pruning, the exposure of the tree to the sun and balanced
fertilization are important factors in the reinforcement of the resistance of the trees
against this pest; Post-harvest sanitation plays a major role in the control of B. oleae
to remove any remaining fruit in trees that may be infested and have damage in the
next harvest (Yokoyama 2015). Thus, field cleaning of fallen fruits is necessary to
reduce outbreaks for future generations (Ouguas 2021).
Mass Trapping
According to El-Sayed et al. (2006, 2009), mass trapping has become an alternative
tool to the use of insecticides to control crop pest populations, especially Lepidoptera
and Diptera. Trapping techniques are based on the principle of attracting insect pests
(preferably females) to the devices to remove them from the rest of the population,
either by keeping them in the device or by exposing them to toxic substances (Yasin
et al. 2014). The attractant can be a pheromone or a food attractant with the possi-
bility of adding an insecticide. Indeed, this type of control is considered an effective
alternative in view of its capacity and the low cost they generate (Altolaguirre-Obrero
et al. 2003).
Mass trapping consists of using plastic bottles (of a volume of 1–1.5 l) attached to
the trees at man’s length (preferably one bottle per tree) contain an attractive solution
to the insects, composed of 5% mineral fertilizer (ammonium sulfate or ammonitrate)
at a concentration of 50 g/l, perforated at the level of the upper two thirds by 3–4
holes of 3–5 mm in diameter. This trap should be checked every 10–15 days and
renewed when the water evaporates (Ouguas 2021).
Biological Control of B. oleae
To limit the use of insecticides against the olive fly, the use of biological control is
the most important environmentally friendly alternative (Hladnik 2017). In general,
natural enemies like parasitoids, nematodes, fungus, bacteria, viruses, substances
from a living origin, and other predators are the most often used biocontrol agents
against insect pests (Lacey et al. 2001).
52 T. Nacimi et al.
Parasitoids are biological control agents that are being studied for their important
role in the control of the olive fruit fly. These natural enemies include some arthro-
pods like native ants (Formica aerata) (Orsini et al. 2007), and Psyttalia concolor
(Szépligeti) (Yokoyama et al. 2008).
Studies on fungi and their toxins have revealed a significant role in the management
of olive flies. Konstantopoulou and Mazomenos (2005) demonstrated that fungal
isolates obtained from B. oleae-infested olives showed significant mortality in the
olive fruit fly batches tested. A similar study conducted by Yousef et al. (2013) to
evaluate the effect of the fungus Metarhizium brunneum and its extracts on the olive
fly revealed promoting results in controlling the density of adults of this pest.
Indeed, some vegetable essential oils have repellent capacities against the olive
fruit fly (Giunti et al. 2022), while other essential oils have been shown to attract
and destroy the olive fruit fly (Malheiro et al. 2015a). Similarly, a study published
by Rizzo et al. (2020) showed that the treatment of olive flies with essential oils of
Pimpinella anisum and Trachyspermum ammi caused significant mortality in this
pest.
According to the results of research conducted by Torrini et al. (2017, 2020),
the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacterio-
phora can be a useful tool in the biological control of the olive fruit fly at various stages
of its life cycle. Laboratory testing of olive fruit fly susceptibility to six commercially
available entomopathogenic nematodes showed that S. feltiae potentially suppresses
the third stage of larval development (Sirjani et al. 2009).
Despite the advances achieved in the study of biological control agents, there are
still some barriers to their application in the field these include legal restrictions, the
permissible amount of parasitism in the wild, and the enormous expenses associated
with mass rearing (Ovruski and Schliserman 2012).
Chemical Control of B. oleae
Chemicals remain the most widely used means of controlling crop pests including
fruit flies (Tephritids) (Roessler 1989). Chemical control has been the mainstay of
the management of B. oleae since the middle of the last century. The most widely
used plant protection products are organochlorines (OCLs), organophosphates (OPs),
and carbamates (CARBs), following the more recent introduction of pyrethroids,
spinosad and other compounds (Vontas et al. 2011). The application of insecticides
in olive cultivation against B. oleae shows satisfactory results for farmers, as they
cause significant mortality rates in the populations of this pest. However, excessive
pesticide use can have negative effects on both human health and the environment, as
well as the emergence of cross- and multiple-resistances in populations of the targeted
insects (Sparks and Nauen 2015). The chemicals can negatively impact beneficial
insects (Daane et al. 1990).
Genetic Control of B. oleae
In order to reduce the use of plant protection products and avoid these harmful
impacts on humans and the environment, genetic control is an important tool that
allows both effectively control the olive fly and reduce the damage on crops and the
conservation of the environment and the health of consumers.
Numerous of studies suggest that olive cultivars differ in their susceptibility
to olive fly (Rizzo and Caleca 2006; Daane and Johnson 2010; Malheiro et al.
2018). Indeed, various olive cultivars cultivated in the same region may be more
or less susceptible to the olive fly (Daane and Johnson 2010). Other studies showed
that different cultivars of olives have different oviposition preferences and larval
performance (Gonçalves et al. 2012; Gümusay et al. 1990; Iannotta et al. 2007).
Genetic control may also represent an important tool to control B. oleae (Gmelin).
The objective of this work is to characterize 21 olive cultivars with respect to their
infestation by B. oleae and to discuss the correlation between the parameters involved
in this infestation to contribute to the selection of cultivars that are more resistant to
this pest.
Fields and Samplings
Every 15 days, from mid-July to the end of November, samples of 40 fruits were taken
from two plants per cultivar. For cultivars with low production, only one tree was
sampled. A total of 21 olive cultivars of various origins were sampled; 14 belong to
the experimental area of Tassaout, located 70 km from Marrakech on the road to Fez,
and seven belong to the experimental area of Saada, located 7 km from Marrakech
on the road to Essaouira (Table 4.1). The ripeness index of the olive, the infestation
rate and the intensity of the infestation by B. oleae were evaluated under a binocular
magnifying glass when brought back to the laboratory.
Measured Parameters
The Ripeness Index
We determined the ripeness index or maturity index (IM) based on the assessment of
the coloring of 100 olives taken randomly from each cultivar. These olives have been
split into eight classes ranging from olives with intense green or dark green skin to
olives with black skin and completely dark pulp (Fig. 4.2).
The olives ripeness index (RI) is calculated by the formula bellow:
54 T. Nacimi et al.
Table 4.1 Studied olive

Field Olive cultivars Geographic origin
cultivars and their geographic
origin Saada Picholine Marocaine Morocco
Berri Meslal
Ronde de la Ménara
Meslala
Menara
Haouzia
Tassaout
Mechkat
Dalia
Baraka
Agdal
Tassaout Arbequina Spain
Hojiblanca
Picual
Blanqueta
Morisca
Cornicabra
Manzanilla de la Sevilla
Cerasuola Italy
Pendolino
Koroneiki Greece
Fig. 4.2 Grid for determining the maturity index (IOOC 2007, cited in Ornek et al. 2019)

RI = ni × i/100
(i: the class; ni: the number of olives in the class; RI varies from 0 to 7).
The fruit is classified 0 when the epidermis is intense green; 1 if the epidermis is
yellowish green; 2 if the epidermis shows red colorations on less than half of the fruit;
3 if the epidermis is red or purple on more than half of the fruit; 4 if the epidermis
is black and the pulp is white; 5 if the skin is black and less than half of the pulp
is purple; 6 if the skin is black and more than half of the pulp is purple (without
reaching the stone); 7 if the skin is black and the pulp is completely purple (up to the
olive kernel).
RI = (a × 0) + (b × 1) + (c × 2) + (d × 3) + (e × 4) + (f × 5) + (g × 6) + (h × 7)/n
The letters (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h) represent the number of fruits in each class and
“n” is the number of observed fruits.
The Level of Olive Infestation
The infestation level is the ratio of the infested fruits to the total number of fruits
sampled. We considered an olive infested by the olive fly when it shows feeding
punctures or exit holes.
The Infestation Intensity of the Olives
From the 40 olives sampled from each plant, the average number of bites per olive
was noted to give the infestation intensity.
Statistical Analysis
ANOVA at a significance level of 5% was used to compare the different cultivars

studied with respect to the observed parameters and PCA (Principal Component
Analysis) to characterize and classify the cultivars according to the investigated
parameters. The data were analyzed by the software R.
56 T. Nacimi et al.
Fig. 4.3 Evaluation of the infestation by B. oleae on the olive cultivars of Tassaout field
Cultivars of Tassaout Field
The Level of Infestation by the Olive Fruit Fly
The results from the statistical analyze allowed the formation of five homogeneous
groups. Then, for the olive cultivars of the experimental field of Tassaout, the results
obtained from the statistical analyze concerning the infestation rate by B. oleae
allowed the formation of five homogeneous groups. The same results showed that
the highest infestation rate was recorded in the Meslala cultivar with 6.5, followed
by the Berri Meslal cultivar (4.375) and Manzanilade Sevilla (3.125). An average
infestation rate was registered for the Menara cultivar, Hojiblanca and Ronde de la
Menara whit 3.00, 2.678 and 2.25 respectively. The lowest intensity of infestation
was recorded in Morisca (0.468), Blanqueta (0.625), Cornicabra (0.875), Pical (1.75),
Koroneiki (1.5) and Arbequina (1.25). Among all the cultivars, the Cerasuola cultivar
hasn’t show any infestation (Fig. 4.3).
Infestation Intensity of the Olives
The results showed the presence of a very highly significant difference between the
infestation intensity means of the cultivars studied (p < 1% at 14 degree of freedom).
Then, a highly significant effect of cultivar on infestation intensity (p < 1%). The
Fig. 4.4 Evaluation of the intensity of infestation by B. oleae in the olive cultivars of Tassaout field
Tukey’s test led to the formation of five homogeneous groups: a, ab, abc, bc and c. It
should be noted that the cultivar Arbequina is separated in one group and the other
cultivars in four overlapping groups (Fig. 4.4).
The results obtained showed that the highest infestation intensity was recorded in
the cultivar Meslala (0.93), followed by the cultivar Berri Meslal (0.755), Pendolino
(0.75) and Marocain Picholine (0.74). The lowest infestation intensity was recorded
in the cultivar Blanquita (0.2). The other cultivars had intermediate infestation
intensities.
The Correlation Between the Maturity Index and the Infestation by B.

oleae
Regarding the correlation between the infestation by B. oleae and the ripeness index
of olives of the cultivars studied in the experimental field of Tassaout, the results
obtained revealed that in addition to the cultivar parameter, the stage of ripening
of olives appears as a preponderant factor influencing the laying of olive fly and
therefore the intensity of infestation (Fig. 4.5).
58 T. Nacimi et al.
Fig. 4.5 The correlation between the infestation and the maturity index of olives of the cultivars
studied in the Tassaout field
Cultivars of the Saada Field
Level of Infestation by B. oleae
The results obtained showed that the effect of cultivar was not significant (p > 0.5).
Indeed, these results revealed that the highest infestation rate was recorded in the
cultivar Haouzia (0. 781), then Agdal and Dalia (0.625), Menara (0.50), Mechkat
(0.25), while the lowest infestation rate by B. oleae was recorded in the cultivar
Baraka (0.156) and Tassaout (0.052) (Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.6 The level of infestation by B. oleae on the olive cultivars of Saada field
Fig. 4.7 Intensity of infestation by B. oleae on the olive cultivars of Saada field
Infestation Intensity of the Olive
The results obtained revealed that the highest infestation intensity was recorded in
the Tassaout cultivar (0.2625), then Menara (0.250), Haouzia (0.212), Dalia and
Agdal (0.20), Mechkat (0.10), while the lowest infestation intensity by B. oleae was
recorded in the Baraka cultivar with 0.065 (Fig. 4.7).
The Correlation Between the Maturity Index and the Infestation by B.

oleae
The results obtained revealed a negative correlation in the cultivars studied in the
experimental field of Saada, but it does not seem to be significant; only 32% of all
the cultivars meet this correlation (Fig. 4.8).
Fig. 4.8 The correlation between the infestation and the maturity index of olives of the cultivars
of Saada field
60 T. Nacimi et al.
The results of this study showed that the cultivars tested do not have the same
resistance to the olive fruit fly, despite the fact that the cultivars studied belong to
the same geographical site and are subject to the same environmental conditions.
A study conducted by Malheiro et al. (2018) within an integrated production olive
grove located in Paradela in the Trás-Os Montes region (northeast Portugal) focused
on three of the main cultivars of the Trás-os-Montes region, Cobrançosa, Madural and
Verdeal Transmontana. The results obtained regarding the level of infestation indi-
cated that both cultivars Madural and Verdeal Transmontana are more susceptible to
olive fly infestation than the cultivar Cobrançosa. The results obtained showed signif-
icant differences between the two cultivars Verdeal Transmontana and Cobrançosa,
with an infestation rate of 24.5% observed with the cultivar Verdeal Transmontana,
followed by Madural (16.0%), and finally the cultivar Cobrançosa (8.5%). Similar
results were obtained by Gonçalves et al. (2012) before.
Medjkouh et al. (2018) worked on the susceptibility of olive eight olive cultivars
showed that the Rougette de Mitidja is the cultivar most attacked by the olive fly with
a rate of 65.33%. The cultivars Souidi and Chemlal revealed the lowest percentage
of infestation (21%).
The study conducted by Rizzo and Caleca (2006) during the period 2002–2005 on
18 cultivars from Castelvetrano (province of Trapani, Sicily), revealed that, among
the cultivars tested, Nocellara del Belice was found to be the most susceptible to
olive fly attack. While, Giarraffa and Pizzo di corvo average sensitivity to attacks by
B. oleae. The Minuta cultivar showed the lowest sensitivity.
The maturity index has an important effect on the rate and intensity of olive
fly infestation. Indeed, the colour of the olives is one of the decisive factors in the
oviposition preference of female olive flies (Yokoyama 2012). In general, the olive
fly prefers greener fruits compared to ripe fruits (Katsoyannos and Kouloussis 2001;
Malheiro et al. 2018). According to Vignesh and Chandrasekaran study (2020), fruits
in the transitional stage from worm to yellow color are more attacked by the olive
fly than in other ripening stages. Whereas, dark coloration of ripe fruit could disrupt
drupe recognition by female olive fruit flies, reducing infestation levels in olives that
reach advanced stages of ripening (Iannotta and Scalercio 2012).
Overall, the current study indicates that among the foreign cultivars of the Tassaout
field, a highly significant difference between the average rate of infestation by B.
oleae, and a highly significant effect of cultivar on infestation intensity. Therefore,
a negative correlation between the rate of infestation and the ripening of the olives.
Then, among the foreign cultivars studied, the Spanish cultivar Arbequine and the
Italian cultivar Cerasuola are the least attacked by B. oleae.
Concerning the Moroccan cultivars of the Saada field, the results obtained showed
no significant difference between the cultivars studied regarding the intensity of
infestation by the B. oleae, and a non-significant effect of the cultivar on the intensity
of the infestation. As a consequence, a negative correlation between the parameters
examined, but it seems not significant. Among the Moroccan cultivars, it should be
noted that for this year the Baraka and Mechket cultivars are the least attacked.
Conclusions
The considered study allowed us to classify the olive cultivars of Tassaout and Saada
olive germplasm according to the infestation rate and intensity of olives. Also, the
type of correlations between the rate of infestation and the index of maturity of
olives was brought up in the two sites of the study. This first classification of its
kind constitutes an interesting basis but it will not be able to assess the behavior of
each cultivar with respect to the olive fly. To better characterize this infestation, it
is recommended that the same study be conducted again in 2023 and 2024 to take
into account interannual effects. It is also recommended that this study be extended
to all olive cultivars of the Tassaout germplasm, which includes 591 olive cultivars
of different geographic origins. This ultimate characterization could might be used
in the classification and especially in the selection of additional olive tree genotypes
that are more resistant to the olive fly, which genotypes could be used in a genetic
improvement program through crosses or other selection procedures. Climate change
may be mitigated by increasing the profile of olive fly tolerant cultivars.
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Chapter 5
Climatic Drought in the Hydraulic Basin
of Oum Er Rbia, Morocco (1980–2021):
Statistical and Cartographic Analysis
Meriem Hamid, Jalal Aguerd, and Mohamed El Ghachi
Abstract Droughts have long been a structural feature of Morocco’s climate. Several
sequences of drought have hit the country, with adverse environmental and economic
consequences. Today, Morocco is experiencing the impacts of climate change, gener-
ally manifested in rising temperatures and falling rainfall. Water stress is having a
major impact on its major basins, namely the Oum Er Rbia water basin, which is
a major reservoir of the country’s water resources. The characterization of climatic
drought in this basin, through statistical and cartographic analysis, has shown that the
evolution of rainfall, during the period 1980–1921, went through five distinct phases,
three of which were dry. The severe droughts affecting this basin were recorded during
the periods 1983/84, 1992/95, 1998/01, 2019/21, and have marked the entire basin.
Examination of the drought years reveals a higher frequency of droughts, with signif-
icant spatial extensions. This drought dynamic, particularly that which has marked
the last decade, has adversely affected water resources in the Oum Er Rbia basin,
and contributed to a water supply crisis in several socio-economic sectors.
Keywords Climatic drought · Global warming · Precipitation and hydraulic basin

of Oum Er Rbia
Introduction
Drought refers to a challenge to certain components of the hydrological cycle over

a prolonged period. It is one of the extreme climatic phenomena, affecting more
people than any other form of natural disaster (Wilhite 2000). Drought can take
different forms, namely: hydrological drought, agricultural drought, edaphic drought
and climatic drought. The resulting impacts are often harmful and can be disastrous
at times (Sebbar et al. 2019).
M. Hamid (B) · J. Aguerd · M. El Ghachi

Laboratory Landscape Dynamics, Risks and Heritage, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences,
Beni Mellal, Morocco

66 M. Hamid et al.
Drought was always present in the history of Morocco. Several studies have
revealed that Morocco has often experienced in the past sequences of severe droughts,
which led to famines and epidemics, and marked the Moroccan history by their
disastrous impacts (Stour and Agoumi 2009). In the context of climate change,
climatic drought has taken on an important dimension, linked to the resulting impacts,
particularly in the water resource sector (IPPC 2014, 2022), which is the country’s
productivity engine. Indeed, Morocco is a Mediterranean country, located between
temperate low-pressure systems and the Azores subtropical anticyclone. Its climate
is generally semi-arid. Further to its geographical position, the country is threat-
ened by global warming, characterized by a strong recurrence of extreme weather
phenomena, especially those related to the decrease in rainfall and the increase in
temperature. The recurrence of droughts is then imposed as one of the main climatic
hazards threatening the country, and which puts its population at the exposure of
numerous risks and challenges, related to the water resource sector, and its contri-
bution in the productivity of the economy. The evaluation of drought, must be done
in a permanent way, in order to provide to the decision makers reliable information
allowing to evaluate the impacts of the global warming on the country, and to ensure
a rational management of the water resource.
Within this framework, the present work aims at characterizing the climatic
drought in the hydraulic basin of Oum Er Rbia, during the period (1980–2021). In
fact, Oum Er Rbia is one of the large basins in Morocco. It is known for a long time
by its richness in water resources, playing a very important role in the development
of several socio-economic sectors (Hamid and El Ghachi 2023). The characterization
of drought in this basin has already been the subject of several researches, namely:
Jouilil et al. (2013) and Daki and al. (2016). But their results do not span the last
decade, in which water stress hits the whole basin, and the impacts of global warming
have become more accentuated. In addition, their results do not cover the entire basin,
due to the limited number of stations studied, which does not correspond to the huge
area of the basin.
The present work aims at filling these gaps, based on relatively updated data, going
from 1980 to 2021, and covering the whole basin and also its bordering area. It is
exactly a study aimed at characterizing the climatic drought in the hydraulic basin of
Oum Er Rbia, through a statistical and cartographic analysis, based on the calculation
of the index of standardized rainfall and the exploitation of the IDW method of spatial
interpolation. The aim of this study is to determine the different sequences of climatic
droughts, marking the evolution of rainfall during the period (1980–2021), and to
identify their spatial coverage and their environmental and socio-economic impacts.
5 Climatic Drought in the Hydraulic Basin of Oum Er Rbia, Morocco … 67
Study Area
The Oum-Er-Rbia water basin is located in the heart of Atlantic Morocco, between
31° and 33° north latitude and between 5° and 8° west longitude. It covers an area
of over 48,000 km2 , or 7% of Morocco’s total surface area. This hydraulic basin is
made up of the OER basin, which slopes to the N.W. towards the Atlantic Ocean,
covering an area of 35,000 km2 , and the Atlantic coastal basins to the south-west,
covering an area of 13,070 km2 (Fig. 5.1).
The climate in the basin is arid to semi-arid, with a variety of climatic nuances. It
is moderate in the coastal areas, wet in the highlands and arid to semi-arid in the rest
of the basin (Hamid and El Ghachi 2023). The hydraulic basin of Oum-Er-Rbia basin
is known at the national level by its richness in terms of water resources, whether
surface resources or groundwater. This wealth has contributed to the implementation
of multiple and diversified hydraulic facilities, playing a very important role in the
supply of drinking water for a dozen provinces and also in the supply of water for
various economic sectors.
Fig. 5.1 Localization of the hydraulic basin of Oum Er Rbia

68 M. Hamid et al.
Data and Methods
The data base used in this study comes mainly from three sources: The National
Meteorological Directorate, the Oum Er Rbia Hydraulic Basin Agency (OERHBA)
and the regional offices of agricultural development. It concerns the annual accu-
mulated precipitation of twenty stations, distributed throughout the basin, plus nine
adjacent stations, used in the spatialization of results (Table 5.1 and Fig. 5.2). The
study covers the period from 1980 to 2021. The processing of this database was
carried out by criticizing the data, filling in the gaps and checking the homogeneity,
through the application of the Regional Vector Method.
The study of climatic drought can be approached in different ways, depending on
the temporal and spatial scale targeted, and on the nature of the available data. In
this work, carried out on a medium-term time scale (42 years), and on a basin of a
fairly large area, the analysis of climatic drought was done through the standardized
precipitation index. In fact, this index was developed by McKee et al (1993). It is
used to determine the wet or dry character of a period and to measure meteorological
dryness. It also has advantages in terms of statistical consistency (Soro et al. 2014),
Fig. 5.2 Location of the meteorological stations

Table 5.1 Distribution of meteorological gauging stations in the study area

Station x y Z
Within the basin Al Jadida 209,186 296,874 28
Safi 143,333 198,640 81
Sidi Bennour 222,166 227,298 190
Al Massira 289,700 211,173 260
Ouled Sidi Driss 338,948 192,433 334
Ouaouirnth 344,591 169,896 394
Mechraa Eddahek 395,036 204,809 425
Taghzirt 423,134 206,348 573
Freita 318,284 147,988 575
Sidi Driss 340,944 140,376 660
Brg Ahmed EL 454,197 233,217 670
Bejaad 407,335 241,933 680
Khouribga 353,046 254,051 770
My Youssef 323,312 118,414 860
Taghat 476,192 266,933 880
Tillouguit 422,684 158,733 1103
Ait Segmine 361,144 127,288 961
Tisi Misly 467,872 202,521 1415
Tamchachat 512,398 274,384 1701
Ait Tamlil 356,590 95,220 1766
In the area bordering the basin Ouljat Habboub 420,200 279,300 589
Sidi Mokhfi 507,584 311,639 1075
Amougagh 527,593 157,066 1417
M’Semrir 460,750 111,883 1942
Tabouazant 541,150 217,450 1640
Aguelmame S. Ali 537,800 276,000 2078
Abadla 200,000 129,500 250
Settat 294,952 291,075 377
R’DAT 303,100 117,800 690
and also in terms of relevance of the results to short- and medium-term temporal
scales.
The equation for calculating the SPI is as follows:
Xi − X m
SPI =
σ
Xi Annual cumulative rainfall

70 M. Hamid et al.
Table 5.2 SPI classification

SPI values Category
following McKee et al. (1993)
≥2 Extremely wet
1.5 to 1.99 Severely wet
1 to 1.49 Moderately wet
− 0.99 to 0.99 Near normal
− 1.49 to − 1 Extremely dry
− 1.99.to − 1.5 Severely dry
≤−2 Moderately dry
Xm Interannual average rainfall

σ Standard deviation.
The value of the SPI gives a measure of the severity of a wet or dry event as
summarized in Table 5.2.
The results obtained are presented cartographically, through the application of the
inverse distance weighting (IDW) method. In fact, IDW is a statistical interpolation
method, allowing to estimate the value of a variable in a geographical space, from
the neighboring observations. This method is based on a deterministic approach and
uses mathematical equations to predict the attribute value of a variable at positions
where no sample is available, through the linearly weighted combination of a set of
sample points.
Extraction of Climatic Drought
The first statistical analysis of the SPI results, calculated for each station, shows
that during the period 1980–2021, the Oum Er Rbia basin has recorded a remarkable
recurrence of dry years (Fig. 5.3). The total number of years with negative SPI values
exceeded 21 years at most of the selected stations. This finding indicates that drought
is a recurrent climatic phenomenon in the Oum Er Rbia basin. It is thus a structural
element of the climate in Morocco. In fact, according to several studies, drought
sequences have frequently hit the country for centuries. They have often caused
adverse environmental and socio-economic impacts, namely the droughts of 1509,
1604/1605 and 1944/1945.
The results of the IPS, also identified an alternation of dry and wet sequences. The
main droughts, which hit the whole basin, were recorded during the periods 1983/
84, 1992/95, 1998/01 and 2019/21. These sequences of droughts are also recorded
throughout the country. Several studies conducted, either at the level of the whole
Fig. 5.3 SPI during the period 1980–2021 at the twenty stations located within the OER basin
72 M. Hamid et al.
Fig. 5.4 Categories of

drought during (1980–2021)
country (Benassi 2008; Sebbar 2013) or on other basins (Mehdaoui et al. 2018;
Sebbar et al. 2011), have led to the same results.
Drought Severity
The classification of drought severity according to Mckee’s classification, revealed

that the majority of dry years recorded, during the period (1980–2021), are generally
of moderate drought type (Fig. 5.4). Their number varies between 1 and 8 depending
on the station. Their frequency of occurrence is around 1/9. The number of severe
drought years reaches more than 4 in several, on the other hand, extremely dry years
are not recorded in the period (1980–2021). Severe droughts have mainly marked
the years 1981, 1984, 1994, 1998, 2001, 2017 and 2020.
The frequency of drought occurrence in the Oum Er Rbia basin is characterized
by spatial disparity. Since the number of dry years varies between 4 and 9. The
highest values were recorded at the stations located in the interior of the basin. This
spatial variability is due to the diversity of factors influencing the climate in the basin.
Namely the maritime influence, the continental influence and the effect of altitude.
Identification and Mapping of Drought Phases
Applying the six-year moving average to the SPI results for each station, the study
chronicle was segmented into five fairly distinct phases (Fig. 5.5): two wets, with a
few extremely wet years, and three dry phases.
Phase 1 (1980–1987): This is a dry phase, with negative SPI values throughout the
basin. This phase is marked by a strong recurrence of dry years, especially during
the period (1980–1985);
Fig. 5.5 Mapping the results of the SPI during the five phases
74 M. Hamid et al.
Fig. 5.5 (continued)

Phase 2 (1988–1996): This is a relatively wet phase, extending over a period of

9 years. Its SPI reached 0.32. During this phase, the basin also experienced dry
years, namely: 1992 and 1994/95, but their number remains low compared to the wet
years;
Phase 3 (1997–2005): During this phase, the SPI recorded a negative value of −
0.22, mainly related to the droughts that hit the whole basin in 1998, 2000/2001 and
2004/2005;
Phase 4 (2006–2014): The wet character marked the climate in the Oum Er Rbia
basin during this phase. The SPI indicated positive values throughout the basin, with
higher values corresponding to extremely wet years, especially in the upstream part
of the basin;
Phase 5 (2015–2021): This is a dry phase. The drought has hit the entire basin hard.
The SPI reached − 0.42. This phase is characterized by a remarkable succession of
dry years, persisting until now.
Impacts of Drought in the OER Basin
In the basins, whose climate is arid to semi-arid, the persistence of drought for
some years, negatively affects their natural resources. In the OER basin, drought is
automatically an equivalent to the water challenge, especially in the current situation
76 M. Hamid et al.
marked by global warming and socio-economic changes, causing a demand for water
in continuous growth. Indeed, the Oum Er Rbia basin contains considerable hydraulic
equipment, allowing to store and mobilize very large volumes of water. Nevertheless,
the droughts that have hit its territory in recent years have led to a considerable
decrease in rainfall. Their impact on water resources has been manifested by the
decrease in the flows of permanent rivers and also by the worrying decrease in the
reservoirs of dams. In 2022, the filling rate of dam reservoirs did not exceed an
average of 15% (OERHBA 2022). This decrease in water resources, largely related
to the climatic drought affecting the basin, has contributed to a water supply crisis for
several economic sectors located in the basin. In the agricultural sector, the impacts of
the drought are harmful. They are not limited to the Bour sector, whose production is
necessarily linked to rainfall. The irrigated areas have also suffered from the climatic
drought, because of the combined effects of the drop in rainfall and the level of the
water table and also the suspension of irrigation from the dam.
Conclusion
The characterization of the climatic drought in the Oum Er Rbia basin, through
statistical analysis, based on the calculation of the standardized rainfall index and
cartographic analysis, using the IDW method of spatial interpolation, revealed that
drought is a frequent climatic phenomenon in this basin. The droughts, affecting the
Oum Er Rbia basin, are generally of moderate type. The severe droughts represent
only 24% of the droughts recorded during the period 1980–2021. The results obtained
have also made it possible to locate three drought sequences. The last one persists until
today. The resulting impacts negatively affect the water resource and the economic
activities of the population, especially agriculture. The dynamics of drought recorded
in the Oum Er Rbia basin and the resulting impacts show that the impacts of the
envisaged decrease in precipitation, in the context of global warming, according to
the majority of the scenarios considered, would be negative on the Oum Er Rbia
basin and also on the whole country. The frequency and severity of drought would
increase, and the water supply crisis would worsen. Morocco must focus its efforts,
provided within the framework of adaptation to global warming, on the component
of drought and water resources.
References
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Mehdaoui R, Mili EM, Seghir A (2018) Caractérisation à l’aide du SPI de la Sécheresse climatique
dans le bassin versant de Ziz (Sud-Est, Maroc). Eur Sci J 14(21):177
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Sebbar A, Badri W, Fougrach H, Hsaine M, Saloui A (2011) Étude de la variabilité du régime
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Réactualisation de la carte des précipitations. Doctoral thesis, University Hassan II, Faculty. Sci.
Ben M’sik, Casablanca, 187 p
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de sècheresse météorologique à diverses échelles de temps en climat de type soudanais: cas
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Chapter 6
Analysis of Hydrological Regime
Variability from 1980 to 2014
of the Source of Ain Asserdoune in Beni
Mellal, Morocco
Khouldia Nafia, Mimoun Goumih, and Mohamed El Ghachi
Abstract Water and climate change are regularly cited among the most crises that
humanity will have to face in the coming decades. In fact, the links between the two
issues are so close that we should perhaps see them as a single issue. In Morocco,
in this context of climate change, water resources will be threatened and affected
in many regions, with impacts on all areas of development (access to water, food
security, health, etc.) while risks of water-related disasters will increase. Those who
feel the impacts of these changes the most will be the most vulnerable first. On a
regional scale, the Beni Mellal Atlas is known for its high groundwater potential and
high unit productivity. Considered as the castle of Morocco, it contains a number of
springs that exceed the 54 gauged by the ABHOER (Agence du Bassin Hydraulique
de l’Oued Oum Er-Rbia). The source of Ain Asserdoune is a tourist site located in
the center of Morocco, at the regional level it belongs to the province of Beni Mellal
and at the local level it covers the urban area and part of the municipality of Sidi
Jaber. Its module is of the order of 1 m3 /s, the maximum reaches 1.20 m3 /s. The
minimum is around 0.76 m3 /s (1980–2014). The flows of this source are collected
for the drinking water supply of the urban populations of the city of Beni Mellal,
as well as the irrigation of all the fields which occupy the development basin of the
source. The main objective of this scientific contribution is to relate the impact of
these climate changes on the flows of the source of Ain Asserdoune. To precisely
define the characteristics of the flows of the source of Ain Asserdoune, we calculate
the CMQ (Monthly flow coefficient) of all the chronicle studied (1980–2017) in
order to extract all the information that can inform us about the variability of the
hydrological regimes. Thus, we have made an analysis of all the situations of the
hydrological regimes of the source of Ain Asserdoune.
Keywords Source of Ain Asserdoune (Morocco) · Flows · Hydrological

regimes · Variability · Climate change
K. Nafia (B) · M. Goumih · M. El Ghachi

Department of Geography, Laboratory “Dynamics of Landscapes, Risks and Heritage”, Faculty of
Letters and Human Sciences, Beni Mellal, Morocco

80 K. Nafia et al.
Introduction
Water is a vital natural resource for the survival of humanity and all living species
on earth. As a good of creation, water is for all human beings and their communities.
One of the most readily available materials on its surface and in its interior, as it is of
the most important elements that a person needs in his daily life. Of all the renewable
resources on the planet, fresh water is the most relentless for humanity.
However, it has recently begun to pose serious problems for some regions, partic-
ularly countries with arid and semi-arid climates such as Morocco. It deserves special
attention, since it is very altered and seriously threatened by human activities. Indeed,
population growth accompanied by rapid urbanization causes many disturbances to
natural environments. The sources are complex hydraulic environments, dependent
on many factors (El Ghachi et al. 2011).
In the water sector, officials know that instability and uncertainty are the norm.
What is new is the increase in this level of uncertainty caused by climate change.
Water is at the heart of these changes, as the observations and projections of the main
scientists gathered around the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
demonstrate. The hydrological cycle is affected in all its aspects by climate change:
changes in precipitation patterns, runoff, sea level rise, desertification processes, etc.
In general, disparities in the distribution of water resources will increase: droughts
are expected to be more frequent in already semi-arid and arid regions, while water
availability is expected to increase in the northern latitudes of the planet. These
changes in the water cycle are not without consequences for societies and ecosystems.
Water resources will be threatened and affected in many regions, with impacts on all
areas of development (access to water, food security, health, etc.) while the risks of
water-related disasters will increase. Those who feel the impacts of these changes the
most will be the most vulnerable first (The movement of French NGOs committed
to access to water and sanitation for all, 2014).
In this context, the source of Ain Asserdoune by its geographical location is
subject to a semi-arid climate. This climatic characteristic makes the flow of water
an unstable phenomenon and poorly distributed in both time and space.
First, the hydraulic studies conducted on the source of Ain Asserdoune are surpris-
ingly rare. In addition, from the knowledge of hydrology, our interest will be on how
the source of Ain Asserdoune is functioned. It is also a question of knowing the
way of the hydrological functioning of this resource and the behavior of the flow of
the source, as well as to know quels sont leurs rôles à play accentuating or on the
contrary weakening the hydro-climatic effects of the source of Ain Asserdoune.
The hydrological regime of a watercourse summarizes all its hydrological char-
acteristics and its mode of variation. It is defined by the variations in its flow usually
represented by the graph of the average monthly flow (calculated over several years
and called “inter-monthly” flow or monthly module) (Nafia 2019). The hydrological
regime of the source of Ain Asserdoune, is a characteristic of the Mediterranean type
influenced by karst and by a set of factors, such as relief (altitude, slope …), lithology
(permeable rock, impermeable), and climate (temperature and precipitation). It is also
characterized by the irregularity of the annual and monthly flow.
6 Analysis of Hydrological Regime Variability from 1980 to 2014 … 81
The objective is therefore to study the hydrology of the source of Ain Asserdoune.
As a first step, a historical study of the flows of the source was conducted in order
to understand the annual hydrological regime. Then, a statistical analysis of annual
data made it possible to characterize the regime of the source.
General Characteristics of the Source of Ain Assedoune
Presentation of the City of Beni Mellal
The city of Beni Mellal is located in central Morocco, in the Beni Mellal-Khénifra
region, which contains the Tadla plain (3600 km2 ) in the Oum Er Rbia basin, between
the High Atlas to the south and the phosphate plateau to the north.
The urban area of the city of Beni Mellal is a Moroccan urban area centered on
the commune of Beni Mellal. It is the largest urban area in the Beni Mellal Khénifra
region, both in area and population. The region of Beni Mellal-Khénifra covers an
area of 28,374 km2 or 3.99% of the national territory.
The city of Beni Mellal is the capital of the province of the same name; It falls
under the main economic zone. It is located at the foot of Jbel Tassemit on the
main road linking Fez to Marrakech. It is located 205 km northeast of Marrakech
and 210 km southeast of Casablanca. Its geographical coordinates are: 32°21' North
latitude and 6°23' West latitude. Its administrative boundaries are as follows: to the
north, Ouled Ayiche; to the south, Foum Oudi; to the east, Foum Laancer and to the
west, Ouled M’Barek and Sidi Jaber.
From a topographical point of view, the city of Beni Mellal is characterized by
two essential and distinct elements: (i) To the south: the mountain that dominates
the city, (ii) To the north: the fertile plain with its irrigated land. The urbanization
was contained at the foot of the mountain, there is currently a regeneration of a
Piedmontese urbanization that clings to the mountains, especially in Ourbia, Aït
Tislite and Aïn Al Ghazi (Khouyaha 2015) (Fig. 6.1).
The Components of the Source of Ain Asserdoune
The source of Ain Asserdoune is a tourist site where beautiful nature exhibits its magic
that plunges visitors into the paradisiacal lands. As for the name of this source, it is
linked to an ancestral story very widespread in the circles of the city of Beni Mellal:
a man and a woman who were washing wool on the bank of the Oued Laâbid had
lost a large quantity. One day, when a man visited Beni Mellal, he heard about this
wool coming from the source of Aïn Asserdoune. Driven by curiosity, he tried to
unravel the mystery of this wool from the unknown. Back in his village, he managed
to find the cave through which water infiltrates to finally arrive at the source of Aïn
82 K. Nafia et al.
Fig. 6.1 Location of the planning basin at national, regional, and local level. Source Nafia (2019)
Asserdoune. He was the only man to make this discovery. One day, he closed the
hole through which the water was seeping and noticed that the spring was beginning
to dry up. At that time, he decided to negotiate with the personalities of the city the
return of water to the source. As water is a source of life, it was decided to grant it
a fortune so that the spring would not be dry. The man returned to his village with
large sums of money, which he carried on the back of his mule.
The name “Ain Asserdoune” comes from the fortune that this mule had trans-
ported, the mule in Berber is “Asserdoune”. It was said that after the water returned
to the source of Ain Asserdoune, the man who knew the secret of the cave was killed
so that the secret would be buried forever.
From a hydrological and hydrogeological point of view, the source of Ain Asser-
doune consists of two basins: the catchment area and the development basin or the
drainage basin.
The Supply Basin of the Source of Ain Asserdoune
The catchment area refers to the surface area on which water that infiltrates, or runoffs
feeds the source. The extension of these surfaces is generally larger than that of the
perimeters drained by the source. The catchment area of Ain Asserdoune (Fig. 6.2)
covers an area of 222 km and a perimeter of 70 km (Hakim 1982). The Ain Asser-
doune catchment area is a karst aquifer where water infiltration and karstification are
activated by Atlas tectonics (Tertiary and Quaternary) (Lechhab 1991). It is charac-
terized by the presence of ridges and peaks that reach 2411 m in Ighnayane (Jbel)
and 2248 m in Tacemit (Jbel).
Fig. 6.2 Geology of the Ain Asserdoun catchment area. Source Nafia (2019)
The lines of the ridges are generally straight and in a southwest-northeast direction.
The karst depressions of great dimension are far from the basin of the source in the
regions of Ait Oukabli and Ouaouizaght south of the Atlas of Beni Mellal. This
surface karst allows an accumulation and then an infiltration of the surface water
that feeds the aquifer of the Ain Asserdoune spring. It is separated from the foothills
and the plain by an almost continuous escarpment and cut by the wadis of the Atlas
which gave birth to very steep cluses (Lechhab 1991).
The Development Basin of the Source of Ain Asserdoune
The development basin or water discharge basin is most often the drainage site of
a spring. In general, these spring basins do not have an outlet and their delimitation
depends essentially on the distribution of these spring waters.
The development basin of the source of Ain Asserdoune, covers the urban area
of Beni Mellal and part of the municipality of Sidi Jaber. It is characterized by the
distribution of waters from the spring of Ain Asserdoune according to traditional
customs (Fig. 6.3).
84 K. Nafia et al.
Fig. 6.3 The development basin of the Ain Assedoune spring. Source Nafia (2019)
The Climate Framework of the Ain Assedoune Source
Climate is a determining factor in the hydrological cycle, directing the spatio-

temporal distribution of water resources and influencing its hydrogeological poten-
tial. The geographical position of the source of Ain Asserdoune, gives it a climatic
diversity that varies from a humid climate at the summits of the chain of the Atlas of
Beni Mellal some peaks of the Middle Atlas, (Basin of the supply of the source) to a
Sub-Arid climate in the Dir and the plain below the mountain massifs. Overall, the
dominant climate is continental: intense cold in winter with hot summers with high
temperature between 43 and 49 (Fig. 6.4).
In addition, rainfall levels have low spatial variability and high temporal vari-
ability. There is a succession of well-watered years and dry years. The wettest year
is the one recorded in the Taghzirt station, it is the year 1996 (900 mm). The snow
appears from 900 m altitude, it covers the summits of the Jbel de Ghnim of Jbel
Tasmit. The prevailing wind is the chergui in summer. Average annual temperatures
vary between highs of 40 °C and minimums of 2 °C (Data source: the Oum Er Rabia
hydraulic basin agency).
Fig. 6.4 Annual precipitation of Ait Ouchene, Beni Mellal and Taghzirt stations (1983–2016)
Methodology
To analyze the hydrological behavior of the source of Ain Asserdoune, we will study
the flows for a 34-year chronicle (1980–2014), in order to extract all the information
that can inform us about the modalities of water circulation in the watershed.
To characterize the hydrological regime, hydrological data from the Ain Asser-
doune station were also communicated by the Oum Er Rabia hydraulic basin agency,
the period chosen extends from 1980 to 2014. To make an analysis of the hydrological
regime of the source of Ain Asserdoune.
Results and Discussions
This work first constituted a global approach to monitoring water levels that then
allowed us to analyze the flows of the source of Ain Asserdoune to understand the
hydrological functioning during the period of low and high water.
The hydrological regime of a watercourse summarizes all of its hydrological
characteristics and its mode of variation. It is defined by the average variations of its
flow rate as a function of time.
Classification of Hydrological Regime
The classification of hydrological regimes is based on the one hand on the complexity
of the distribution of flows during the year (average variations during the year of
monthly flow coefficients) and on the other hand on the mode of supply, that is to
say the nature and origin of high water (pluvial, snow or glacial).
86 K. Nafia et al.
Fig. 6.5 Annual flows relative to the average of the Ain Asserdoune station (1980–2014)
The monthly flow coefficient Cm, is the ratio between the average inter-monthly
flow (or monthly module) and the average inter-annual flow (or annual module). It
allows to represent the distribution, in percentage, of monthly debits during the year.
D ébit mensuel moyen

Cm (%) = · 100
Module I nterannuel
The results of the statistical analysis are used to build a scientific confidence rail
for the source of Ain Asserdoune.
Annual Variations in Flows from the Ain Asserdoune Source

(1980–2014)
It is noted that there is an annual irregularity, over a chronicle of 34 years (1980–

2014), the average of the study period is 0.94 m3 /s of which 10 years exceed the
average. Similarly, 24 of these 34 years are so-called “deficit” years (Fig. 6.5).
Maximum Annual Flows
At the annual scale, the maximum heights of flows that characterize the so-called
chronic (1980–2014) (Fig. 6.6.), show that the maximum flows differ from one year
to another and are in the years 1983, 1988, 1996, 2010 and 2013. The maximum
of these flow values reached 1.86 m3 /s recorded in 1983. This value is much higher
than the modulus.
Fig. 6.6 Annual throughput relative to average (1980–2014)
Fig. 6.7 Minimum annual throughput relative to the average (1980–2014)
Minimum Annual Flows
The minimum flow heights (Fig. 6.7) show that the minimum flows differ from year
to year and are in the years 1980, 1992, 1997, 2005, 2011 and 2013. The maximum
of these flow values reaches 0.52 m3 /s recorded in 2002.
Analysis of Flows from the Ain Asserdoune Source on a Monthly Scale
The monthly and seasonal analysis of the flow of the source of Ain Asserdoune,
shows that the average flow knows seasonal variations, even monthly, related to the
88 K. Nafia et al.
Fig. 6.8 Average monthly flow from the Ain Asserdoune source (1971–2011)
irregularity of rainfall according to the seasons and the duration of rainfall. The figure
below shows the average flows for the chronicle (1980–2014) (Fig. 6.8).
The analysis of the graph shows that the maximum average flow was recorded
during the month of February (1.86 m3 /s), then this flow begins to decrease until
it reaches a minimum value in September (0.51 m3 /s). The average flow remains
low between June and October. From this month, it increases to reach an order flow
(0.88 m3 /s) in December.
The Hydrological Regime
The regime of the source of Ain Asserdoune is subdivided into two phases:
• The wet phase starts from October until May.
• The dry phase: starts from June to November.
The flow regime of the source of Ain Asserdoune is subdivided into two phases
(Fig. 6.9):
The high water phase: begins from January to June. It is characterized by more
frequent and intense precipitation, including frequent flow peaks) accompanied
by turbidity.
The low water phase: begins from July to December. It is characterized by a
more or less regular decrease between April July and October, which corresponds
to the approach of seasonal low waters.
The graphs shown in Fig. 6.10 represent all the chronic series years (1980–2014)
to distinguish and conclude the periods of low and high water of the source of Ain
Asserdoune.
Fig. 6.9 Monthly average module for the basin station (1980–2014)
It is observed that there is an irregularity in the figures, the year is divided into
two different parts, the part of high water and that of low water (Fig. 6.11).
The period of high water (January–Jul): during this period the monthly coefficient
of flow varies between 1.03 and 1 in February and 1.20; 1.30 in April in this chronic
series. During each year of this series, the flow varies slightly as shown in the figure.
The period of high water is characterized by a certain constancy and regularity of
flow; the flow increases gradually between February and April and decreases at the
same rate between April and July.
The low water period (July–December): during this period, the monthly flow coef-
ficient generally varies below 1 between 0.89; 0.51. The minimum flow is generally
recorded in November but low flows can drag on some years until January or February
depending on rainfall conditions. During each year of this chronic series the flow
varies very slightly.
Spring in general and April in particular are the times of the floods of Ain Asser-
doune. In general, the flow of Ain Asserdoune reaches its maximum level and varies
slowly during the period of high water.
The period of low water is characterized by a flow that generally tends to decrease.
The low water level of autumn generally ends with a significant increase in flow
between December and February depending on the year.
90 K. Nafia et al.
CMQ 1980 CMQ 1981

1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00
0.00
JAN
FEV
MARS
AVR
MAI
JUIN
JUIL
Aout
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
CMQ 1980 Limite hautes eaux / Basses eaux CMQ 1981 Limite hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 1982 CMQ 1983

2 2.50
1.5 2.00
1.50
1
1.00
0.5 0.50
0 0.00
CMQ 1982 Limite hautes eaux/basses eaux CMQ 1983 Limite de hautes eaux / basses eaux
CMQ 1984 CMQ 1985

2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1984 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ 1985 Limite de hautes eaux/ basses eaux
CMQ 1986 CMQ 1987

2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1986 Limite de hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ 1987 Limite de hautes eaux/basses eaux
CMQ 1988 CMQ 1988

2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1988 Limite hautes eaux/basses eaux CMQ 1988 Limite hautes eaux/basses eaux
Fig. 6.10 The hydrological regime (1989–2014)

CMQ 1989 CMQ1990

2.00 1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1989 Limite hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ1990 Limite hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 1991 CMQ 1992

2.00 2.00
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.00 0.50
0.00
CMQ 1991 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux

CMQ 1993 CMQ 1994
1.60 2.00
1.40
1.20 1.50
1.00
0.80 1.00
0.60
0.40 0.50
0.20
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1993 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ1994 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 1995 CMQ 1996

1.05 2.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.95 0.50
0.90 0.00
CMQ 1995 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ 1996 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 1997 CMQ 1998

2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 1997 Limit des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ 1998 Limit des hautes eaux/Basses eaux

92 K. Nafia et al.
CMQ 1999 CMQ 2000

1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00

CMQ 2001 CMQ 2002

2.00 2.50
1.50 2.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 2003 CMQ 2004

1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 2005 CMQ 2006

2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 2005 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ 2006 Limite des Hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 2007 CMQ 2008

1.50 1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00
CMQ 2008
CMQ 2007 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux

CMQ 2009 CMQ 2010

1.50
1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00
JAN
FEV
MARS
AVR
MAI
JUIN
JUIL
Aout
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
CMQ 2009
CMQ2010 Limite hautes eaux/Basses eaux
Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 2010 CMQ 2012

1.50 2.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
JAN
FEV
MARS
AVR
MAI
JUIN
JUIL
Aout
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
CMQ2011 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux CMQ2012 Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux
CMQ 2013 CMQ 2014

1.50 1.50
1.00 1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
CMQ 2013 CMQ 2014

Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux Limite des hautes eaux/Basses eaux
Fig. 6.11 Extraction of dry

and wet periods
94 K. Nafia et al.
Conclusion
The study of the hydrological framework proposed in this research work differs
clearly from the study of chronicles on a weekly scale. From this brief presentation
of hydrological data it is shown that the source of Ain Asserdoune characterized by
a varied flow due to essentialize les precipitation either liquid or solid. The flow rate
of the source increases with wet and dry years.
References
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Dubreuil (1974) Initiation à l’Analyse Hydrologique Masson et cie. Editeurs, Paris
El Ghachi M (2007) la seille: un système fluvial anthropisè (Loraine, France) Tom 1. Thése du 3
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El Ghachi M, Aafir M, Bouberria A (2011) Analyse des tendances pluviométriques dans la ville de
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provence
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paleogeographique et structurale de l’Atlas de Béni Mellal. (Maroc)
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Ain Asserdoune: Créations et validations (1978–2018) (Atlas de Beni Mellal—BV de Oum Er
Rabia). Mémoire de Master en géographie, Université Sultan Moulay Slimane, Béni Mellal 122
p
Olivier D (1970) Espace Géographie « que-sais-je ? P.U.F nº 1390
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p)
Part III
Climate Change and Adaptation: Focus
on Agricultural Sector
Chapter 7
The Drought Resilience of Vast Livestock
Reared in Agropastoral Versus
Sylvo-Agro-Pastoral Systems in Morocco
Bouchra El Amiri, Reda Azmi, Said Laaribya, Brahim Dani,

Mounia Sibaoueih, and Berkat Omar
Abstract The present sudy discusses the main climate impacts on rangelands and
forest lands and their consequence on the animal feed in two contratsed areas. More
precisely, it aims to investigate to what extent the feeding requirements of animals
raised extensively are covered in agro-pastoral (Settat region) and sylvo-pastoral
systems (Benslimane region)? What are the impacts on livestock under different
raifall situations (normal, wet and dry) and what are the most common drought-
coping techniques used by farmers in these two systems?. The data collection and
surveys were carried out from March 2020 to December 2021. The results showed
that for the agro-pastoral system, the forage production was estimated to be 46.8 kg
DM, 500 kg DM and 800 kg DM, for wet, normal, and dry years, respectively.
In sylvo-pastoral system, the production is higher, ranging between 350 kg DM
and 1591 kg DM in both dry and wet years. The field visits showed a decline of
rangeland’s biodiversity due to the overgrazing combined with the drought impact.
In addition, the areas of rangelands and pastures were getting smaller as a result of
B. El Amiri (B) · M. Sibaoueih

Animal Production Unit, Regional Center Agricultural Research of Settat, National Institute for
Agricultural Research (INRA), Avenue Ennasr, P.O. Box 415 Rabat Principal, 10090 Rabat,
Morocco
B. El Amiri
African Sustainable Agriculture Research Institute (ASARI), Mohammed VI Polytechnic
University (UM6P), 70000 Laâyoune, Morocco
R. Azmi
Center of Urban Systems-CUS, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University of Benguerir, Hay Moulay
Rachid Ben Guerir, 43150 Ben Guerir, Morocco
S. Laaribya
Laboratory of Territories, Environment, and Development, Faculty of Humanities and Social
Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, 14000 Kenitra, Morocco
B. Dani · B. Omar
Retired Technician of Rangeland Ecology and Management, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and
Veterinary Medicine, Rome, Italy

100 B. El Amiri et al.
increased conversion of these areas into cropland and intensive irrigation systems
being put in place. From this study, it is to be highlighted that both range and forest
lands can no longer meet the needs of the existing flocks.
Keywords Extensive livestock · Climate change · Resilience · Sylvo-pastoral ·

Agro-pastoral
Introduction
In Morocco, livestock production is central to livelihoods for many rural communities

and thus it represents one of the most important pillars of agriculture in the country.
It is practiced by 1.1 million farm-households (MAPMDREF 2019) and provides
employment to 70% of the rural active population. It also contributes to 36% of total
food consumption and satisfies up to 87% of the national demand for dairy products,
98% for red meat, and 100% for poultry meat (MAPMDREF 2019). Most of livestock
production is carried out in arid and semi-arid regions of the country practiced under
pastoral, agro-pastoral and sylvo-pastoral systems. This suggests the high degree
of exposure of livestock to climatic variability. Additionally, as climate-associated
risks are becoming more affluent, the vulnerability of the livestock becomes greater.
Over the last 50 years, Morocco experienced wide severe successive droughts with
significant effects on livestock. To alleviate these negative effects, the government
developed several measures and programs geared to livestock protection (Nassif
2008). Besides, farmers also develop their own strategies to cope with successive
droughts. In this context, the present study aims to, firstly, investigate to what extent
feeding requirements of extensive animals are covered in agro-pastoral and sylvo-
pastoral systems within two contrasted climatic areas, namely, Settat and Benslimane
while considering different climate scenarios. Secondly, it aims to examine what
are the most strategies adopted by the farmers in these two systems to cope with
droughts.
Overview of the Study Area
The study was carried out in Settat/El Brouj (33° 00' 00'' N, 7° 37' 00'' W), known
for its agro-pastoral activities, and Benslimane (33° 36' 44'' N, 7° 07' 16'' W), known
as a sylvo-pastoral system. Both provinces are part of the Casablanca-Settat Region
(Fig. 7.1). El Brouj receives 278 mm of rain annually, yet there is significant year-
to-year variability, and the average annual temperature varies by season from 18 °C
to 34 °C (MADRPM 2008). A substantial amount of variation in annual rainfall
7 The Drought Resilience of Vast Livestock Reared in Agropastoral … 101
Fig. 7.1 Map showing the location of the study area in the Casablanca-Settat region
was seen by the Benslimane weather station, with a maximum of 724.2 mm and a
minimum of 247.9 mm. These areas have a bioclimate that spans from semi-arid to
subhumid, with moderate winters that see lows of 7.5 °C and highs of 29.5 °C on
average (Bouahi 2010). Figure 7.2 displays the annual rainfall in both regions under
three rainfall conditions (Wet, normal, and dry).
Surveys, Data Collection and Analysis
The period of data collection and survey administration took place between March
2020 and December 2021. Figure 7.3 summarizes the main steps for data collection.
The initial stages of the procedure involved interviews with relevant specialists and
acquiring secondary data from the Agricultural Departments in the relevant areas and
local authorities. Afterwords, preliminary fieldwork, in-depth household interviews
were done. A 40-person sample of respondents was chosen at random and interviewed
using a semi-structured questionnaire. In addition to that, informal discussions with
a group of farmers in each of the study areas and with development agents working
in those areas were also conducted. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the
collected data. The key topics discussed encompassed areas such as agricultural and
livestock yield; the availability of feed resources for livestock production; traditional
Fig. 7.2 Total annual rainfall in Benslimane and Settat during tree different situations (wet, normal
and dry)
livestock feeding and management procedures; and livestock productivity. Strategies

employed locally to help livestock cope with drought were also documented.
Forage production of rangelands and forest grazed lands were determined during
the period of peak production (March to April 2020, which was characterized as a
dry year). Consumable herbaceous standing crop was clipped within 1 m × 1 m plots
systematically placed on line transects and using a forced air oven to dried it. Standing
crop of the consumable woody plants within reach of the grazing small ruminants
was evaluated by determining the average weight of leaves and tender shoots of the
standard branch and the density of the concerned shrub species. Forage production
during a normal, wet, or a dry year were estimated using rainfall-phytomass models
and data from previous field worksrealized in the area.The health of these rangeland
ecosystems has been characterized as degraded on a scale of three classes (Good,
Vulnerable, Degraded) (National Research Council 1994; Briske 2017).
Dry standing crop was converted to forage unit (FU) considering 1 kg DM (dry
matter) = 0.3 FU.
To ascertain the carrying capacity in both sylvo-pastoral (Benslimane) and agro-
pastoral (Settat) systems, data related to the total number and variety of livestock were
gathered from local authorities. The livestock comprised sheep, goats, and cattle,
with the numbers representing average values for the period from 2020 to 2021.
To standardize the livestock data, it was deemed helpful to convert the enumerated
counts of different species into a singular unit, which is termed a Small Livestock
Unit (SLU) (Laaribya et al. 2014). The conversion standard was set as: 1 Sheep
equals 1 SLU; 1 Cattle equals 5 SLU; and 1 Goat equals 0.8 SLU.
Several parameters were calculated, such as:
Fig. 7.3 Main steps for data collection to address the goal of the study
Apparent Stocking Rate (ASR) (SLU/Ha): This parameter was calculated by

dividing the number of herds (expressed in SLU) by the area (in hectares). It reflects
the apparent load of livestock per unit area of land.
Real Stocking Rate (RSR) (SLU/Ha): The Real Grazing Pressure was deter-
mined by multiplying the apparent stocking rate by the residence time, then dividing
the result by 365 days. This measure provides an indication of the actual grazing
load considering the time which livestock spent on the land throughout the year.
Optimal Grazing Capacity (BL): This was calculated by dividing the allow-
able (for sustained use) Forage Offer (FO) by the Forage Demand (FD). This ratio
represents the ideal number of livestock units the land can support without leading
to degradation.
Overgrazing Coefficient (O): This was computed as O = (1 − BL/RSR) * 100.
This coefficient measures the extent to which the grazing capacity of the land is
exceeded, contributing to overgrazing.
Forage Deficit (FD): This is the percentage of the overall livestock needs not met
by the available forage. It is computed by subtracting the allowable Forage Offer
(FO) from the Forage Requirements (FR), dividing the result by the FR, and then
multiplying by 100. This deficit highlights the shortfall in forage availability relative
to the requirements of the livestock.
In summary, these parameters offer crucial insights into the state of the land,
livestock population, and the sustainability of livestock rearing in the study areas.
This approach supports the identification of strategies for better land and livestock
management to ensure sustainable agricultural practices.
Results
Rangelands within the agro-pasoral system are mostly communal. They are located
in the Beni Meskine Cercle (administrative territory) which is the southern area
of Settat province and which is characterized by arid climate and by shallow soils
(Table 7.1). The northern part of this system (Settat Chaouia plain) has better soil
and climatic conditions and is therefore dedicated to crops.
The agro-pastoral system possesses a poor vegetation cover composed mainly of
annual species and Ziziphus lotus, Asphodelus microcarpus, Asparagus stipularis.
Because of the extent of degradation processes, the palatable and soil protecting
perennial grasses such as Cymbopogon schoenanthus are rare. The rangeland units,
although a proportion of their area has been converted to high-risk annual rainfed
crops, were delineated on the basis of their ethnic group users, using the existing
official maps and participatory field determination of coordinates with GPS.
Given the relatively homogeneous climatic and edaphic conditions and the homog-
enizing driving force of degradation, this study found that the 10 communal range-
land units (Fig. 7.4) in Settat area belong to the same rangeland site (Ziziphus lotus,
Asphodelus microcarpus, annuals with a dominance of Stipa capensis). The forage
production per hectare, determined for the rangeland site, attains 46.8 kg DM, 500 kg
DM and 800 kg DM, for a dry, an normal and a wet year respectively (Table 7.2).
Within the National Forest Inventory, ten forest grazed units were distinguished
in the Benslimane area (Table 7.1, Fig. 7.5) with a total of 43,457 ha. The largest
forest unit has an area of 12,756 ha (Benslimane cork oak forest). These spaces
are mostly grazed by a herd composed of 29,743 heads of small ruminants and 3140
Table 7.1 Communal rangeland and units and State forests within Settat versus Benslimane
Provinces
Settat Benslimane
Rangeland unit Area in ha Rangeland unit/Forest Area in ha
Ain Blal 8096.60 Beni Abid 693
Krakra 18,768.77 Oued Cherrat 3406
Mekrat Jrifa 1698.74 Benslimane 12,756
Mokrat Nkhala Ain Seyada 1678.07 Beninabet-Beniameur 3241
Oukarfa 5059.50 Slamna 4256
Oulad Bouali 9291.60 Ain El Kheil 6477
Oulad Sidi Messaoud 1371.81 Oued Laateuch 2218
Oulad Amer 4798.01 Oued Tifsasine 2615
Oulad Faress 3304.47 Mdakra 10,861
El kalaat 2437.82
Total 56,505.39 Total 43,457
Fig. 7.4 Spatial distribution of pastoral and sylvo-pastoral zones in the Settat area
Table 7.2 The forage production, determined for the rangeland site (Settat province) and for the
forest lands
Rangeland Area Dry year Normal year Wet year
site (ha) Standing Total Standing Total Standing Total
crop (kg consumable crop (kg consumable crop (kg consumable
DM/ha) forage (FU) DM/ha) forage (FU) DM/ha) forage (FU)
Ziziphus 56,505 4 46.8 3,390,324 500 4,237,905 800 6,780,648
lotus,
Asphodelus
microcarpus,
annuals
Benslimane 23,000 390.1 1,380,000 991 3,450,000 1591 5,520,000
cork oak
forest
Matorral/ 31,859,0 698.2 3,345,195 1110 5,352,312 1410 6,785,967
Benslimane
cattle belonging to 645 breeders. Benslimane cork oak forest includes Quercus suber,
Q. rotundifolia, Asphodelus microcarpus, Myrtus sp., Rhus pentaphyllum, Olea
europea, Urginea maritima, Daclylis glomerata and annuals. The Shrubby vegetation
(Matorral) has an area of 31,859 ha and is composed of Phillyrea angustifolia, Olea
europea, Cistus spp. Pistacia lentiscus, Tetraclinis articulata, Rhus pentaphyllum,
Myrtus sp, Asphodelus microcarpus and annuals. The forage production, determined
for the forest lands attains 390 and 698 kg DM, 991 and 1110 kg DM; and 1591 and
1410 kg DM, for a dry, normal and a wet year respectively in Benslimane cork oask
forest and in Matorral (Table 7.2).
Animal feed was frequently purchased from the market, where it could be found
among other things in the form of dried beet pulp, cereal bran, and alfalfa hay. Farmers
lived in Settat (El Brouj) and Benslimane, the study’s two locations, and they kept a
variety of animals there, including sheep, cattle, goats, and poultry.
The majority of farmers in El Brouj (Settat) were found to have Sardi sheep.
Benslimane’s, however, painted a slightly different picture. Not only were the Sardi
sheep prominent in this area, but also their crosses. The presence of goats and
cattle was also more apparent in Benslimane than in Settat.
Table 7.1 shows how much land is being used, how much forage might be
produced, and how many animals are being raised in each place.
A sizable feeding gap was found in both systems after looking at various rainfall
scenarios. In Settat as opposed to Benslimane, this gap was more obvious. The gap
in Settat occasionally increased during dry years to an alarming 100% as a result of
strong drought impact on the vegetation cover composed of annuals. As demonstrated
in Table 7.3, the shortfall persisted even in wet years, varying between 50 and 65%.
However, Benslimane’s scenario was significantly lessened as a result of the
contribution of the woodlands offering a buffer during dry years. As demonstrated
in Table 7.3, the feeding gap was significantly minimized, and in some cases, the
animals’ nutritional requirements were completely satisfied. In certain communes in
Fig. 7.5 Spatial distribution of pastoral and sylvo-pastoral zones in Benslimane area
Table 7.3 Estimation of livestock feed balance

Province Lands (ha) Potential forage Animal (head) a (%) b (%) c (%)
(FU/year)
Settat 67 907.4 6227 979.75 150 877.6 100 88 to 93 51 to 93
(agropastoral)
Benslimane 43 457 7 071 159.8 61 876.4 26 to 93 0 to 90 0 to 87
(sylvopastoral)
a Forage deficit during dry year, b Forage deficit during a normal year, c Forage deficit during a wet
year
Benslimane, the potential for forage even surpassed the dietary requirements of the
livestock.
As far as copping strategies are concerned, all farmers believe that they must
have a drought coping strategy. The results unveil that farmers are aware of the
drought effects and their first reactions is to have feed stocks. As a second reaction,
half of the farmers used the social media and interact in forums to know when they
can move to look for available pasture. The farmers started adjustment of animal
management, purchase of feed from surplus location is a common reaction in both
systems. But as soon as the drought becomes severe, the selling of livestock is the
most common adaptation and coping strategy. In fact, 75% of the farming households
sold at least a part of their livestock. More than 60% of surveyed farmers asked for
animal feed (assistance from government/Department of Agriculture supplied fodder
or vouchers to buy fodder), while 6% opted for migration. While there is no solution
and the drought persists, an emergency slaughter become a common practice.
Discussion
Morocco is characterized by low rainfall and high fluctuation of the precipitation.

The country is mainly an arid to semi-arid as more than 93% of its lands did not
receive more than 400 mm (Srairi 2017). During the last century, the country expe-
rienced an increased frequency of droughts. This climatic phenomenon negatively
affected agriculture, forest distribution and livestock production and involved natural
resources degradation (Laaribya et al. 2024). The agro-pastoral system seems to be
suffering more from this degradation. The forest lands provide more feed than does
the range lands only in two areas (Benslimane and Ain El Kheil) and during the rainy
years the animal needs are fully satisfied. From this study, it has to be highlighted
that both range and forest lands cannot any more meet the feed requirements of the
flocks that have significantly increased. In both systems, the lands are experiencing
high degradation. In fact, the biodiversity is decreasing rapidly due to the overgrazing
caused by very high increase of animal numbers. Besides, rangeland and pastures are
shrinking due to the increasing transformation of these areas into cropped lands and
the introduction of intensive irrigation systems (Karrou and El Mourid 2008). This
statement is not specific to the studied areas as it was also reported in the whole North
African region. In fact, Nefzaoui (2002) reported that the contribution of rangelands
to livestock diet has decreased from 65 to 10%. The same tendency has been shown
in Jordan (Roussa 2002).
Livestock management in the studied area is traditional and extensive, with limited
genetic potential (Tsouli Faroukh et al. 2017). Both systems allow poor farmers to
increase livestock population and to improve their income. The sylvo-pastoral system
appears to be covering the animal requirements more than the other system does.
Animals take their feed mainly from the forest and the range lands. During the period
of water scarcity (dry years), the stubble and the straw constitute another support for
livestock feeding. Other contributions to animal feed resources include fodder crops,
fallow land, and supplementary feeding mainly of barley grains, cereal bran, dry beet
pulp and oats. Moreover, once the grazing resources have been decreased, farmers
are compelled to use delimbing and peeling cork oak trees from the forest lands
to support the survival of their livestock (Tsouli Faroukh et al. 2017). Compared
to livestock requirements, the agro-pastoral and forest systems cover only a part of
the annual needs of grazing livestock. This deficit is partially offset by purchases
of livestock feed and excessive harvesting of forest resources, thus contributing to
their degradation. Supplementation is offered to livestock during winter and fall,
which represent periods of increased livestock needs following the birth and growth
of young animals.
The strategies adopted by farmers to cope with droughts, which are reported in
this study, are in agreements with the results of Bahta (2020). Besides, Clements et al.
(2011) highlighted that farmers could get money whenever they wanted by selling
their animals during droughts.
Conclusions
From this study, it has to be highlighted that both range and forest lands are no longer
capable of meeting the needs of the flocks that have significantly increased. Looking
to the not-too-distant future, climate change will inevitably lead to a significant
change in ruminant livestock production systems which must be urgently addressed.
The results can be used to identify high priority areas for sylvo-pastoral areas for
restoration and conservation against the expected impact of climate change.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the local authorities, regional and provincial agri-
culture departments (DRA, DPA, ONCA, ONSSA …), the Regional and Provincial Directorates
of Water and Forests and combating Desertification of Casablanca and Benslimane as well as local
territorial authorities for placing at our disposal the human and material resources as well as the
data necessary for the research.
References
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drought. AIMS Agric Food 5(4):964–982. https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2020.4.964
Bouahi S (2010) Usage et conservation des mares temporaires méditerranéennes: cas des mares
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l”Université Hassan II Casablanca et de l”Université de Montpellier II
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dans la forêt de la Maamora. Parcoursforestiers et surpâturage. Nature & Technology/Nature
&Technologie (10)
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Maroc Vert. Eléments de la déclinaison de Green Generation/Filières lait et viandes rouges
Nassif F (2008) The Gender-Livestock-Climate Change connection: local experiences and lessons
learned from Morocco. In: Rowlinson P, Steele M, Nefzaoui A (eds) Proceedings international
conference livestock and global climate change 2008, 17–20 May 2008, Hammamet, Tunisia
National Research Council (1994) Rangeland health: new methods to classify, inventory, and
monitor rangelands. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/
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Nefzaoui A (2002) Rangeland management options and individual and community strategies of
agro-pastoralists in Central and Southern Tunisia. In: Ngaido T, McCarthy N, Gregorio MD (eds)
International conference on policy and institutional options for the management of rangelands
in dry areas. Workshop summary paper, CAPRI working paper N° 23, Tunis
Roussan L (2002) Community and household level impacts of institutional options for managing
and improving rangeland in the low rainfall areas of Jordan. In: Ngaido T, McCarthy N, Gregorio
MD (eds) International conference on policy and institutional options for the management of
rangelands in dry areas. Workshop summary paper, CAPRI working paper N° 23, Tunis
Sraïri MT (2017) New challenges for the Moroccan agricultural sector to cope with local and
global changes. In: Environmental, social and economic issues of the 21st century, Morocco,
pp 165–188
Tsouli Faroukh A, Tellal R, Qarro M (2017) Analysis of socio-economic mutations in the Bensli-
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8:4415–4425. https://doi.org/10.26872/jmes.2017.8.12.466
Chapter 8
Moroccan Durum Wheat Breeding
to Keep Pace with Climate Change
Abdelali Boussakouran, Yahia Rharrabti, Kholoud Kahime,

and Mohamed El Yamani
Abstract Morocco is considered one of the most threatened countries by climate

variation. Over the last decades, Arable land in this country showed a vulnerability to
climate change, which has led to a water deficit, a rise in land salinity, and therefore,
a decrease in crop production. In Morocco, the majority of durum wheat areas are
located in the rainfed zones, with 50% in the arid and semi-arid regions. It is cultivated
in an area of more than one million hectares ranking third after bread wheat and barley.
Consequently, extended and severe droughts occurring in the rainy season can lead to
significant impacts on both crop yields and agricultural income. Durum wheat yields
in Morocco remained low at about 0.9 tons ha−1 until the 1970s. With the introduction
of improved genotypes, significant increases in yields were observed. However, these
grain yield levels are far below both the global world African average. Research
findings indicated that, in optimal conditions, the production of durum wheat in
Morocco exhibited a positive correlation with the release year of the variety. However,
no notable trend was observed in water-limited environments. Hence, when breeders
conduct comparable experiments, it is crucial to carefully consider the environmental
conditions.
Keywords Climate change · Morocco · Breeding · Durum wheat · Genetic

advance · Drought stress
A. Boussakouran (B) · Y. Rharrabti · M. El Yamani

Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, B.P 1223, Taza-Gare, Taza, Morocco
K. Kahime · M. El Yamani
School of Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, Km 9, Route d’Agadir, BP. 383, Essaouira Al
Jadida, Morocco
112 A. Boussakouran et al.
Introduction
The world population is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. Thus, food produc-
tion must be doubled because of this population growth and sustainability problems
concerning the shrinking of arable lands and reduced water resources (Daszkiewicz
2022). Achieving increased crop yields necessitates substantial inputs, including
both organic and inorganic fertilizers, which, as highlighted by Yuan et al. (2017),
contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases, thereby causing notable environ-
mental repercussions. In fact, the primary challenge facing durum wheat produc-
tion is the need to develop viable cropping systems that prioritize environmental
sustainability.
Durum wheat yields have increased as a result of the changes in crop management
including better seeding equipment, appropriate nutrient application, and effective
control of competition from weeds. In addition, genetic improvement has been the key
factor to increase crop yields during the past century (Beres et al. 2020). The release
of new durum wheat genotypes has improved agronomic traits, disease resistance,
and nutritional benefits, which served to maintain the economic attractiveness of
durum wheat for producers. Drought is a common characteristic in many durum
wheat-growing areas. Thus, breeders attempt to release stable cultivars that are able
to maintain acceptable grain yield under water-limited environments.
The adoption of dwarfing cultivars during the second half of the twentieth century
after the green revolution produced the greatest advances in enhancing durum wheat
(Chairi et al. 2018). Overall, cereal breeding was remarkably successful during the
last fifty years, and the improvement effect on durum wheat grain yield and its physi-
ological attributes has been widely reported (Mackay et al. 2021). Examining histor-
ical series composed of genotypes that represent the germplasm released in various
periods offers valuable insights into comprehending the agronomic and physiological
mechanisms responsible for the observed changes in grain yield over time (Boussak-
ouran et al. 2022). In addition, determining the rate of genetic gain allows breeding
programs to be regularly evaluated in order to improve their efficiency.
In Morocco, the durum wheat breeding program was initiated in the early 1920s.
From the 1970s onwards, the partnership of the National Agricultural Research Insti-
tute (INRA) with ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas) and CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) facil-
itated access to a diverse collection of semi-dwarf germplasm from international
sources. This partnership proved highly successful, resulting in the introduction of
a significant array of Moroccan wheat varieties. The present chapter addresses the
question of whether there has been any genetic advance for durum wheat released in
Morocco during the last decades. Our objective in this chapter is to review i) climate
change effects on Moroccan durum wheat; ii) Moroccan durum wheat sector; iii)
history of Moroccan durum wheat and breeding efforts; and iv) Moroccan genetic
advance and its adapting to drought.
8 Moroccan Durum Wheat Breeding to Keep Pace with Climate Change 113
Moroccan Durum Wheat Sector
Durum wheat is one of the major food crops in Morocco, it is cultivated in an area
of one million hectares, ranking third after bread wheat and barley. The average
grain yield during the last ten years (2008–2017) was estimated to 1.74 tons ha−1
(Fig. 8.1). In Morocco, durum wheat is particularly important because it is highly
appreciated by Moroccan consumers, mainly for the preparation of couscous and
other traditional foods. In fact, durum wheat is utilized mainly as flour (refined or
whole grain) for the production of a large variety of leavened and flat breads, and for
the manufacture of a wide variety of other baking products.
Nowadays, as the population grows and dietary preferences shift towards durum
wheat-based products like bread and couscous, Morocco faces challenges in meeting
the rising local demand for durum wheat, hence, the country has experienced an esca-
lation in durum wheat imports over the years (Devkota and Yigezu 2021). Histori-
cally, durum wheat yields in Morocco remained low at about 0.9 tons ha−1 until the
1970s. The introduction of improved wheat varieties in the 1980s led to significant
yield increases (Bishaw et al. 2019), reaching a 10-year average of approximately
1.74 tons per hectare after the new millennium (Fig. 8.1). Despite this progress,
these yield levels still fall well below the global world average of 3 tons ha−1 and
the African average of 2.3 tons ha−1 .
Generally, cereal in Morocco is grown in a variety of agroecological zones,
surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean on the West and North,
respectively, and by the Sahara on the southeast, with the Western High Atlas on the
South. Bread wheat production is concentrated in the Atlantic plains of Morocco,
from semi-arid to sub-humid provinces, whereas durum wheat is mainly grown in
the semi-arid southwestern plains (Confalonieri et al. 2013).
The primary limitation to wheat cultivation in Morocco stems from drought,
particularly during the emergence and post-emergence phases, as well as the grain-
filling period. This drought directly impacts seed development. The extent of water
Fig. 8.1 Durum wheat grain yields in Morocco during 2008–2017 period. Source Official Data
from the Ministry of Agriculture (MAPMDREF 2019)
stress on crop production is significantly determined by both its intensity and dura-
tion. If drought occurs in the early stages, grain yield may diminish by up to 25%,
while a severe drought affecting the crop from emergence to flowering can result in
a staggering reduction of more than 80% (Bregaglio et al. 2015).
History of Moroccan Durum Wheat and Breeding Efforts
The breeder should aim to meet the needs of the entire production chain, which
includes farmers, seed handlers, millers, pasta makers, and consumers. To achieve
this, collaboration with experts from diverse fields like cereal chemistry, agronomy,
pathology, molecular biology, and biometry is essential (Kadkol and Sissons 2016).
Wheat breeders strive to develop superior genotypes that exhibit high yields, desir-
able end-use traits, and resistance to both abiotic and biotic stresses. Historically,
public institutions such as government departments of agriculture and universities
have been the primary entities engaged in durum wheat breeding. However, private
breeding companies have become commonplace in the United States and Europe. The
inception of durum wheat breeding dates back to the early decades of the twentieth
century in Europe (Xynias et al. 2020).
Italian Nazareno Strampelli played a pivotal role in advancing modern durum
wheat breeding (Clarke et al. 2012). In 1923, he released the cultivar “Senatore
Capelli,” derived from his selection of the local North African landrace “Jean Retifah”
in 1915. This cultivar marked a turning point in the cultivation of durum wheat in
Italy. Meanwhile, in France, durum wheat research was predominantly conducted in
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia until the 1960s. The Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique (INRA) in Montpellier and later the Algerian Center for Agronomic,
Scientific, and Economic Research (CARASE) coordinated research programs. The
introduction of cultivars such as “Oued Zenati 368,” “Bidi 17,” “Mohamed Ben
Bachir,” and “Hedba 3” led to a significant increase in durum wheat production.
In Morocco, the focus of breeding efforts was on collecting local durum wheat
landraces. Subsequent selection programs yielded cultivars like “Zeramek,” “Oued
Zenati,” and “Ky-perounda,” released between 1949 and 1956 (Abdelkader 2014).
The foundation of the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas (ICARDA) in Syria in 1977 marks a pivotal moment in the advancement
of plant breeding. Initially, the center aimed to manage the genetic material and
pure lines derived from CIMMYT, specifically focusing on wheat. Subsequently,
the ICARDA Improvement Program transitioned to developing crosses and gained
autonomy in 2003 (ICARDA 2021). The inaugural success of ICARDA’s breeding
efforts materialized in the form of the durum wheat cultivar named “Waha,” which
obtained recognition in Algeria’s National Variety Catalogue in 1984. Another note-
worthy release was the cultivar “Om Rabi 1,” introduced in Morocco in 1989. By
2018, a total of 130 varieties originating from ICARDA’s breeding program had been
released across 22 countries, showcasing the global impact of its genetic contributions
(Bassi and Nachit 2019).
In Morocco, the durum wheat breeding program was commenced in the early
1920s under the Agriculture Research and Development Services. The primary objec-
tives were to enhance both grain yields and quality by leveraging local germplasm
introduced from various countries, such as Australia, Algeria, Tunisia, France, India,
Italy, Spain, and the USA (Bishaw et al. 2019). Over time, the focus of the breeding
program gradually shifted towards hybridization as a means to further improve both
yield and quality. Numerous varieties resulting from this program were released and
widely cultivated across the country (Jlibene 2005). Moving into the 1950s and 1960s,
the key goals of the durum wheat program evolved to were to increase productivity
and incorporate disease and pest resistance (specifically rust and the Hessian fly).
This was achieved through interspecific hybridization with bread wheat and other
related species (Nsarellah et al. 2006).
The establishment of ICARDA in 1977 and CIMMYT in 1966, followed by
their collaboration with INRA, facilitated the introduction of enhanced germplasm
featuring early maturation and semi-dwarf traits. These partnerships strengthened the
breeding program, enabling the release of multiple durum wheat varieties that were
not only high-yielding but also resistant to diseases and pests. Since the 1980s, the
focus of the durum wheat program in Morocco has shifted towards developing vari-
eties with superior traits such as high yield, excellent grain quality, early maturation,
drought and heat tolerance, and resistance to major diseases and pests. Significant
efforts and investments have been dedicated to enhancing research capacities in new
breeding technologies within the national program over the past decades. These
advancements are expected to impact the release of new varieties in the upcoming
years. Notably, since 1982, a total of 34 durum wheat varieties, along with other
crops, have been officially registered in the national catalog (Fig. 8.2).
Fig. 8.2 Number of durum wheat varieties registered, 1982–2012. Source http://www.onssa.
gov.ma
Moroccan Genetic Advance and Its Adapting to Drought
Durum wheat is an important crop in the Mediterranean basin and several large cereal-
producing countries in the world. In the Mediterranean countries, the importance
of durum wheat is due to good drought and heat tolerance, and its products are
deeply connected with the tradition in these countries. About 60% of the world’s
durum production is concentered in the Mediterranean basin (Abad et al. 2004), it
is generally grown under rainfed production systems in the semiarid regions. The
crop exhibits a robust yield performance in relatively arid conditions, historically
thriving in regions characterized by a dry climate featuring hot days and cool nights
throughout the growing season (Royo et al. 2009). The quantity and distribution
of rainfall significantly impact both the yield and quality of the crop, and these
factors exhibit considerable variability in regions where durum wheat is cultivated.
Consequently, drought stress emerges as the primary constraint on crop production. In
the Mediterranean region, the cropping of durum wheat traditionally relies on rainfed
practices during the wet and cool period from October to April. However, during the
subsequent long and dry period from May to September, irrigation becomes essential
for viable cropping (Ryan et al. 2008).
In a study conducted in Morocco, Boussakouran et al. (2021) discovered that envi-
ronmental factors played a significant role in influencing grain yield, yield compo-
nents, and grain filling traits. The non-irrigated plots exhibited a 30% lower grain
yield compared to irrigated ones, with the water deficit causing a 15% reduction in
harvest index, a 30% decrease in spikes per m2, and less than a 10% decline in various
other traits such as kernels per spike, kernel weight, spikelets per spike, kernels per
spikelet, fertile tillering, plant height, and spike length. Similarly, water stress resulted
in a roughly 20% decrease in grain filling traits. The observed reductions in grain
yield and associated traits during stress conditions were attributed to factors such
as pollen sterility, accelerated leaf senescence, oxidative damage to photosynthetic
machinery, decreased rates of carbon fixation and assimilate translocation, as well
as impaired grain development (Farooq et al. 2014).
In addition, a strong impact of environmental conditions on physiological,
biochemical and morphological characteristics has been detected in Moroccan durum
wheat developed over three decades among growing seasons, particularly in rain-fed
trials (Boussakouran et al. 2022). In fact, all physiological traits declined steadily
during the driest growing seasons, as stress became more severe. The shortage of
water that takes place during dry growing seasons affects many of the metabolic
changes that occur in all plant tissues, including alterations in cell volume, loss of
turgor, disruption of membrane integrity, solute concentration and protein denatura-
tion. The impact of year-to-year climatic variations emerged as a key impediment
to the formation of grain yield. Clear distinctions were observed in the majority of
assessed traits across the three growing seasons. Grain yield exhibited significant
variability among these seasons, primarily attributed to differences in total rainfall
and its distribution throughout the vegetative and grain-filling periods (Cossani et al.
2009).
Increased grain yield and improvement of other agronomic traits are important
objectives for breeders. Plant breeding in cereals, and particularly in durum wheat,
was remarkably successful during the second half of the twentieth century (De vita
et al. 2010). In fact, the global durum wheat yield has significantly increased due to
the improvement of varietal performance. The testing of varieties bred at different
periods in a common environment gives a direct estimate of the genetic progress
(Giunta et al. 2007). Assessing the rate of genetic improvement in breeding programs
stands as a crucial metric for monitoring strides towards the objective of ensuring
food security in the forthcoming years (Rife et al. 2019).
Several breeding programs have achieved significant genetic progress in grain
yield durum wheat (Chairi et al. 2019; Del Pozo et al., 2019), with an absolute genetic
gain ranged between 20 and 72 kgh−1 per year. In Morocco, a similar genetic progress
for grain yield (23 kg ha−1 year−1 ) was observed when the data were employed for
linear regression analysis (Boussakouran et al., 2021). Nevertheless, genetic change
in grain yield exhibited variations in rainfed and irrigated trials (Fig. 8.3). Specif-
ically, grain yield demonstrated an increase over the years under favorable condi-
tions, whereas no significant trend was observed in water-limited environments. The
findings of Boussakouran et al. (2021) underscored that the grain yield of modern
varieties showed greater sensitivity to water deficit. This suggests that the estimated
genetic change was significantly influenced by environmental conditions, aligning
with the conclusions of Mohammadi (2012), who, in a study involving 14 durum
wheat genotypes across 21 environments, noted that the most substantial genetic
progress occurred in stress-free environments. A similar observation was made by
Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2013), who highlighted the dependence of genetic progress
in Spanish cultivars on environmental conditions. These overall results emphasize
the complex interaction between genetic changes in cereal yield and the specific
environmental context studied. Thus, the breeding effects measured for a trait in
one agro-ecological condition may not necessarily be replicated in other conditions.
Therefore, when conducting similar experiments, breeders should exercise particular
caution and account for the diverse environmental conditions that may impact the
outcomes.
Climate Change Effects on Moroccan Durum Wheat
In the coming century, climate changes, primarily linked to the rise in greenhouse
gases, are expected to induce global warming in specific regions. In Mediterranean
environments, cereal crops are grown predominantly in the semiarid and subhumid
zones. With climate change, an increase in temperature, in the length of the summer
dry period, and in its extension are expected. These changes are expected to inten-
sify the impacts of drought, as very dry soil stimulates the sensible heat flux, which
can interact with the atmosphere, intensifying heat waves (Yves et al. 2020). Conse-
quently, vegetation will experience prolonged water stress. Since the 1960s, drought
events have stood out as significant contributors to global crop failures (Cottrell
Fig. 8.3 Regression of grain yield on year of release in six Moroccan durum wheat varieties grown
under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Each point represents the mean value of one variety during
three growing seasons (Boussakouran et al. 2022)
et al. 2019), exerting a substantial influence on the world economy and food security.
Morocco, with 90% of its cereal areas situated in rainfed zones and half in arid and
semi-arid regions, is especially susceptible. Nationally, durum wheat, ranking third
after bread wheat and barley, is cultivated across over a million hectares (Ben-Amar
et al. 2020). As a result, extended and severe droughts during the rainy season pose
a serious threat to crop production and agricultural revenues in the country.
Soil moisture serves as a pivotal factor within the soil–vegetation–atmosphere
system, functioning both as a switch and integrator for inter-connected water fluxes.
It plays a crucial role in regulating energy flows and biogeochemical cycles, thereby
exerting a significant influence on the process of plant growth (Teuling et al. 2013).
The socio-economic impacts related to drought may be severe, as they often build
up slowly and over a long period, and can persist for years once the meteorological
drought has ended (Vrochidou et al. 2013). Drought stress is one of the most adverse
factors that severely reduces crop yield, it decreases CO2 assimilation rates, leaf
sizes, stem extension, water-use efficiency, assimilate partitioning, and activities of
sucrose and starch synthesis enzymes (Anjum et al. 2011).
For improving grain yields under water-limited conditions, the development of
new durum wheat varieties with high yield potential through identifying drought
tolerance mechanisms is of great importance. To facilitate the development of tolerant
varieties that can survive and give better yields under drought conditions, a thor-
ough understanding of the various morphological, phenological, and physiological
characteristics that govern the yield under water-limited conditions is a prerequisite
(Reynolds et al. 2005). Important target characteristics are the decrease in plant size
with a heightened harvest index, and the reduction in number of days to anthesis and
maturity enabling the crop to escape terminal drought stress (Blum 2010); as well
as the architectural characteristics of the roots, such as distribution and root length
density, which enable efficient water uptake (Ehdaie et al. 2012). In addition, traits
associated with reduced evaporative losses and photo-assimilate production such
as leaf rolling, flag leaf persistence, stomatal conductance, and canopy temperature
must be selected (Dodig et al. 2012). Moreover, selection based on grain yield should
be supported by proper calculation, utilization, and interpretation of various drought
indices that evaluate genotypic yield response to water stress.
Conclusion
Durum wheat cultivation in Morocco has immense socio-economic relevance and

is a key contributor to the national food security. However, its practice is closely
linked to rainfall conditions, which are being increasingly subjected to the effects of
climate change, thus increasing the vulnerability of the whole agricultural sector. In
light of this, adjustment of agricultural practices, particularly those related to durum
wheat growing, as well as the selection and introduction of resilient varieties are
proving to be fundamental measures for dealing with worsening extreme climatic
events. Such measures are crucial to guarantee the long-term sustainability of durum
wheat growing in Morocco faced with the climatic issues of the future. Meanwhile,
an innovative and integrated approach, in which scientists, government officials and
farmers work together, is needed to build collective capacity to meet these climate
challenges.
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In: Earth-science reviews, 103348
Chapter 9
Symbiotic Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
as a Soil Essential Component
Contributing to Soil Fertility
for Sustainable Agriculture in Arid
Environment
Lahcen Ouahmane, Hanane Dounas, Mohamed El Yamani,
and Kholoud Kahime
Abstract Arid zones are deeply affected by desertification, global warming, and
anthropic pressure. Water deficiency and salinity are very worrying problems that
negatively affect the growth and the physiological and biochemical activities in crops.
In these arid zones, the main challenge is to develop new eco-friendly technologies
that improve crop tolerance to abiotic constraints such as drouth and salinity. In this
sense, mycorrhizal fungi (MF) have received much attention due to their capability
in promoting plant growth and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. It is thus
fitting that the current review was undertaken to underline the effects of MF on the
growth, the nutrition, the development and the crop tolerance to drouth, salt stress,
and their use as biofertilizers. Furthermore, their improvement of the tolerance of
crop to pests and diseases by activating the different processes of enzymatic defense
and nutritional competition.
Keywords Phosphorus uptake · Water nutrition · Abiotic stressors · Arid zone ·

Crops
L. Ouahmane (B) · H. Dounas

Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnologies, Agro-Sciences and Environment (BioMAgE), Labeled
Research Unit-CNRST Nz4, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000 Marrakesh, Morocco
M. El Yamani · K. Kahime
School of Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, Km 9, Route d’Agadir, BP. 383, Essaouira Al
Jadida, Morocco
M. El Yamani
Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, BP. 1223, Taza-Gare, Taza, Morocco
124 L. Ouahmane et al.
Introduction
The term mycorrhiza derives from Greek and refers to the symbiotic relationship
between plants and soil fungi. It was first used by the German botanist Frank in
1885 to describe the mixed root-fungus organs. Subsequently, this term evolved into
a larger one. Literally, it means “fungus and root” (from the Greek mukês: fungus
and rhiza: root). Fungi grow both within and around the roots, forming a network
of filaments that greatly amplify the surface area of contact between the roots and
the soil (Brundrett 2004). In the mycorrhizal symbiosis, the fungus receives from
the host plant sugars and amino acids formed during photosynthesis, while in return
the plant receives mineral nutrients from the soil (especially phosphorus) as well as
water collected by the fungus (Bago et al. 2000). Due to the extensive mycelium with
which the fungus colonizes the soil, the plants have access to a greater proportion of
the soil volume, which increases the availability of soil nutrients. Thus, it is believed
that a large part of the plant’s mineral nutrients come from its fungal partners. This
ensures better growth and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses like drouth, salinity
and diseases (Selosse et al. 2006; Pozo et al. 2010).
Types of Mycorrhizae
Delian et al. (2011) said that there are different types of mycorrhizae based on their
ecological, morphological, and physiological characteristics, as well as how they
work with plant and fungal species. So far, seven types have been named: superficial
interaction (ectomycorrhiza), intermediate ectendomycorrhizae, internal (endomyc-
orrhizae), arbuscular endomycorrhizae, arbutoid, monotropoid, ericoid, and orchid
mycorrhizae. These symbiotic associations were recently classified into eight types
of mycorrhizae (Fig. 9.1) (Garbaye 2013). Arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal mycor-
rhizal symbioses are the most abundant and widespread (Bonfante and Genre 2010)
(Fig. 9.2). Whereas in the case of Endomycorrhizae (Fig. 9.2), the symbiosis is not
visible to the naked eye (Read 1991). The fungi colonize the interior of root cells
to form arbuscules and vesicles, both of which play an important role in nutrient
exchange with the plant (Bonfante and Genre 2010).
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Community
Most mycorrhizal symbioses involve arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which are
obligatory symbiont fungi that belong to the single-phyletic phylum Glomerycota.
They are characterized by the presence of fungal structures inside the root cells
of the host plant. These intracellular structures are highly branched or coiled in
the cells of the root cortex (He and Nara 2007), known as arbuscules (from the
9 Symbiotic Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi as a Soil Essential Component … 125
Fig. 9.1 Principal mycorrhizal groups as shown in a root cross section (Garbaye 2013)
Fig. 9.2 Schematic illustration of the difference between ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae
in plant roots (Bonfante and Genre 2010)
Latin arbusculum, which means shrub). Arbuscules are the key feature of symbiosis
(AMF), as they represent an extreme of intimacy and compatibility and are considered
the site of nutrient exchange between symbiotic partners (Parniske 2008; Garg and
Chandel 2011). Among the vascular plants present today, about 80% are considered
mycotrophic. Thus, they are found in angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes,
Fig. 9.3 Phylogenetic tree representing the evolution of the two main root symbioses
lycopods, and bryophytes (Hause and Fester 2005). This phylum includes about 250
described species (Baszkowski et al. 2012).
The fossil record and the current distribution of the AM symbiosis suggest that
mycorrhization was already present in the earliest land plants and that the relation-
ship was beneficial enough to keep going as vascular plants changed over time.
The existence of AM symbiosis dates back to the Devonian period, when the first
plants appeared on earth, mainly Bryophytes, and began to colonize the earth 460
million years ago. Findings of hyphae and fossilized spores as well as molecular
analyses confirm their ancient existence and lead to the hypothesis that early AM
symbiosis contributed significantly to land colonization by plants (Redecker et al.
2000) (Fig. 9.3).
The symbiotic association between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and most
lineages of land plants, including mosses, lycopods, and ferns, originated more than
~400 million years ago (MA). The origin of symbiosis between plants and nitrogen-
fixing bacteria is much more recent (~65 MA) (Kistner and Parniske 2002).
Structure of Arbuscular Mycorrhizae and Life Cycle

of Endomycorrhizal Fungi
In general, an active mycorrhiza is formed by an extra-root part that includes the

external mycelium of the fungus developed in the soil, the spores, the auxiliary cells,
an intra-root part that includes intracellular (Paris-type mycorrhizae) and frequently
Fig. 9.4 Schematic picture of arbusucular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing roots and their hyphal
extension into soil by Takuji Ohyama in (Machi 2014)
intercellular (Arum-type) hyphae; arbuscules, which are formed by repeated dichoto-

mous division of hyphae; and occasionally intracellular (or intercellular) vesicles
with a lipid storage function (Fig. 9.4).
In the scientific literature, there are two types of intra-root symbiotic structures:
the Arum type and the Paris type. However, there is a continuum of structures in
between these two types (Dickson et al. 2007). Arum-type mycorrhizae are better
described and more typical, forming intercellular d’hyphae between cortical cells and
intracellular arbuscules within cortical cells (Krishnamoorthy et al. 2017), whereas
Paris-type mycorrhizae, which are less known but abundant, form large intracellular
coils of hyphae and arbuscular coils in the root cortex and not in intracellular spaces
(Willis et al. 2013; Krishnamoorthy et al. 2017). It should be noted that when AMF
infects a root, it doesn’t change its shape in a way that can be seen with the naked
eye or by simple macroscopic observation. Also, the fungus only infects the root’s
epidermis and cortical parenchyma, not the central cylinder or meristematic zones
(Bonfante et al. 1984) (Fig. 9.5).
Development Cycle of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
The development cycle of AMF can be divided into five main stages (Fig. 9.6). The
spores of AM fungi germinate when they are under optimal temperature and humidity
conditions. The germ tube of the fungus develops in a limited way with minimal use
of reserves. When the fungus perceives the presence of a host plant, it shows a typical
reaction of intense branching of the hyphae called “branching”. When the fungus
Fig. 9.5 The two main types of root colonization by AMF. a Arum type. b Paris type.1: extra-root
hyphae; 2: appressorium;3: arbuscules; 4: vesicles; 5: intercellular hyphae; 6: intracellular hyphae;
7: peloton (Smith and Read. 2008)
comes into contact with the host root, it differentiates appressoria on the surface of
the rhizodermis (blue cells). After apoplastic development, the intraracinar hyphae
of the fungus reach the cortical cells (green cells), where they differentiate into
highly branched structures called arbuscules. After differentiation of the intraracinar
structures, the fungus produces spores from its extra-root mycelium.
Fig. 9.6 Development cycle

of AM fungi (Akiyama
2007)
Establishment of the AMF Symbiosis
The AMF does not show any specificity towards the host plant (Krishnamoorthy
et al. 2017). Numerous AMF species can infect the same plant, and a fungus can
associate with several different plants (Bécard et al. 2004). There are three main
sources of inoculation to initiate colonization of a new host root: spores, infected
root fragments, or hyphae from an already established mycelium. The colonization
of plant roots by the fungus can be summarized in three phases (Bonfante and Genre
2010) (Fig. 9.7).
Asymbiotic Stage
AMF spores can germinate spontaneously under conditions of satisfactory tempera-

ture and hygrometry, in the absence of a host plant, and without the need to use their
lipid reserves (Bécard et al. 2004). During this phase, the development of the germ
tube remains limited. After some time, the protoplasm retracts into the spore, and the
spore again enters dormancy. Some spores may be able to germinate several times
(Koske 1981; Giovannetti et al. 2002), which leads to the suggestion that during the
asymbiotic phase, the spores retain their growth potential and ability to survive (Logi
et al. 1998; Giovannetti 2001). This symbiosis requires a high level of coordination
between the two partners.
Fig. 9.7 Schematic presentation of AMF root colonization process by (Bonfante and Genre 2010)
Pre-Symbiotic Stage
This stage involves a prior molecular dialogue between the future partners in the
rhizosphere. The perception of diffuse signals by both partners allows them to detect
each other’s presence before any physical contact and leads to the development
of fungal structures (Bonfante and Genre 2010). In the pre-contact stage, mutual
recognition is characterized by hyphal branching responses induced by plant-derived
strigolactones (SLs) (Fig. 9.8) (Akiyama 2007) and plant gene expression induced
by diffuse fungal signal molecules: the Myc factors (Fig. 9.7) (Kosuta et al. 2003;
Kuhn et al. 2010).
This phase is characterized by abundant branching of the germ tube, increasing
the probability of contact with the roots and thus the establishment of symbiosis
(Akiyama 2007; Besserer et al. 2006).
Symbiotic Phase
When the hyphae of the AMF come in contact with the root, they round out and
flatten on the root wall to form a structure called a “hyphopodium” or “appresorium.“
These are structures that attach to and penetrate the cells of the epidermis. The fungal
hyphae can penetrate the root cells to the inner cortical cells, where the fungus forms
intracellular structures and produces vesicles involved in the storage of lipids and
arbuscules that remain separated from the cytoplasm of the cells by an extension
derived from the plasma membrane, the periarbuscular membrane that surrounds
the hyphal branches, constituting the site of nutritional exchanges between the two
partners (Smith and Read 2011).
Taxonomy
Before the glomeromycetes were put in their own monophyletic phylum, Gerdemann
and Trappe (1974) put them in the phylum Zygomycota because they had similar
spore shapes, spore formation, cell wall structures, and hyphae. Schübler finally
showed in 2001, using a phylogeny based on an analysis of the coding sequences
of the small ribosomal RNA subunit, that the AMF belong to a single group called
the Glomeromycota (Schüßler et al. 2001; Stürmer 2012). The majority of research
on AMF systematics has been mainly based on the morphological differences of
spores isolated from soil (spore ontogeny, color, shape, ornamentation, wall, etc.)
(Ruissen 2013). And which play a very important role in the identification, descrip-
tion, and classification of new AMF species. However, the variable morphological
characters, the obligate biotrophic lifestyle, and the absence of sexual reproduc-
tion in AMF make species identification difficult and complex (Sanders et al. 1996;
Fig. 9.8 Representative tree of the phylum Glomeromycota on molecular basis (SSU, ITS region,
partial LSU gene rRNA, and partial β-tubulin gene) and morphological analyses (Oehl et al. 2011)
Dickson 2004; Redecker and Raab 2006). The classification of this group of fungi
has undergone considerable transformation and has been newly structured based on
the combined analysis of genetic and phenotypic characteristics (Oehl et al. 2011).
Stürmer (2012) discusses the history of taxonomy by highlighting four time periods.
The “initial discovery” period (1845–1974) is characterized by descriptions, espe-
cially of sporocarp-forming species. The “alpha taxonomy” period (1975–1989)
created a solid morphological basis for species identification and classification. The
cladistic period (1990–2000) saw the first cladistic classification of AMF based on
phenotypic characters only. By the end of this period, genetic characters had played
a role in defining taxa and elucidating evolutionary relationships within the group.
The period of phylogenetic synthesis (2001–present) began with the proposal of a
new classification based on genetic characters. Currently, and with the help of the
molecular biology tool, phylogenetic studies based on SSU rDNA sequences have
led to the separation of the Glomales into a monophyletic phylum: Glomeromy-
cota (Schüßler et al. 2001; Ruissen 2013). This phylum is divided into three classes:
Archaeosporomycetes, Glomeromycetes, and Paraglomeromycetes, with five orders:
Glomerales, Diversisporales, Gigasporales, Archaeosporales, and Paraglomerales
(Fig. 9.8). Fifteen families, with 38 genera and approximately 270 species, are known
to date (Oehl et al. 2011; Goto et al. 2012; Blaszkowski et al. 2015; Marinho et al.
2014).
Benefits of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis
AMF are considered key players not only in the dynamics and productivity of the
ecosystem but also in the processes ensuring the coexistence of plants (Hart et al.
2003; Van Der Heijden et al. 1998; Oliveira et al. 2006). It is an essential element
in the life cycle of the host plant (growth and reproduction) (Smith and Read 2011;
Begum et al. 2019). Mycorrhizal symbiosis is strongly governed by the reciprocal
exchanges between the two partners. Indeed, the impact of mycorrhizal fungi on the
host plant is not limited to an improvement of hydro-mineral nutrition but also in
the enhancement of the tolerance of the host plants to different biotic and abiotic
stresses, in the structuring of the soil, and in the improvement of the soil fertility
(Qiangsheng and Renxue 2006; Rillig and Mummey 2006; Xu et al. 2018).
Improvement of Plant Growth and Nutrition
The AMF play an important role in improving vegetative growth and coexistence of
plants on very difficult conditions. Indirectly through a natural strategy of nutrient
and water acquisition (Finlay 2004; Smith and Read 2011) AMF play an important
role in the uptake of nutrients, especially those of low mobility in the soil such as
phosphorus (P) (Berruti et al. 2016; Wahid et al. 2019) by an external hyphal network
that functions as an extension of the host plant’s roots, improving its efficiency in
exploring the soil thus increasing the surface area for exchange between the plant
and its environment (Hodge et al. 2010).
Nutrient Exchange
Currently, it is well known that the primary role of AMF is to increase the uptake of
poorly mobile elements in the soil during the interaction; the plant provides the fungus
with carbon compounds from photosynthesis (Bago et al. 2003). The extra-radicular
mycelium is unable to take the necessary carbon compounds from the environment,
and it is therefore the intra-radicular mycelium that absorbs almost all the carbon
compounds necessary for the fungus from the plant (Wiemken 2007). Thus, in the
fungus, there is a flow of minerals from the extra-radicular mycelium to the plant
and a flow of carbon from the root to the extra-radicular mycelium (Godfroy 2008).
The fungus provides the plant with mineral compounds such as potassium, calcium,
magnesium, copper, nitrogen, water, and especially phosphorus. (Fig. 9.10) (Ramos
et al. 2011; Kaya et al. 2009; Richardson et al. 2009; Farzaneh et al. 2011). The
fungus collects the minerals from the soil and provides them to the plant, with the
extra-radicular mycelial network constituting an interface area with the soil. The
three-dimensional extent of this network allows the exploration of a considerably
larger volume of soil than that accessible by the host plant’s root system alone.
Sylvia (1986) measured an average of 12 m of AM fungal hyphae per gram of soil
(Sylvia 1986) (Fig. 9.9).
Phosphorus Uptake
Phosphorus (P) is an essential element classified as a macronutrient due to the rela-

tively large amounts required by plants. Plant growth is related to the availability
of inorganic phosphorus in the plant rhizosphere (Holford 1997). Phosphorus is an
essential component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in nucleic acids and membrane
phospholipids (Marschner 1995; Gaude et al. 2008; Maathuis 2009). It assists in
photosynthesis, energy conservation, carbon metabolism, redox reactions, enzyme
activation and inactivation, signaling, and nucleic acid synthesis (Vance et al. 2003).
(Vance et al. 2003; Gaude et al. 2008; Maathuis 2009; Ramos et al. 2011). In general,
P availability in the soil is very low due to its fixation and immobilization (Javot et al.
2007; Yadav and Tarafdar 2010). Plants can take up P directly via the soil-root inter-
face through the epidermis and root hairs. Under the action of root uptake, depleted
zones are rapidly created around the roots. A small proportion (usually less than 1%)
is immediately available to plants, which have difficulty acquiring this element while
their needs are great (Richardson et al. 2009; Smith and Smith 2011). To access soil
P pools inaccessible to plants, another strategy is termed the “mycorrhizal” pathway,
Fig. 9.9 Schematic representation of the mechanisms involved in the exchange of major nutrients
between the AMF and host plant (Ramos et al. 2011)
Fig. 9.10 Schematic

representation of the two
pathways of phosphorus
uptake in a root. (Bucher
2007)
Fig. 9.11 Possible pathways for water transport between soil and root xylem in an ectomycorrhizal
root of a gymnosperm. FCW, fungal cell wall; PCW, plant cell wall; PM, plant plasma membrane; P,
plasmodesm; CB, casparian band; E, endoderm; C, net area of cortex/Hartig; M, mantle; S, strand;
H, hypha. The hypal membrane is not shown separately. The yellow matrix is filled with hyphae
and their cell walls
via the extra-root mycelium (Fig. 9.11) (Karandashov and Bucher 2005; Bucher
2007; Smith and Smith 2011). The AMF would be able to hydrolyze organic P into
inorganic P to make it available in the soil to the plant or transfer it directly to the
host plant (Feng et al. 2003; Shibata and Yano 2003).
a. Direct pathway, Pi transporters in the plant located in the epidermis, have the
role of absorbing Pi from the soil directly into the root cells. (Yellow circles)
formation of a depletionzone (bluezone) near the root surface.
b. Indirect symbiotic pathway involves AMF taking up Pi by fungal Pi transporters
(red circles) located in the extra-matrix hyphae. Pi is the n transferred to the root
and eventually to the symbiotic interface in the cortex. The Pht1transporters in
the plant, located in this interface (black circles).
Nitrogen Nutrition
Nitrogen is an essential and indispensable element for plant growth like phosphorus
(Ohyama 2010) and contributes to the structure and synthesis of many molecules
such as amino acids, coenzymes, nucleotides, and phospholipids (Hawkesford et al.
2012). It has been shown that mycorrhizal roots can access important sources of
nitrogen (Govindarajulu et al. 2005; Hodge et al. 2010; Hodge and Storer 2015).
Nitrogen transfer by AMF has been demonstrated using radioactive isotopes (Govin-
darajulu et al. 2005; Jin et al. 2005; Miransari 2011). The AMF possesses the enzy-
matic equipment necessary for nitrate and ammonium acquisition. They can transfer
significant amounts of inorganic nitrogen to their host plants (Govindarajulu et al.
2005; Hodge et al. 2010; Hawkesford et al. 2012). Nitrogen uptake requires the
activity of transporters localized at the soil/extra-root hyphae interface of the AMF.
GintAMTI and GintAMT2, which code for high-affinity transporters of NH4+ ions in
Glomus intraradices (López-Pedrosa et al. 2006; Pérez-Tienda et al. 2011), have been
found in AMF. They are both responsible for making nitrogen transporters. AMF can
also accelerate the decomposition and acquisition of nitrogen directly from organic
matter to increase its bioavailability to plants (Hodge and Storer 2015). Once taken
in, nitrogen is moved to the intra-root hyphae as arginine (Jin et al. 2005). There, it
is broken down into ammonium, which is then moved to the plant at the arbuscular
level (He et al. 2003).
Enhancement of the Uptake of Other Mineral Elements
Generally, AMF also improves plant uptake of other mineral elements such as K,
Ca, and Mg (Clark and Zeto 2000; Farzaneh et al. 2011; Ramos et al. 2011). Using
the extramural network lets the plant look at a larger area of soil and get other trace
elements that aren’t easily moved, like S (Allen and Shachar-Hill 2009), Cu, Zn, Mn,
and Fe (Liu et al. 2000; Lehmann and Rillig 2015; Bagheri et al. 2018). However,
when these elements are present in high quantities and therefore have a polluting
character, the AMF can play a protective role for the plant by retaining these toxic
elements (Kumar and Saxena 2019).
Improvement of Water Nutrition
The lack of nutrients in arid soils and seedlings and the long dry periods that can
last for several months restrict plant nutrient and water resources. These stressful
conditions force plants to seek these resources far from the rhizosphere, with the help
of hyphae from the mycorrhizal symbiotic association. Püschel et al. (2020) showed
that adding the AM fungus Rhizophagusirregularis to the Medicago truncatula plant
made it take in more water. Zarik et al. (2016) showed that inoculating Cupressus
atlantica G with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi made it more resistant to drought. This
happened because the extended extraracinar hyphae of AM fungi helped the plant take
in more water. For their part, Lehto et al. (2011) demonstrated that ectomycorrhizae
play an important role in water uptake by plants. Figure 9.11 shows the possible
pathways for water transport between soil and root xylem in an ectomycorrhizal root
of a gymnosperm. The models representing the possible pathways for water transport
between the soil and the root xylem in an ectomycorrhizal root of a gymnosperm
consist of the following steps:
(a) Water enters an individual hypha in the soil, is carried into the fungal symplast,
and then moves to the root symplast through the shared apoplast;
(b) Same as (1) except that water penetrates the symplast of the hypha in the mantle;
(c) Water enters the apoplast of a mycelial strand, is transported into the fungal and
plant apoplasts, and then enters the root cell;
(d) trans membrane pathway: water passes through several fungal and plant
membranes, then into the plant symplast;
(e) Water moves through the fungal and plant apoplasts to the endodermis, where
the Casparian band forces it into the symplast (Lehto and Zwiazek 2011).
Protection Against Abiotic and Biotic Stresses
It is well known that the main function of AMF is the improvement of water and
mineral nutrition in plants. Another important characteristic of AMF is its protective
effect on the host plant by improving tolerance against abiotic and biotic stresses
such as salinity (Borde et al. 2017), drought (Ruiz-Sánchez et al. 2010), and temper-
ature (Latef and Chaoxing 2011a). They are also involved in mitigating the harmful
effects of pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Lenoir et al. 2017),
fungicides (Campagnac et al. 2010), and trace metals (Abu-Elsaoud et al. 2017;
Fall et al. 2021; Khalid et al. 2021). Similarly, AMF is involved in improving
resistance to certain cryptogamic diseases (Krzyzaniak et al. 2021). AM fungi can
reduce stress symptoms by complementing the plant’s intrinsic protective mecha-
nisms (Symanczik et al. 2020). Several studies have shown the role played by AMF
in the protection of plants under abiotic stresses (Begum et al. 2019).
Drought Stress
Drought is one of the main stresses that can significantly reduce plant productivity
(Farooq et al. 2009). When there isn’t enough water in the root zone, plants usually
have a high transpiration rate, which closes the stomata and reduces the amount of
CO2 that gets in. This makes photosynthesis less active (Pagter et al. 2005) and speeds
up the production of ROS, which causes oxidative stress in plants (Hasanuzzaman
et al. 2013). AMF has been shown to improve plant performance to reduce stress
symptoms by complementing intrinsic plant protective mechanisms by improving
root length, leaf area, plant biomass, and nutrient uptake under drought conditions.
(Medina 2010; Mathur et al. 2019). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi improve the water
status of the host plant in several ways that can be linked to better water and nutrient
uptake in the mycorrhizal roots. Extra-radical hyphae and the release of glomalins
make soil aggregates much more stable (Ji et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2020). AMF-
activated microbial life has a significant impact on aggregate stability in a semi-arid,
degraded area. which in turn improves water and nutrient uptake as well as soil
structure (Pagano 2014; Ji et al. 2019), and AMF improves and regulates photosyn-
thetic rate. In general, the higher photosynthetic rate in mycorrhizal plants leads to
higher carbohydrate production. It has been demonstrated that mycorrhized barley
plants under water stress have carbohydrate concentrations that are about 80% higher
than those of non-mycorrhized plants (Porcel and Ruiz-Lozano 2004; Khalvati et al.
2005). In addition to these benefits, the AMF quickly activates a host plant defense
system. This protects the host plant from oxidative damage caused by water stress
and makes it make antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, and
guaiacolperoxidase, as well as non-enzymatic antioxidant molecules like ascorbate
and glutathione (Ruiz-Sánchez et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2017).
Salinity Stress
Salinity is now one of the most important abiotic stresses. It slows growth and devel-
opment, changes photosynthesis (Raziuddin et al. 2011), and makes more reactive
oxygen species (ROS), which affect lipid and protein metabolism (Hasanuzzaman
et al. 2013; Hashem et al. 2014; Ahmad et al. 2016). Many authors have attributed the
improvement of plant growth and yield under salinity conditions by amf to improved
water and nutrient uptake and increased photosynthesis (Latef and Chaoxing 2011b;
Beltrano et al. 2013; Ahmad et al. 2016). It has been shown that colonization by
AMF allows salinity-exposed host plants through enhanced water uptake through
their hyphal network and to improve gas exchange (Porcel et al. 2012; Hameed
et al. 2014), and can also improve root hydraulic conductivity at low water potential
(Elhindi et al. 2017; Bitterlich et al. 2018) and through stimulation and modification
of root system morphology (Fan et al. 2011; Qin et al. 2021) and increased stomatal
conductance (Zhu et al. 2018). It has been reported that mycorrhizal plants under
saline conditions exhibited increased chlorophyll content, greater N and Mg uptake,
and inhibition of Na transport compared to non-inoculated plants (Borde et al. 2017;
Bencherif et al. 2019; Kong et al. 2020). The main role of AMF is the attenuation
of salinity-related oxidative stress damage by increasing the activity of antioxidant
enzymes such as SOD, CAT, PPO, and POD or by increasing the concentration of
non-enzymatic antioxidant molecules such as ascorbate and glutathione (Ye et al.
2019; Qin et al. 2021). Inoculation with AMF showed higher SOD, POD, CAT, and
POX activity in several plants (Dastogeer et al. 2020; Qin et al. 2021). Indeed, AMF
possess various oxidative stress-related genes (SOD genes) that, through upregula-
tion, allow mycorrhized plants to tolerate environmental stresses such as drought and
salinity (Huang et al. 2008; Ye et al. 2019).
Mycorrhizal Fungi as Bioprotective Agents
Pathogenic elements can also disrupt plants, and the various interactions between
nature’s components can be advantageous or harmful in their environment, partic-
ularly the soil. To protect themselves against these threats, plants have developed
protective systems, including the establishment of the mycorrhizal symbiotic associ-
ation, which can predispose the plant to respond more rapidly to pathogenic attacks
(Harrier and Watson 2004). The use of mycorrhizae in agriculture should therefore
be seen as a proactive strategy for biological control. According to a lot of research
done so far, the use of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) is a promising, easy-to-use, and
environmentally friendly method of prevention. The presence of AM also makes it
much less important to use chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides from the outside
(Dalpé 2005). Among the researchers who have carried out work in this direction,
Reyes-tenaet al. (2017) have shown the existence of an associative effect with co-
inoculation by mycorrhizal fungi and actinomycetes in the promotion of plant growth
and bioprotection against wilt caused by Phytophthora capsici in pepper trees. For
their part, Minchin et al. (2012) have shown that ectomycorrhizae (ECM) have a
positive effect on seedling performance due to the beneficial relationship between
plants and mycorrhizal fungi. They are also effective against various plant root rot
diseases. Numerous studies have demonstrated the protective role of ECM not only
against fungal pathogens (Morin et al. 1999) but also against nematodes. Further-
more have demonstrated the importance of ECM symbiosis in controlling pine wilt
disease, which is a worldwide threat.
Conclusion
Mycorrhizal fungi are key organisms in soils that affect biogeochemical cycles of
major crop nutrients. Their role in soil fertility is critical due to their numerous effects
on soil composition and microflora. Fungal hyphae have a considerable impact on
the soil because they deposit water and minerals that the plant cannot use, thereby
playing an important role in sustaining soil fertility, particularly in arid environments
with multiple abiotic constraints.
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Part IV
Urbanism, Green Building and Land Use:
What can We Do in the Face of Climate
Change
Chapter 10
Life Cycle Assessment for Green
Buildings: A Mini Literature Review
Redouan Assadiki, Gérard Merlin, Hervé Boileau, Catherine Buhé,

and Fouzi Belmir
Abstract The environmental impacts of buildings have become a major challenger

during the recent years, as they produce 30% of the world’s landfill waste, utilize
more than 40% of the energy produced worldwide, and emit one third of all green-
house gas emissions. This study uses systematic literature review based on the Social
Science Citation Index databases to identify the publication of the building life cycle
assessment (LCA) literature produced between 2000 and 2021. The significant rise
in the number of global research, the United States is in the lead. When it comes
to building life cycle assessments, the Norwegian University of Science and Tech-
nology is regarded as the pioneer in the field of research. In addition, the United
Kingdom has contributed over 161 publications and Switzerland has contributed
84 studies. However, over the last 20 years, the United States has contributed 449
valuable papers on the LCA of buildings. The review of 53 articles reveals that the
CML2002 and eco indicator 99 methods are frequently used, along with the four
indicators global warming potential, photochemical ozone creation potential, and
acidification potential. However, the number of LCA studies conducted in Africa
is limited. Suggestions for future research are proposed to address these gaps and
expand the scope of green building research in Morocco.
Keywords Systematic literature review · Life cycle assessment · Construction

industry
R. Assadiki (B) · F. Belmir

Laboratory of Materials, Processes, Catalysis, and Environment, Higher School of Technology,
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, 30000 Fez, Morocco
G. Merlin · H. Boileau · C. Buhé
LOCIE, UMR 5271, Polytech Annecy-Chambéry, Université Savoie Mont Blanc-CNRS, 73376
Le Bourget-du-Lac, France
150 R. Assadiki et al.
Introduction
Morocco’s construction sector is characterized by rapid development an average of

170,000 builds per year (United Nations Environment 2016). To address the esti-
mated demand for new housing units, the Moroccan government has implemented
an ambitious building program. This sector, which accounts for nearly one-third of
national energy consumption, has a vital contribution to make to Morocco’s economic
and social development, contributing 7% of national GDP (United Nations Environ-
ment 2016). Over 25% of Morocco’s primary energy consumption comes from the
building sector (residential and tertiary), and that percentage could rise to 40% by
2030 if building life cycles are taken into account. In particular, the construction
industry accounts for 40–50% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions due to its
consumption of 40% of materials that enter the global economy (Pachauri et al.
2014). By quantifying environmental impacts and presenting workable scenarios for
mitigating environmental impacts, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) offers an appro-
priate method for accomplishing this goal. Certainly, LCA has been a mature and
widely used method for the assessment of environmental impacts. The GHG Protocol,
ISO 14067, and Publicly Available Specification 2050 (PAS2050) are the three most
widely used standards for conducting an LCA of products or services. Although the
computation and exclusion criteria for these standards vary, they are all based on ISO
14040 and ISO 14044, which offer the guiding principles, essential requirements,
and structure for life cycle evaluations. LCA is utilized through various sustain-
ability certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED, DGNB, and HQE (Sartori
et al. 2021).
Reviews of the literature on building life cycle assessment have been published;
these reviews tend to concentrate on bibliometrics, and the systematic literature
covers only a small portion of the macro-scale research topics and trends. Chau
et al. (2015) reviewed on three streams of life cycle studies LCA, Life Cycle Energy
Assessment, and Life Cycle Carbon Emissions Assessment. Geng et al. (2017) and
Nwodo and Anumba (2019) analyzed the literature on building life cycle assessment
(LCA) published on databases of web of science. Minunno et al. (2021) identified
the common topics of LCA, embodied energy, and embodied carbon of construction
material through the systematic literature reviews such as concrete, cement, steel, and
wood. Rhaouti et al. (2023) compared the results of 32 LCA studies of the 11 cement
types according to the GWP indicator. Analyses of the effects of thermal systems,
building integrated renewable energy systems, and heating and cooling systems on
the environment have also been done in the past.
Finding out the features of the worldwide LCA literature for buildings from 2000
to 2021 is the aim of this study. The systematic literature review (SLR) is to examine
global trends in building LCA research over the past 21 years by analyzing general
trends in the methodologies used in the impact inventory, databases, tools, and LCA
software. In the absence of similar studies in Morocco, these results provide us with
useful information to select the method we can use or adapt in the Moroccan context,
and to propose sub-themes in future research direction on the LCA building.
10 Life Cycle Assessment for Green Buildings: A Mini Literature Review 151
Life Cycle Assessment in the Building Sector
Life Cycle Assessment is an approach for methodically accounting for the inputs,
outputs, and possible environmental consequences of a product system throughout
its life cycle, often from cradle to grave. LCA’s comprehensive approach can high-
light possible trade-offs across life cycle phases and distinct environmental conse-
quences, allowing for the comparison and assessment of alternative solutions. LCA
has acquired universal acceptability in industry as an environmental assessment tech-
nique and began to be utilized in the construction context approximately twenty years
ago to examine both building materials and structures. The ISO 14040 set of standards
defines the overall framework for LCA applications (ISO 14040 2006; ISO 14044
2006; ISO 14049 2012), covering the four interconnected steps for an LCA appli-
cation: aims and scope, Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment
(LCIA), and results interpretation.
The guidelines have served as a foundation for LCA applications in the construc-
tion industry. Furthermore, ISO has defined Type III environmental declarations (ISO
14025 2006), often known as environmental product declarations (EPD). LCA is not
a green label, but rather a technique for quantifying and recognizing the environ-
mental consequences of buildings throughout their life cycle, estimating the relative
performance of various construction choices, and perhaps identifying how and where
improvements might be made. Moreover, standardization on life cycle assessments
(LCA) of buildings (EN 15978; CEN 2011) and construction products (EN 15804;
CEN 2012) have been developed in the European by the technical committee on
the sustainability of construction works (CEN/TC 350). This work defines specific
steps or modules that can be used in LCA studies to facilitate easier comparability
between studies. A life cycle approach is used to analyze the environmental perfor-
mance of Green Building, and the concepts, standards, and processes for this eval-
uation are outlined in the European standard EN 15804:2012. It offers a frame-
work for evaluating the environmental effects of building goods over their whole
life cycle (Fig. 10.1), including raw material extraction (A1–3), transportation (A4),
manufacturing (A5), usage (B1–7), and disposal (C1–4).
The EN 15804:2012 standard, designed for manufacturers of construction prod-
ucts, architects, engineers and other construction professionals, aims to establish a
standardised methodology for assessing and reporting the environmental impacts of
construction products. Its use is intended to create a common approach to the environ-
mental assessment of products, making it easier to compare different construction
products. This standard has a critical function in supporting the development of
sustainable construction practices, by providing uniform criteria and guidelines for
assessing the environmental performance of products, thereby promoting informed
decision-making in the construction sector.
Fig. 10.1 Building assessment modules for life cycle assessment according to EN 15804:2012/EN
15978
Research Methodology
This review focused study employs a systematic literature review (SLR) to analyze
journal articles and conference proceedings published between 2000 and 2021. In
order to accomplish the goals of this investigation, the integrated analysis illustrated
in Fig. 10.2.
First, a collection of pertinent literature on the life cycle analysis of build-
ings is presented, along with information on other building-related topics including
“building materials,” “building systems,” and “green building.” Additionally, “build”
has been swapped out for “construction” or “architecture”. Consequently, almost
2500 articles were taken from databases that contained content released between
2000 and 2021. Were based on the review of titles and summaries in databases of
science-indexed scientific citations (DTU Find It, Google Scholar, Scopus, Springer,
Fig. 10.2 Summary of the research design

and Web of Science). In this phase, the search criteria were applied to identify certain
words or phrases in the keywords, abstract, and title of possible entries. Second, in
order to remove redundant datasets, the chosen research was examined again. In
order to accomplish the goals of this investigation, the integrated analysis depicted
in Fig. 10.2 was carried out. It comprises of an organized study of the literature
on sustainable building and sustainable building assessment techniques found in
bibliographic records.
Third, the entire texts of the remaining papers were assessed in order to determine
which publications should be reviewed. Project kinds that were irrelevant, knowledge
domains that were not addressed, and complex evaluation methods that overlooked
the life cycle were among the exclusion criteria. To achieve 53 articles on life cycle
analysis, there should be a recognized focus on relevant articles related to such a
sector. The literature reviewed to identify the main methodologies developed in the
life cycle impact assessment which are our goal. The environmental indicators are
used to express the impact of the building on the environment and identify potential
gaps in futures research.
Overview of Life Cycle Studies of Buildings
According to the findings, life cycle assessment has primarily focused on topics
related to engineering, environmental sciences and ecology, and construction and
building technology, with the terms “building envelope” and “living wall” devel-
oping increased attention in recent years, as evidenced by citation bursts. Processes
(bottom–up), input–output (IO) data (top–down), and hybrid analysis (including
process and IO data) can all be used in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment. The
process-based method is the most commonly utilized in building LCA studies
because it gives extensive information at the product level, allowing individual
construction alternatives to be compared (Monteiro et al. 2016). The base of top-
down analysis is the correlation between the energy intensity data per industrial
sector and the domestic economic statistics for various industry sectors. Although
IO analysis yields more comprehensive results at the macroscale, it is more unpre-
dictable due to “aggregation error,” which makes it challenging to describe the effects
on various processes within the same sector (Crawford 2008). In order to solve the
shortcomings of process-based LCA and IO analysis, the IO-hybrid technique was
created. According to the authors that have used the IO-hybrid technique, an IO-
hybrid LCA can produce far higher embodied energy estimates than comparable
process-based studies since it has more thorough system boundaries (Stephan 2014).
Throughout the 53 publications related to LCA building as shown in Table 10.1.
Figure 10.3 presents the results drawn from 53 papers extracted from data reposito-
ries. The CML (23%) and eco-indicator 99 (15%) methods stand out as the preferred
Table 10.1 Publications that received the highest citations per year regarding building LCA 2000–
2021
Author Location Methodology Indicator environmental
Scheuer et al. USA Midpoints + GWP, ODP, NP, AP, waste
(2003) Cum. En.
Erlandsson and Sweden BYKR AP, EP, GWP, POCP, LUB
Levin (2004)
Xing et al. (2008) China Midpoints Energy use, GWP, l pollution emissions
(O3 , CO, NOx , PM10, SOx )
Kofoworola and Thailand EIO-LCA GWP + AP + POCP
Gheewala (2008)
Ortiz-Rodríguez Spain CML 2 GWP, AP, RD, HTP, EP, CEDnr, CEDr,
et al. (2010) water
Guardigli et al. Italy Eco-Ind.99 Human health, ecosystem quality, and
(2011) resources
Cuéllar-Franca and UK CML 2001 GWP, AP, ADP, EP, ODP, HTP, TETP,
Azapagic (2012) FAETP, MAETP, POCP
Peuportier et al. France – En, GWP, AP, EP, biodiversity, odour,
(2013) resource, smog, waste, water
Dong and Ng Hong ReCiPe + CML GWP, AP, EP, ODP, HTP, TETP, FAETP,
(2014) Kong + eco-indicator MAETP, POCP
99
Sofia (2015) Portugal CML + EF + GWP, AP, EP, ODP, ADP, POCP
indicator 99 +
carbon footprint
Zaini et al. (2016) Malaysia Em.Energy GWP
Alba-Rodríguez Spain EF + D.En Pastures, sea, cropland, forest, energy,
et al. (2017) built land EF (gha)
Tumminia et al. Italy CML GWP, AP, EP, ODP, HTP, GER, POCP,
(2018) ADP
Emami et al. (2019) Finland ReCiPe GWP, ODP, TA, WD, EP, HTP, POCP,
PM, TETP, FAETP, MAETP, I, RD
Ryberg et al. (2021) Denmark ReCiPe GWP, ODP, TA, WD, LUB, EP, HTP,
POCP, PM, TETP, RD, FAETP, MAETP,
I, TE
EF Ecological Footprint, Eco-Ind.99 Eco-indicator 99, CML Institute of Environmental Science,
Cum. En. Cumulated Energy, EIO-LCA an economic input-output life-cycle assessment, BYKR
Swedish Building Eco-Cycle Council, CEDnr use of non-renewable primary energy, CEDr use
of renewable primary energy (energy resources), GER Gross Energy Requirement, ODP depletion
potential of the stratospheric ozone layer, POCP formation potential of tropospheric ozone photo-
chemical oxidant, TETP Terrestrial ecotoxicity potential, ADP Abiotic depletion potential, MAETP
Marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential, TA Terrestrial Acidification, TE Terrestrial Eutrophication,
WD Water Depletion, LUS Land Use Soil Erosion, LUB Land Use Biodiversity, HTP Human toxi-
city potential, EP Marine Eutrophication, RD resource depletion, PM Particulate, NP Nitrification
potential, FAETP Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential, I Ionizing Radiation
Fig. 10.3 The methodologies used in the life cycle impact assessment building (2000–2021)
approaches for assessing environmental impacts, indicating their notable popularity

in the reviewed literature. Conversely, the other reviewed methods show a lower use,
suggesting either a restricted preference on the part of the researchers or a restricted
applicability to particular contexts, highlighting the variety of methodological
options available in the field of environmental assessment.
To compare the two methods, the table summarizes the difference between the
Eco-indicator and CML 2002 (Table 10.2). CML (Centre for Environmental Science
at Leiden University) is a widely used impact assessment method that was developed
in the Netherlands. It consists of a set of environmental impact categories, such
as global warming, acidification, and eutrophication, and a set of characterization
factors that quantify the potential environmental impacts of different pollutants in
each category. Indicator 99 is an impact assessment method that was developed by
the European Commission Joint Research Centre. It is similar to CML in that it
consists of a set of environmental impact categories and characterization factors, but
it also includes additional impact categories such as human toxicity and land use. The
CML method is a midpoint (cause or effect) method that uses eleven environmental
indicators, except for energy, whereas the methodology indicators-99 (consequence)
uses indicators: Human Health (DALY), Quality of the ecosystem Resources (energy
required).
Overall, these two approaches continue the shared goal of offering a thorough
assessment of the environmental effects of products or processes. However, the
distinctions between them lie in the specific effect categories and the defining factors
they employ. The choice between the CML method and the indicators-99 method-
ology depends on the specific goals and scope of the analysis of the Cycle of Life
(LCA) study, highlighting the significance of choosing a methodological approach
based on the factors to be evaluated.
Table 10.2 The comparison between the two methods

Methods Midpoint Endpoint Characterization Normalization Ponderation Single
score
CML 2002 (De × − × × − −
Bruijn et al.
2002)
Eco-indicator 99 − × × × × ×
(Goedkoop 1999)
Environmental Performance Indicators
The indicators most frequently used in research carried out between 2000 and 2021
include the 100-year global warming potential, the acidification potential, the photo-
chemical oxidant formation potential of tropospheric ozone, and the eutrophication
potential. This prevalence can be explained by the fact that these indicators are
specifically chosen to measure the impacts of contemporary climate change and
ozone depletion. These choices reflect the increased relevance of these aspects in
understanding current environmental consequences, as highlighted in Fig. 10.4.
Even though accounting for primary energy or greenhouse gas emissions is repre-
sentative of some environmental categories like global warming potential (GWP),
acidification potential (AP), and abiotic depletion (AD), it may not fully represent the
Fig. 10.4 Indicators of environmental assessment

overall environmental impact of a building, including other categories like eutroph-

ication potential (EP), photochemical oxidation (PO), ozone layer depletion (OLD),
and toxicity categories. This was highlighted by the most thorough life cycle assess-
ment (LCA) studies that included multiple environmental categories. Since there is
no required technique for conducting an environmental impact assessment, some
research indicates that the environmental categories chosen and the methodology
employed for conducting an environmental impact assessment may have an impact
on the assessment’s outcomes.
LCA Software and LCI Databases
The use of LCA software is currently at the very peak of development, with several
software tools available and new ones being created on a regular basis. Table 10.3 lists
software solutions suitable for general assessments, i.e. not specialised in a specific
application, based on 53 articles. The LCI data relating to a product or process,
together with the outputs and accompanying material, energy and emission flows,
are stored in the LCA software databases. Where primary data is not available, as is
often the case for upstream and downstream processes, the LCI databases are used.
The process of choosing relevant data sets requires a lot of work, even though
using LCI databases minimizes the effort required for data collecting. Since the
first LCI databases appeared in the 1990s, several datasets have been developed by
Table 10.3 Overview of LCA tools and LCI databases (2000–2022)

Software/tool Sector Database Number of Sector Free/for
datasets purchase
SimaPro Generic Ecoinvent 18,000+ Generic 3800$/
(worldwide) multi-user
GaBi Generic GaBi 15,500+ Generic 1500$/user
(worldwide)
OpenLCA Generic ProBas 9000+ Generic Free
(worldwide)
Umberto 11 Generic IDEMAT 1700+ Generic Free
(worldwide) (academic)
LCA Generic Ökobaudat 1250+ Construction Free
Calculator (Germany)
Athena Building MTU asphalt 7000+ Construction Free
Software material pavement
framework (US)
LCA Generic MTU asphalt 8500+ Construction Free
Calculator (US)
PSILCA 10,000+ Generic (social 3000$/user
(worldwide) LCA)
various suppliers across various industries and geographical areas; some are available
for free, while others require payment. Choosing relevant datasets and keeping an
overview is challenging due to this variability. Therefore, Table 10.3 gives a summary
of input–output databases, social LCA databases, and common LCI databases. It is
not claimed that the compilation is exhaustive. It is to be expected in emerging nations
like Morocco.
In Morocco, life cycle assessment (LCA) has been applied in two key sectors:
agricultural products for export and photovoltaic (PV) installations. An in-depth
study was carried out, particularly in the agricultural sector, where An LCA study
was conducted, in which the environmental impact of one kilogram of tomatoes was
assessed. The results show that 0.306 kg CO2eq is emitted during the production
and 0.204 kg of CO2eq is emitted during transport to France. These are significantly
detailed figures for the carbon footprint associated with the production and distribu-
tion of this specific product. In addition, the study took into account the water foot-
print, revealing a total consumption of 29.738 L of water per kilogram of tomatoes
(Payen et al. 2015). This level of detail in the analysis provides an in-depth under-
standing of the environmental impacts associated with the production and export of
agricultural products. As well, the Corona et al. (2017) study was carried out in 2016,
focusing on the NOOR project in Ouarzazate, which uses high-concentration photo-
voltaic technology. The analysis quantified the environmental aspects of large-scale
solar energy production, providing crucial information on greenhouse gas emissions,
water consumption and other impacts associated with this type of installation.
During the two Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies, the method used has been
to use Ecoinvent’s generic databases. Although this approach is very common, it
raises questions about the robustness of the results obtained for the environmental
indicators. The generic nature of these databases may introduce a degree of uncer-
tainty into environmental assessments specific to the Moroccan context. It is crucial
to address this issue of uncertainty, as it can significantly influence the interpretation
of the results and the relevance of the resulting recommendations.
Criticisms Relative to Life Cycle Analysis
“LCA is one of the most reliable tools known to date for the entire industrial produc-
tion system” (Côté and Gouvinhas 2004). Also, this method is considered the most
valid in terms of evaluation. The analysis of scientific publications related to Life
Cycle Assessments of complex products revealed barriers associated with carrying
out such assessments. These barriers were used to develop search strings for the main
literature search, which aimed to identify a broad range of approaches, not just those
declared as simplification approaches. The most frequently cited barrier to carrying
out LCA of complex products was the time and resource requirements, primarily
due to the data-intensive life cycle inventory phase. Other challenges included the
complexity of the product, data and resource constraints, and required expert knowl-
edge. Since buildings and other goods contain a wide variety of parts and materials,
it is very important to put in a lot of work to compile and organize data. Modelling
all parts and materials is often not feasible, and the use of generic databases of
components purchased from suppliers may not contain the required data. In addi-
tion, industrial building considers the LCA methodology to be too complex to be
used routinely. The uncertain results come because of the absence of the spatial or
temporal dimension in the data. In addition, the life cycle analysis does not take into
account social, economic, technical, strategic or regulatory aspects.
Notwithstanding the weaknesses of LCA and the completeness of the inventory
stage (database), this is still a hot topic in Morocco. Given the absence of databases
on construction materials and products (Environmental Product Declarations), we
propose some suggestions to launch the research:
i. Implementing Environmental Product Declarations Morocco.
ii. Simplification of LCA based on detailed and validated models.
iii. Integration with other assessment methods to simplify and ensure consistency
of the data used.
iv. Integrate machine learning with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), enabling LCA
data to be used optimally and thus boosting the accuracy and efficiency of
environmental assessments for more informed and sustainable decision-making.
Conclusions
The building sector is characterised by its large diversity of materials, construc-

tion processes and long service life (50–100 years). There will always be new
advancements in building materials and techniques, which will cause the gap in
the present databases’ sufficiency to grow and increase the need for more study.
Accurate comparisons across study findings for future references will be hampered
by the varied LCA research technique with its own aims, scopes, and constraints.
The literature review shows an abounding use of the CML2002 and eco-indicator
99 methods, as well as the four indicators GWP, AP, POCP, and EP. In a constantly
evolving Moroccan context, characterised by rapid advances in construction prac-
tices and growing demand for sustainable buildings, may accentuate the need to
update and adapt the databases used in life cycle assessments (LCAs) to accurately
reflect local realities. This underlines the relevance of more in-depth studies and
standardisation of the LCA technique for buildings, not only to fill current gaps but
also to anticipate developments specific to the Moroccan context.
Integrating these considerations, the results of LCA studies can have a direct
impact by providing crucial information to political decision-makers, designers,
engineers and building users in Morocco. They could influence the choice of sustain-
able construction materials and techniques, thereby contributing to the develop-
ment of sustainable development in the Moroccan construction sector. Despite the
current challenges of LCA, this approach remains relevant and necessary in Morocco
to guide decisions towards more ecological and socially responsible construction.
Notwithstanding the weaknesses of LCA and the completeness of the inventory stage
(database), this is still a hot topic in Morocco.
Finally, this mini literature review identified the most effective institutions for
establishing LCA research, which may also encourage future international research
collaboration with these universities.
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Chapter 11
The Impact of Industrial Activities
on the Land Surface Temperature (LST)
in the Urban Environment of the City
of Kenitra (Morocco)
Rhita Nasraoui and Khalid Benzidiya
Abstract This work presents a diagnosis of the impact of industrial activities on the
land surface temperature (LST) in the industrial area of the city of Kenitra. This study
is based on the determination of the variables of surface temperature and humidity
within the industrial area of the city of Kenitra based on statistical and analytical
methods. The aim of this study is to develop solutions to avoid negative impacts of
LST on the economy and the environment. Moreover, most recent studies deal mainly
with only a few of the most significant impacts, and thus future research should be
redirected towards neglected indicators and relationships, which are fundamental
to design effective climate policies in industrial destinations. In this paper, remote
sensing technology was used to analyze changes in LST and spectral indices.
Keywords Industrial activities · Surface temperature · Kenitra · Remote sensing
Introduction
The surface temperature of the earth is important in climate studies due to its impact
on the lower atmosphere’s thermal equilibrium (Dibs and Alnajjar 2013). The city
surface and atmosphere are exposed to urban climate, being warmer than non-urban
environments, especially at night. Many factors affect the radiant energy that reaches
the surface of the earth, including atmospheric transparency (Huang et al. 2021),
daylight length, seasons, and radiation angle.
R. Nasraoui (B) · K. Benzidiya

Laboratory Dynamics of Landscapes, Risks and Heritage, Faculty of Arts and Humanties, Sultan
Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco
K. Benzidiya
Laboratory Dynamics of Landscapes, Risks and Heritage, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Khouribga,
Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco
164 R. Nasraoui and K. Benzidiya
Alterations in land use and surface crust result in modifications of the phys-
ical properties of the Earth’s surface, which have an impact on various factors that
contribute to regional climates, including radiation, heat, and water vapor (Kafy et al.
2020).
The climate of a given city is a function of its ongoing activities. Additionally,
one of the common problems in each city is the formation and concentration of heat
islands, which increases the consumption of electricity/water, biodiversity changes,
and this, however, affects human’s comfort (Bahi et al. 2016).
The satellites such as ASTER, MODIS and Landsat are useful tools to model the
impact of urban heat islands and to evaluate the surface temperature as a function of
the materials used in the city. Urban and semi-urban areas, whether in developed or
developing countries, often suffer from poor air quality and heat islands caused by
industrial activities, vehicle use, coal burning, agricultural activities, and unplanned
land use.
The study underscores the importance of utilizing infrared thermal data to compre-
hend changes in surface temperatures in the Casablanca region of Morocco. Remote
sensing data, including Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI-TIRS images from 1984 to 2016,
and MODIS nighttime images acquired from 2005 to 2015, were employed to eval-
uate the intensity of urban surface nighttime heat islands. Urban areas exhibited
higher surface temperatures due to population density and the presence of imper-
meable urban surfaces (Bahi et al. 2016). The research (Garouani et al. 2021) also
highlights the significance of considering city morphology and employing LST (Land
Surface Temperature) data in urban planning and development strategies, particularly
in semi-arid regions. This involves analyzing the spatial distribution of temperature
and identifying local climate zones (LCZs) using high-resolution satellite imagery
and statistical methods.
The study sheds light on the importance of considering the morphology of the
city of Ben Guerir and LST data in urban planning and development strategies,
especially in semi-arid areas, for analyzing the spatial distribution of temperature
and identifying local climate zones (LCZs). It explores the relationship between
surface temperature and city morphology using moderate-resolution satellite images
and a statistical approach (Azmi et al. 2021).
The study conducted by Sébastien Gadal (Gadal 2008) emphasizes the impor-
tance of using infrared thermal data to study urban concentrations in Morocco and
understand the impact of urbanization on human societies. This information can
assist in identifying areas most affected by urban heat and evaluating the effects of
urbanization on air and water quality and the local climate.
This work aims to evaluate the use of Landsat satellite data to assess differ-
ences in surface temperatures in urban areas and to analyze and compare the rela-
tionship between urban surface temperature and land cover types. Additionally,
the study employs a comprehensive approach that combines remote sensing tech-
niques, geographic information systems, and statistical analysis. This research article
contributes to the field of urban climate science by shedding light on the impact of
industrial activities on surface temperature and the formation of urban heat islands
11 The Impact of Industrial Activities on the Land Surface Temperature … 165
in the region. Furthermore, the article emphasizes the importance of remote sensing
in assessing the thermal conditions within urban areas.
Field of Study
The city of Kenitra is one of the most important cities in Morocco’s northwestern
region. It is located on the left-bank of the Sebou’s River and 12 km from the beach of
Mehdia. Therefore, this forms its estuary on the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, for adminis-
trative settings, the study area belongs to the Rabat-Sale-Kénitra region. It is bordered
to the north by the regions of Larache and Ouazzane and to the west by the Atlantic
Ocean.
To the east, it is adjacent to the regions of Sidi Kacem and Sidi Slimane, while
the Sale’s region and the Khemisset’s prefecture form its southern border. The
after-mentioned city is composed of 5 circles, 3 urban municipalities, and 20 rural
municipalities.
The city’s geographic location, which is located at the intersection of roads
connecting northern and eastern cities to the south, has contributed to attracting
a large number of immigrants from the other regions of the kingdom. Consequently,
this is leading to the development of the urban area and the intensification of its
infrastructure and industrial units.
This has contributed to the expansion of its urban area and the increase in the
population, which has moved from 573,000 people in 2004 to 711,713 people in
2022. As a result, this is due to the convergence of migration movements from
various regions, especially from rural areas.
The city of Kenitra is located at the western end of the Gharb plain, which is
characterized by its weak slopes with an average elevation of about 60 m at the level
of the sand dunes overlooking the ocean. This has led to environmental degradation,
especially in the absence of integrated preventive plans for the social and economic
development of the region (Fig. 11.1).
This study relied primarily on satellite data for the study years 1995 and 2021 using
geographic information systems and remote sensing to calculate vegetation indices,
derive land surface temperature, monitor land cover patterns, and land use. These
satellite images were downloaded from of the United States Geological Survey’s
website (USGS). Table 11.1 shows the study area and the dates of the satellite images
used.
The satellite imagery data from LANDSAT5 TM and LANDSAT8 OLI/TIRS were
processed according to the methodology outlined in Fig. 11.2 to derive the surface
temperature to detect both the urban heat island and the changes in land cover patterns
Fig. 11.1 Localizing the studied area at the national, regional, and local levels
Table 11.1 Characteristics of satellite imagery

Acquisition date Spatial resolution of TIR cand (m) Sensor Satellite
08/08/1995 120 TM LANDSAT 5
08/08/2021 100 OLI TIRS LANDSAT 8
Fig. 11.2 The workflow of this study
and land used in the city. The sixth thermal band for the LANDSAT5TM sensor and
the tenth band for the TIRS sensor of the LANDSAT8OLI/TIRS sensor were used
for this purpose. The study utilized satellite images with cloud coverage below 10%
(Avdan and Jovanovska 2016; Aboelnour and Engel 2018).
The remote sensing technique was used to analyze the satellite images using
the ENVI 8.4 program and geographic information systems using the ArcGIS 10.8
program. In addition, a set of mathematical operations were performed to detect
changes. The most important methods and tools used in the study were: Computation
of Land Use Cover Change (LUCC), Land Surface Temperature (LST), Satellite
Imagery and Urban heat island (UHI) Indices.
Computation of Land Use Cover Change (LUCC)
This study relied on the supervised classification method using a supervised algorithm
called Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) to detect changes in land cover
patterns, use, and areas (Li et al. 2022).Moreover, the four classes were extracted
during the study years 1995 and 2021 as follows:
• Built-Up
• Bare Land
• vegetation Cover
• Water.
Land Surface Temperature (LST)
LST was derived from Landsat data using the infrared Band-6 for the LANDSAT5
TM sensor and the tenth band for the LANDSAT8 OLI/TIRS sensor and radiomet-
rically corrected by converting digital number values to a thermal range (Band10/
Band6) into a higher calculated spectral radiance (Liu et al. 2016).
The 10th band was chosen over the 11th band mainly because it has less air inter-
ference, less noise, and better sensor sensitivity when it comes to measuring land
surface temperature (LST) with Landsat 8 Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). Addition-
ally, better atmospheric correction and more accurate differentiation of temperature
differences are made possible by Band 10’s shorter spectral range, leading to more
accurate LST retrievals (Wang et al. 2015). The Thermal Infrared Sensor (TM) on
Landsat 5 has selected the sixth band because it is positioned in a spectral window
with minimal atmospheric interference.
Bands 6 and 10 are primarily distinguished by their spectral widths. Compared to
Band 10, which has a spectral range of 0.59 μm, Band 6 has a wider range of 2 μm.
Due to its broader spectral range, Band 6 is more susceptible to air interferences,
especially those caused by vaporized water. As a result, Band 10 is typically seen to
be more precise for LST computations (Kaiser et al. 2022).
The top of atmospheric (TOA) should be converted from spectral radiance to
reflectance and brightness in the upper part of the atmosphere and then the land
surface temperature (LST) is calculated using the following Eq. (11.1).
LST = T/((1 + (λ×T/ρ)ln∈)) (11.1)
LSTLand Surface Temperature.

T Brightness temperature (Band 10, 11, or 6 depending on the case)
λ Wavelength of the thermal band
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant
P Constant value obtained from the formula P = h*c/s
e Spectral emissivity of land cover types.
Satellite Imagery Indices Used in the Study Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
The vegetation cover or vegetation index is one of the most widely used indices
worldwide. It is used to verify the status of vegetation cover by calculating the ratio
of near-infrared (NIR) and red bands through the application (Mallick et al. 2008) of
the mathematical Eq. (11.2) as well to detect its density, distribution, differentiation
between vegetation, soil, and water. NDVI values range between − 1 and 1 +.
A positive value of NDVI indicates an increase in vegetation cover. Furthermore,
the green vegetation index typically ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 and this index depends
on the near infrared and red bands in calculating values related to vegetation cover,
which highlights the color composition that combines red and near infrared. This is
because vegetation has a high reflectivity in this band (Sall et al. 2013).
NDVI = (NIR − RED)/(NIR + RED) (11.2)
where
NIR the reflectance value of near-infrared radiation

Red the reflectance value of visible red radiation.
The Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI)
NDBI can be calculated using Eq. (11.2). NDBI values range from − 1 to + 1, where
the negative values correspond to the water bodies, the positive values correspond
to urban areas, and the vegetation (Zheng et al. 2021) has a low value as determined
through the application of Eq. (11.3).
NDBI = (SWIR − NIR)/(SWIR + NIR) (11.3)
where
SWIR the reflectance value of short-wave infrared radiation

NIR the reflectance value of near-infrared radiation.
The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI):
On the one hand, the NDWI index is used to identify water bodies and monitor
changes in water content. Water bodies absorb visible light and reflect a high amount
of infrared radiation in the green wavelength range (60.0–52.0 μm) and very little in
the near-infrared range (0–9076.0 μm). On the other hand, vegetation and soil have
high reflectance values in the near-infrared wavelength range resulting in positive
values for NDWI. Additionally, the areas with water bodies appear bright and have
positive NDWI values, while green and built-up areas appear dark and have negative
or zero values as calculated using the Eq. (11.4) (Xu 2006; Tan et al. 2020).
NDWI = (GREEN − NIR)/(GREEN + NIR) (11.4)
where
GREEN the value of visible green light radiation

NIR the value of near-infrared radiation reflectance.
Urban Heat Island (UHI)
In this study, the UHI effect was extracted for the day by reference to Daily-average
temperature. The urban heat island occurs when the temperature in the urban centre
is above its environment (Moisa and Gemeda 2022). To compare the UHI change of
different years, the UHI is calculated using the equation.
LST − LSTmean
UHI = (11.5)
ST D
With
UHI urban heat island

LSTmean mean land surface temperature
STD standard deviation.
Identification of Ground Cover Types and Land Use
The current study revealed changes in the area during the period between 1995 and
2021. It was found that the main changes occurred in green areas, built or residential
lands, and water areas, as shown in Table 11.2. The results of land classification for
the city of Kenitra in 1995 showed that green areas represented the largest extension
with an estimated area of about 74 km2 , accounting for 36%. However, the other types
of land uses shared the rest of the area (barren areas with approximately 32.20 km2 ,
urban areas with approximately 24.25 km2 , and water areas with approximately
8.13 km2 ). During this period, the city of Kenitra was developing gradually, as shown
in Fig. 11.3.
As shown by the result classifications for 2021, the features of urban development
and expansion increased by 15% at the expense of barren areas, which decreased by
5% with an estimated area of 4.87 km2 . The vegetation, consisting of green areas
Table 11.2 Area change in different LULC classes

LULC class 1995 2021
Area (in km2 ) Percentage (%) Area (in km2 ) Percentage (%)
Built-Up 2,424,747,957 24 38,88,033,267 39
Bare land 3,220,071,888 32 27,32,368,347 27
Vegetation cover 3,574,364,126 36 27,07,134,612 27
Water 8,131,811,797 8 7,197,553,952 7
Fig. 11.3 LULC maps of the study area for the year 1995, 2021
and agricultural land, has decreased by 9%. It’s estimated to be 8,67 km2 . This
clearly indicates a lack of clear policies and strategies to guide and determine urban
extensions in the city of Kenitra, to preserve and protect the declining vegetation
cover and cultivate agricultural land.
The water category also saw a decline of 1% as shown in Fig. 11.3 which highlights
the industrial activity that the city has witnessed in recent years. Also, this is with
the inclusion of major industrial units in the free zone of Ouled Birrahmoun. All
these factors have produced thousands of jobs, particularly in the automotive sector,
making the city an important industrial center on both national and international
levels. As a result, there has been a mass migration of job seekers, and sometimes
entire families, to Kenitra. A large part of the workforce has settled throughout the
city (in the residential neighborhood, the progress neighborhood, the OuledAref
neighborhood, the AinSebaa neighborhood,…).
The city has also seen an improvement in its road transport networks with the
completion of the highway and the upgrading of the road that connects Kenitra to
Rabat as well as the unification of transport by rail. The high-speed TGV train link
has also facilitated the movement of residents from Kenitra to their workplaces in
either Rabat or Casablanca.
The study evaluated the accuracy of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) categories,
yielding overall accuracy assessment results of 81.6% for 1995 and 97% for 2021.
Additionally, the Kappa statistics assessment produced values of 0.81 for 1995 and
Table 11.3 Statistical results of categorized LST C of kenitra in 1995, 2021

Date LST
Maximum value Minimum value Mean value Standard deviation
08/08/1995 36.8 16.1 30.9 2.87
08/08/2021 40.5 22 31.9 2.71
0.93 for 2021. These Kappa values, indicating agreement beyond chance, suggest a
notable improvement in the accuracy of LULC classification from 1995 to 2021.
Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Land Surface

Temperatures
According to the results obtained based on two satellite images captured in different
years for the same location (2021–1995), it is evident from the data represented in
Table 11.3 and Fig. 11.4 that in summer: the highest land surface temperature (LST)
value recorded in 2021 was 40.5 °C, the lowest LST value was 22 °C. The highest
and lowest LST value recorded in 1995, 36.8 °C, and 16.1 °C respectively. The
maximum land surface temperature in the city of Kenitra increased by 3.7 °C during
the period 1995–2021, while the average LST increased by 1 °C. These differences
are attributed to the weather conditions observed during this period 1995 and 2021
in the summer.
High LST values are found in all densely populated urban areas, tourist areas,
and industrial areas, especially in barren areas, as shown in the LST maps. The
continuous increase in land surface temperature in the city of Kenitra during the
study period is consistent with the above findings, which confirm that the area studied
experienced significant urban growth and a significant reduction in vegetation, all
of which resulted in a significant increase in land surface temperature in the area
studied.
This indicates a high absorption coefficient for urban surfaces represented by high-
density residential neighborhoods, commercial centers, connected cement spaces,
and industrial areas.
Analysis of Land Cover Indicators for the City of Kenitra

During the Study Periods
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
The NDVI values were extracted as shown in Table 11.4 and Fig. 11.5, where the
maximum and minimum values during the year 1995 ranged between 0.395 and
Fig. 11.4 Land surface temperature (LST) maps of kenitra in 1995, 2021
Table 11.4 Statistical results of categorized NDVI of kenitra in 1995, 2021

Date NDVI
08/08/1995 0.679 − 0.395 0.06 0.102
08/08/2021 0.62 − 0.26 0.16 0.1
0.679, while during the year 2021, the values ranged between − 0.26 and 0.62. The
maximum NDVI values in the city of Kenitra decreased by 0.05 during the study
years 1995 and 2021, and the average NDVI decreased by 0.1. This indicates a
significant difference in values and a change in the form of vegetation cover, with a
decrease in green color, density and spread, as mentioned in Table 11.2, where the
vegetation cover decreased by 9% in 2021.
The Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI)
Table 11.5 and Fig. 11.6 illustrate the distribution of NDBI values in the city of Kenitra
during the study period. The maximum and minimum values ranged between 0.413
and 0.217 in 1995, and between 0.503 and 0.413 in 2021. The maximum value of
the NDBI indicator increased by 0.29 during the study years 1995 and 2021, and the
Fig. 11.5 Spatial distribution of NDVI of 1995, 2021
average NDBI increased by 0.286. This indicates the urban changes that occurred in
the city during the study period, where the coverage of built-up areas increased at
the expense of bare lands and vegetation cover.
However, this indicator is not as good as NDVI, given the overlap between NDVI
and NDBI, which has more high-than-low implications for buildings, and the fact
that the indicator cannot separate buildings in a pure manner because of the overlap
of spectral reflections between buildings and arid areas that are rather poor with
vegetation cover (Muhaimin et al. 2022).
Table 11.5 Statistical results of categorized NDBI of kenitra in 1995, 2021

Date NDBI
08/08/1995 0.217 − 0.413 0.011 0.082
08/08/2021 0.503 − 0.4 0.284 0.105
Fig. 11.6 Spatial distribution of NDBI of 1995, 2021
Table 11.6 Statistical results of categorized NDWI of kenitra in 1995, 2021

Date NDWI
08/08/1995 0.458 − 0.64 − 0.182 0.112
08/08/2021 0.303 − 0.557 − 0.197 0.105
Normalized Different Water Index (NDWI)
Table 11.6 and Fig. 11.7 show the NDWI values, with maximum and minimum values
ranging from 0.64 to 0.458 in 1995 and 0.557 to 0.303 in 2021. The maximum NDWI
values in Kenitra decreased by 0.155 between 1995 and 2021, and the average NDWI
decreased by − 0.015, due to the impact of climate on the region.
Relationship Between Spectral Indices and Surface Temperature
To establish a connection between surface temperature and land cover indices in

Kenitra, a regression analysis and linear correlation were conducted using three land
cover indices: NDVI, NDWI, and LST. The findings of the statistical analysis and
Fig. 11.7 Spatial distribution of NDWI of 1995, 2021
the relationship between surface temperature and land cover indices during the study
years 1995 and 2021 are displayed in Fig. 11.8.
The outcomes of the study indicate a negative correlation between LST and both
NDVI and NDWI. This implies that the reduction in water surfaces and vegetation
cover in the area studied has led to an increase in surface temperature, as depicted in
the table by the correlation coefficients of R2 = 0.1263 and R2 = 0.0692. However,
the correlation coefficient between LST and NDWI was insignificant, at R2 = 2 ×
10–6 .
Overall, the study’s results suggest that the decrease in vegetation cover and
water surfaces in the study area is the primary factor behind the increase in surface
temperature.
Figure 11.8 also shows a positive correlation between LST and NDBI with corre-
lation coefficients of R2 = 0.509 and R2 = 0.1713 during the study years 1995 and
2021, indicating that built-up areas generate many changes in surface temperature
and are the main contributor to the appearance of urban heat islands.
The Urban Heat Island of the City of Kenitra
The results of the study showed that the spatial pattern of UHI increased during
the study years 1995 and 2021 from the city center in all directions. This spatial and
temporal difference was associated with urban expansion, where the maximum value
Fig. 11.8 Regression correlation between LST, NDVI, NDWI and NDBI. a 1995, b 2021
of urban heat island (UHI) increased from 23.60 °C in 1995 to 26.70 °C in 2021,
with an increase rate of 3.1 °C. The minimum value also increased from 16.37 °C in
1995 to 19.88 °C in 2021, with an increase rate of 3.51 °C (Fig. 11.9).
The most significant changes have occurred in barren lands, residential areas, and
green spaces, highlighting the conversion of bare lands to residential and industrial
uses, resulting in massive structures on non-reflective surfaces. The use of materials
like asphalt and concrete, which are non-heat reflective, and human activities such
as greenhouse gas emissions have contributed to the increase in UHI in the urban
environment, as illustrated in the picture (Fig. 11.10).
Furthermore, the study found that the surface temperature in the industrial area
of the city exceeds 40 °C, suggesting that iron and steel factories have played a
significant role in increasing the earth’s surface temperature.
Kenitra has a long history of manufacturing, and the post-independence period
witnessed the establishment of numerous industrial facilities, including the old indus-
trial neighborhood, municipal industrial neighborhood, alfouarat-issam industrial
neighborhood, Sakenia neighborhood, and the Bir Rami industrial area. The UHI
effect has implications for the urban thermal comfort of the city’s inhabitants and
the overall climate of the city.
In industrial cities, pollutant levels of greenhouse gases rise, leading to an increase
in temperatures, a phenomenon known as thermal anomalies. Consequently, the heat
islands expand into industrial areas and may extend to encompass large surrounding
areas. As industrial processes and the construction of industrial cities intensify, the
size of these warm islands in the city increases, and vice versa. Urban planning often
Fig. 11.9 UHI effect map of kenitra city between 1990 and 2022
Fig. 11.10 Detailed views of the different land use classes of the conurbation
reveals the poor placement of industrial zones, commonly situated amidst residential
areas.
Conclusions
This research utilizes remote sensing and geographic information systems to analyze
the distribution of land surface temperature in urban areas. It has been observed that
land use types, such as residential and industrial development, as well as vacant land,
contribute to an increase in land surface temperature, while vegetation and water
cover lead to a decrease. The study recommends urban planning strategies, such as
creating green spaces in urban areas and limiting urban expansion at the expense
of vegetation cover, to mitigate the impact of urban heat islands on human thermal
comfort. Integrating remote sensing data into geographic information systems can
be a powerful tool for planning and managing spatial data analysis to make informed
decisions. The study provides valuable information about the relationship between
land cover types and land surface temperature. This information can assist in iden-
tifying suitable locations for industrial projects, evaluating potential environmental
impacts, and developing mitigation measures. By understanding the environment
and utilizing appropriate technologies, industrial planners can contribute to a more
sustainable future.
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Chapter 12
The Effect of Incorporating Alfa Fibers
on Physical, Mechanical, and Durability
Properties of Compressed Stabilized
Earth Blocks
Reda Sadouri, Youssef Cherradi, and Mustafa Benyoucef
Abstract This paper investigates the effect of integrating Alfa fibers into
compressed earth blocks (CEBs) stabilized with varying Portland cement contents.
CEB composites were manufactured with earth stabilized using different cement
contents (5 and 10% by weight) and Alfa fibers reinforcement (0–0.4% by weight),
compressed at 10 MPa with a compaction loading press. After 28 days of drying, the
CEBs underwent diverse experimental tests to evaluate their physical, mechanical,
and durability properties. The findings indicated that incorporating fibers led to a
diminution in unit weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dry compressive strength.
Despite the drop in mechanical strength, CEBs with lower cement (5%) and higher
fiber content (0.4%) demonstrated satisfactory erosion resistance, which could play a
crucial role in areas prone to extreme weather events (floods and storms). According
to this study, this material has the potential as a promising composite for building
materials and reducing the need for cement, which is deemed a major contributor to
greenhouse gas emissions in the construction industry. The results have implications
for affordable housing solutions and offer insightful information about sustainable
building materials.
Keywords Compressed earth blocks · Alfa fiber · Dynamic modulus ·

Compressive strength · Erosion resistance
R. Sadouri (B) · Y. Cherradi · M. Benyoucef

LRDDS, Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Technics, Cadi Ayyad
University, 40000 Marrakesh, Morocco
Y. Cherradi
M. Benyoucef
Y. Cherradi
LAMIGEP, Moroccan School of Engineering Sciences, Marrakech, Maroc
182 R. Sadouri et al.
Introduction
To address climate change, promote affordable and clean energy, and create sustain-
able cities and communities, countries have pledged to implement measures about
the building sector under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The building
industry has become the main obstacle on the road to achieving these global goals
and protecting our planet (Ness and Xing 2017). Approximately 33% of CO2 emis-
sions, 40% of the world’s energy consumption, and 40% of all trash output are
attributable to the building industry (Ness and Xing 2017). Such situations have
motivated researchers around the globe to study the potential of stabilized soil using
affordable alternatives with a low environmental impact (Danso et al. 2015).
Meanwhile, it is widely acknowledged that there is a shortage of reasonably priced
housing on the planet. More than 60 million shelters are needed in Africa to face the
housing scarcity. Efforts are being made to encourage the construction of new houses
in low-income areas by using available and local construction materials. Earthen
buildings structures have been used for ancient time and even today, approximately
40% of the world’s population live and work in earthen buildings (Mateus et al. 2019;
Minke 2013). Earth is an eco-friendly, cheap, widely abundant material that can help
to promote living in comfort and decrease environmental issues.
Climate change has emerged as a major global threat and a difficult environmental
and economic issue in recent years (Miller et al. 2018; Miller and Moore 2020; Fawzy
et al. 2020). There were 315 natural disasters worldwide in 2018; most of them
were brought on by climate change. Storms, floods, wildfires, and droughts caused
approximately 70 million people to be touched and caused 131.7 billion dollars in
economic losses; storms, floods, wildfires, and droughts made up about 93% of the
total (Fawzy et al. 2020). Countries will be compelled to turn back to clean, renewable
resources in the form of renewable energies and give up using petroleum products
as a source of energy, as well as to use renewable raw materials in fundamental
industries including the building materials sector, in light of the threat to the global
economy and environment. In this regard, the building industry needs to change the
way it constructs buildings in order to increase the energy efficiency of both new
and existing structures while also providing novel materials that satisfy the evolving
needs of users with regard to comfort, health effects, and the environment. Recently,
the scientific community has been able to shed light on soil as building materials and
is working to make them promising, clean and economical alternatives to fired brick
and cement materials.
Compressed earth blocks (CEBs) emerged as a popular earth construction tech-
nique in the 1950s. Building upon the traditional Adobe method, they involve the
same production steps but with significantly higher compaction pressure. Addition-
ally, various stabilization techniques (mechanical, physical, and chemical) have been
implemented to enhance their strength and lifespan. However, earth blocks often face
limitations in terms of durability, erosion resistance, and overall strength (Islam et al.
2020). Many regions worldwide are vulnerable to natural disasters such as monsoons,
floods, storm surges, and tsunamis. These events often cause widespread damage and
12 The Effect of Incorporating Alfa Fibers on Physical, Mechanical … 183
devastation, including the collapse of buildings. Such collapses not only result in loss
of life and property but also significantly hinder progress towards the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) (Islam et al. 2020). However, there has been a rebirth
of interest in ecologically friendly, healthful earthbased construction materials as a
result of these materials’ poor thermal performance, increased expense, and partic-
ularly their increased environmental effect (Alam et al. 2015; Arrigoni et al. 2017;
Burroughs 2010; Eires et al. 2017). Several studies on CEBs have demonstrated that
adding Portland cement and other additives to earth blocks increases its mechanical
qualities and water resistance (Islam et al. 2020; Abhilash et al. 2020; Mostafa and
Uddin 2016; Taallah et al. 2014; Zak et al. 2016; Nagaraj et al. 2014).
Many authors have concentrated on the properties of stabilized CEBs (Mostafa
and Uddin 2016; Zak et al. 2016; Khedari et al. 2005; Kriker et al. 2005; Taallah
and Guettala 2016; Saghrouni et al. 2020; Limam et al. 2016; Panesar and Shindman
2012; Adam and Jones 1995). The compressive strength of CEBs is influenced by the
test method used (Mostafa and Uddin 2016) and increases with the increase in binder
content (Khedari et al. 2005). The study of the impact of the curing period in CEBs
stabilized with cement has shown that 28 days of curing provides the largest value of
compressive strength (Kriker et al. 2005). Other research studies (Alam et al. 2015;
Arrigoni et al. 2017; Burroughs 2010; Eires et al. 2017; Mostafa and Uddin 2016;
Taallah et al. 2014; Zak et al. 2016) have been conducted on cement, a common and
contemporary chemical stabilizer that is typically combined with fibers and other
additives. However, because Portland cement requires energy to produce, using it
increases the embodied energy of the stabilized CEBs. Furthermore, the ductility,
toughness, and tensile strength were not enhanced by the use of chemical stabilizers
(Zare et al. 2020; Segetin et al. 2007). In addition, because of the chemical reaction
that turns earth construction material into fake stones, it creates a problem with
recycling (Sujatha and Devi 2018). Numerous studies have examined how chemical
stabilization affects water absorption and long-term strength (Nagaraj et al. 2014).
It has been observed that as time passes, compressive strength rises while water
absorption falls. According to Bahar et al. (2004), the ideal way to stabilize the
blocks may be a combination of mechanical compaction and chemical stabilization
up to a certain point. This would result in improved durability and compressive
strength at an affordable price.
Additional research on thermal characteristics has shown that bricks stabilized
with cement have a high degree of thermal conductivity (Adam and Jones 1995).
Moreover, heat conductivity rises with increasing cement and lime content (Khedari
et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2017).
Naturally fiber-reinforced biopolymer materials will be the future of “green
composites,” as they might potentially address sustainability issues including pollu-
tion in the environment and resource scarcity. Traditionally, since ancient times,
natural fibers have been incorporated into earthen building materials to improve
composite performance, including ductility, toughness, tensile strength, and dura-
bility, as well as increasing its strength (Islam et al. 2020; Zare et al. 2020; Segetin
et al. 2007; Sujatha and Devi 2018) while reducing shrinkage and cracks. Plant fibers
have garnered special attention for use as building materials because of their ability to
replace synthetic fibers and because of their worldwide abundance (Zare et al. 2020;
Segetin et al. 2007). Additionally, some research has found that the thermal conduc-
tivity of CEBs decreases as the fiber content increases (Khedari et al. 2005; Kriker
et al. 2005; Garrouri et al. 2022; Omrani et al. 2020; Williams et al. 2016; Sadouri
et al. 2024). According to the literature (Achenza and Fenu 2006), The capacity of the
matrix to fill the pore network and glue the grains together results in an improvement
in mechanical strength with an increase in fiber content while maintaining a low unit
weight. Lastly, fibers reduce the density of the earth composite, which has several
advantages such as improved protection against earthquakes due to a decrease in heat
conductivity and inertial forces (Islam and Iwashita 2010; Gandia et al. 2019; Binici
et al. 2007).
The goal of this experimental study is to determine whether it is feasible to produce
compressed earth blocks with improved properties by adding Alfa fibers as a rein-
forcement and Portland cement as a stabilizer. The CEBs were stabilized using Port-
land cement in weight fractions of 5, and 10%. The reinforcing fibers were added at
different ratios, specifically 0, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, and 0.4%. The resultant CEB compos-
ites were experimentally characterized in order to examine their density, ultrasonic
pulse velocity, elastic dynamic modulus dry compressive strength, durability charac-
teristics (erosion resistance). To the best of our knowledge, no literature has described
this particular formulation for compressed earth blocks, which uses Alfa fibers as a
raw material reinforcement and Portland cement as a stabilizer.
Materials and Experimental Testing
Materials
Earth
The natural soil used in this study as shown in Fig. 12.1 was collected from Harbil
area located 20 km northwest of Marrakesh. The earth was extracted from a layer
of 1 m under the ground to avoid organic content. This soil was selected because
of its abundance and availability in the area. The granulometric size distribution
(GSD) was determined following ASTM standard D422 (2007) (Binici et al. 2007):
clay: < 0.002 mm; silt: 0.002–0.08 mm; sand: 0.08–2 mm; and gravel: > 2 mm.
Atterberg’s test (the plastic limit, index plasticity and liquid limit) was performed
using ASTM D4318-10 (2007, 2010). The methylene blue value of this soil was
determined according to the NM 13.1.178 standard. The optimum moisture content
for the soil was obtained according to the standard Proctor test (ASTM Committee
D-18 on Soil and Rock 2007).
The properties of the soil used in this study are shown in Table 12.1a. The soil was
constituted of 14.1% clay, 35.4% silt, 30.7% sand and 19.8% gravel. The Atterberg
limit test indicated that this soil had a liquid limit WL = 29%, plastic limit WP =
Fig. 12.1 The earth used in

this work
21% and a plasticity index PI = 8%, which agreed within the recommended zone
limit by the French Standards XP P 13-901 (Afnor 2001). It had an absolute density
of 2400 kg/m3 , and bulk density 1300 kg/m3 and a blue methylene value MBV (g/
100 g) = 1.25. Therefore, the soil could be classified as type A1, in close agreement
with the XP P 13-901 standard for the preparation of compressed earth blocks (Afnor
2001).
The chemical composition of the used raw soil shown in Table 12.1b was carried
out X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and mineral composition was determined using X-ray
diffraction (XRD). The results indicate that the soil consisted essentially of silica,
aluminum and calcium carbonate. In addition, it also contained significant quantities
of carbon (8%) and magnesium (4%) and a small amount of fluorine (0.87%).
Table 12.1 (a) Geotechnical characteristics of soil. (b) Chemical and mineralogical characteristics
of soil
(a)
Grain size distribution Atterberg limits Methylene blue value Absolute density
Clay < 2 μm: 14.1% Liquid limit, WL = MBV (g/100 g) = 2400 kg/m3
Silt (2–63 μm): 35.40% 29% 1.25
Sand (0.063–2 mm): Plastic limit, WP =
30.70% 21%
Gravel (> 2): 19.80% Plasticity index, PI
= 8%
(b)
Oxides CK OK FK Mg K Al K Si K Total
Wt% 8.39 49.28 0.87 4.39 11.19 25.85 100.01
Fig. 12.2 SEM micrographs/energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) of cement
Cement
Portland cement was used in this study (CEM CPJ 45), created by mixing clinker
and gypsum with one or more secondary ingredient, such as fillers, pouzzolane, or
fly ash, as specified in Moroccan Norm NM 10.1.004. The representative energy
dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra of Portland cement are illustrated in Fig. 12.2. The
results indicate the peaks of this binder. It can be noticed from the spectra of EDX
that the cement used in this study was mostly composed of oxygen (O), calcium (Ca),
carbon (C) and silicon (Si) mixed with traces of aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg),
sodium (Na), sulfur (S), iron (Fe) and potassium (K).
Alfa Fibers
The natural fibers used in this work were from the Alfa plant also known as esparto
grass. It belongs to Stippa tenacissima family. Its stems have a length of approxi-
mately 2 m, with diameter of 2–3 mm (Ajouguim et al. 2019), thrived in the dry
and arid regions of North Africa, particularly Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia and
the South of Europe. The Alfa plant grew in abundance in many regions, essentially
in the north-eastern of Morocco. The fibers used in this study were harvested from
the region of “Oujda”. Before their use in the composite, the fibers were cleaned
to remove any dust and impurities deposited on the surface, then they were cut at
lengths between (1 and 3 cm). Figure 12.3 shows the cut Alfa fiber studied in this
study.
According to Garrouri et al. (2022), Alfa fibers are mainly composed of cellu-
lose (39.50%), hemicellulose (27.60%), lignin (19.50%), and extractible element
(13.31%) as shown in Table 12.2a. Table 12.2b lists the properties of the fibers deter-
mined experimentally according to ASTM C1557 (2003). Figure 12.2 shows the
structure of the Alfa plant observed through scanning electronic microscopy (SEM).
Based on longitudinal stem observation, the SEM observations show that Alfa stems
have a hairless and soft appearance with numerous dusts and impurities (wax, fat,
etc.) that are located on the surface (Fig. 12.4b). Additionally, the SEM of the fiber
cross section indicates that this plant has a cellular structure with pores (Fig. 12.4a).
Fig. 12.3 Cut and cleaned Alfa fibers used in this work
This type of vegetal fiber’s void network morphology provides promise for creating
composites with improved thermal performance and low unit weight.
Table 12.2 (a) Chemical composition of Alfa fibers. (b) Properties of Alfa fibers
(a)
Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Extractible element (%)
39.50 27.60 19.50 13.31
(b)
Density (g/cm3 ) Young’s modulus (GPa) Stress at break (MPa) Strain at break (%)
1.40 21.5 247 1.96
Fig. 12.4 a SEM micrograph of a cross-section of the stem of a Juncus plant. b SEM of a
longitudinal section of the stem of a Alfa plant
Table 12.3 The proportion of mixtures of CEB

Composition for (5% cement Composition for (10% cement
+ Different fiber contents) + Different fiber contents)
Soil in relation to the dry soil 100 100
(%)
Cement in relation to the dry 5 10
soil (%)
Fibers in relation to the dry 0 0
soil (%) 0.10 0.10
0.20 0.20
0.30 0.30
0.40 0.40
Water in relation to the dry 13.50 15.50
soil
Sample Preparation
Different compositions of CEBs samples were prepared with different contents of

fibers, as shown in Table 12.3. The preparation of specimens consisted of first mixing
dry soil and cement using a concrete mixer for 5 min, and then gradually adding
the dry fibers to the mix until a homogeneous color of mixture was obtained, then
water was added to the mixture that was continuously being mixed for 5 min, thus
accounting for the water demand for cement to estimate its effect on the stabilization
of the CEBs. Afterward, the mixture was placed into steel molds dimension (295 mm
× 145 mm × 95 mm) and then, compacted with static loading pressure of 10 MPa.
After demolding, the drying of the samples took place in normal laboratory conditions
at 20 ± 2 °C with a relative humidity of 98% for approximately 28 days until constant
weight, the steps for the production of the CEBs are presented in Fig. 12.5. And the
curing conditions to avoid unwanted waiting are shown in Fig. 12.6, in which the
blocks were cured at 105 °C for 24 h before testing.
Experimental Testing
The physical properties of the CEB samples containing different contents of Alfa
fibers, including the dry unit weight, as concluded by means of dimensional
measurements and weighing after 28 days of curing, were established.
Fig. 12.5 Main steps in the production process of CEBs, including 1 after the mixture of the
composite, 2 the filling of the mold, and 3 the block after compacting stress
Fig. 12.6 Cured CEB

samples in the oven
Ultrasonic Testing
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was evaluated on samples as specified in Stan-
dard NF P 18-418 (Afnor 1989). This non-destructive test is based on the propagation
of ultrasonic waves in the tested material. Thus, the time transmission was measured
using a UPV tester (Fig. 12.7). The velocity of the pulse through the specimen was
evaluated using Eq. (12.1):
d
V= (12.1)
t
Fig. 12.7 Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester
where V (m/s) is the velocity of the ultrasonic pulse, d (m) is the path length of the
sample, and t (s) is the traverse time of the pulse.
The dynamic elastic modulus can be determined using Eq. (12.2):
Ed = ρ × V2 (12.2)
where: Ed (GPa) is the dynamic elastic modulus, and ρ (kg/m3 ) is the specimen bulk
density.
Compressive Strength Test
Three specimens from each produced mixture of CEB were tested for compres-
sive strength. In this test, the hardened block was subjected to a constant, non-
jerky compressive stress until rupture (Fig. 12.8). With a maximum load capacity of
3000 KN, a Hydraulic IGM—France machine was used to record the highest load
supported by the sample during the test. The sample was tested at a pressure rise
of 0.15 MPa/s until it completely broke. Following that, every block’s compressive
strength was determined using Eq. (12.3):
Fc
σc = (12.3)
S
where σc (MPa), Fc (N), and S (mm2 ) are the compressive strength, the maximum
failure force and the contact surface between the CEB and plates used in the test,
respectively.
Fig. 12.8 Compressive

strength test
Erosion Resistance
The erosion resistance was evaluated on the samples to check the effect of water on
the CEBs according to the New Zealand Standard NZS 4298 as shown in Fig. 12.9
(New Zealand Standard 1998). This test consisted of allowing 100 mL of water to
drop continuously onto the exposed surface of each block which was inclined 30°
from the horizontal axis, from an elevation of 40 cm. The time taken for 100 mL to
drip from the container was 40 min (adapted from the mentioned standard of between
20 and 60 min), and the pit depth was measured. The erodibility index was concluded
from its value according to the aforementioned standard, and the CEBs were suitable
if the pit depth was less than 5 mm. With a pit depth between 5 and 10 mm, the
material was considered erosive and corresponded to class 3. At pit depth between
10 and 15 mm, the erosion was assigned to class 4 and the block was considered as
very erosive. Finally, for a pit depth of more than 15 mm, the erosion was assigned
to class 5 and failed the test.
Fig. 12.9 The erosion

resistance test
Apparent Density
The density, defined as mass per unit volume (ρ = m/V), is a fundamental property of
building materials that governs their structural performance, thermal behavior, and
acoustic characteristics and their suitability for building applications. In this work,
the apparent density of the blocks was evaluated. The evolution of apparent density
as function Alfa fibers for different cement content is depicted in Fig. 12.10 it was
noticed that these values varied between 1525 and 1828 kg/m3 . As anticipated, there
was a decrease in apparent density when Alfa fibers were incorporated into the formu-
lation of CEB composite. Also, it could be seen that increasing fibers content caused
the apparent density to drop. As result, the apparent density of Alfa plant induced
a diminution in the CEB apparent density. It was found for 5% of cement that the
apparent density value dropped from 1724 kg/m3 (0% fibers) to 1525 kg/m3 (0.4%
fibers), which correspond to approximately 13%. As can be concluded, the apparent
density decrease is small, which can be attributed to the high pressure loading
during the preparation of sample (Taallah and Guettala 2016).Consequently, it can
be concluded that the first benefit of integrating Alfa fibers into CEB composite is
the production of lightweight blocks. This behavior has been highlighted by previous
studies (Garrouri et al. 2022; Omrani et al. 2020; Sadouri et al. 2024; Bouchefra et al.
2022; Khoudja et al. 2021). In contrast, it can be seen from Fig. 12.10 that an increase
of cement content from 5 to 10% leads to an increase in the apparent density average
Fig. 12.10 Apparent density of CEB samples at different fiber replacement levels
value of about 6%. This demonstrates that an increase in cement content causes an
increase in the CEB apparent density.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was conducted to assess the porosity of the
CEB and its capacity to absorb sound. Table 12.4 shows the effect of fiber incorpora-
tion on the UPV. It was noticed that UPV decreased significantly when the Alfa fibers
content in the composite increased. It is important to note that the lowest value was
observed for the sample with a content of 0.4% fibers and 5% cement stabilization,
which exhibits a reduction of about 44% compared to the non-filled sample with
10% cement stabilization. The variation between the highest and lowest values of
UPV is about 37% and 26% for cement contents of 5% and 10% respectively. These
findings indicate that the composite filled with Alfa fibers has the ability to decrease
the speed of sonic waves’ propagation. Therefore, the addition of fibers improved
the capacity of CEB to absorb ultrasonic waves and promote the damping vibration,
which allows us to obtain a high level of sound insulation. These results could be
attributed to the increase in the composite’s porosity by Alfa fibers, since the speed
of wave propagation in solids is higher than in voids, and also the low UPV of Alfa
plants. Similar findings have been seen in the literature (Garrouri et al. 2022; Sadouri
et al. 2024; Khoudja et al. 2021; Aamr-Daya et al. 2008; Belakroum et al. 2017).
These works demonstrated that construction material composites including vegetable
Table 12.4 Results of density and ultrasonic wave velocity

Cement content Fibers content Density (kg/m3 ) Ultrasonic wave Elastic dynamic
(%) (%) velocity (m/s) modulus (Ed)
(MPa)
5 0.00 1724 ± 20 1607 ± 24 4.45 ± 0.13
0.10 1663 ± 15 1497 ± 16 3.72 ± 0.12
0.20 1623 ± 18 1350 ± 24 2.95 ± 0.20
0.30 1584 ± 15 1272 ± 20 2.56 ± 0.10
0.40 1525 ± 10 1167 ± 16 2.07 ± 0.15
10 0.00 1828 ± 20 1690 ± 20 5.22 ± 0.25
0.10 1763 ± 17 1590 ± 10 4.45 ± 0.14
0.20 1720 ± 15 1500 ± 18 3.87 ± 0.10
0.30 1679 ± 10 1420 ± 20 3.38 ± 0.30
0.40 1616 ± 22 1339 ± 20 2.89 ± 0.10
fibers have good sound absorption characteristics. Table 12.4 also shows the influ-
ence of cement content on UPV. It can be noticed from the results that the increase
in the cement content from 5 to 10% increased the average value of UPV by about
9%. Based on these results, the increase in UPV could be explained by the increasing
amount of calcium silicate (C2S and C3S) created by the increasing cement content.
The increasing quantity of these hydrates, which originate from cement hydration,
reduces the void network in the matrix and improves its compactness by assuring
good bonds between fibers and soil particles, in turn reducing the porosity of the
earth block, providing the highest value of UPV.
Dynamic Elasticity Modulus
Table 12.4 summarizes also the influence of Alfa fibers and cement content on the
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), it can be noted for 5% of cement that the value
varied from 4.45 GPa for blocks without fibers to 2.07 GPa for composite with 0.4%
wt fibers. Therefore, the introduction of fibers improved the capacity of blocks to
absorb ultrasonic waves and promote the damping vibration, which allows to obtain
high level of sound insulation. This finding could be attributed to the increase of
the composite porosity by adding vegetal fibers and to the low UPV of Alfa plant.
The same tendency has been noticed in the literature (Garrouri et al. 2022; Sadouri
et al. 2024; Aamr-Daya et al. 2008). Also, it can be noted that the same behavior has
been confirmed for 10% of cement stabilization. On the other side, and based on the
obtained results for all fibers addition rates it can be noticed an increase in elasticity
dynamic modulus average value from 3.15 GPa (5% Cement) to 3.96 GPa (10%
Cement), which correspond to approximately 25%. These results could be due to
the increase of block density and decrease of its porosity by increasing the stabilizer
percentage, which contributes enhance the compactness of the CEB and to accelerate
the speed of wave propagation through the composite material.
Compressive Strength
In this work, the compressive strength of compressed earth blocks filled with Alfa
fibers stabilized with cement after 28 days of curing in a laboratory setting was
investigated in both dry and wet states. This is because the compressive strength of
blocks is considered to be an important indicator of masonry strength. The following
sections summarize the obtained results of compressive strength tests performed on
the block in dry conditions.
The variation of dry compressive strength (DCS) as a function of fiber content for
different cement content is depicted in Fig. 12.11. From the results, it can be seen that
for each cement content, the incorporation of fibers leads to a decrease in DCS for
all the specimens tested, compared to the composite without fibers, and the highest
value corresponds to the sample with a cement content of 10% and without fibers,
whereas the lowest value corresponds to the sample with a cement content of 5%
and a fiber percentage of 0.4%. The graph shows clearly that an increase in the fiber
ratio drops the compressive strength. The decrease in strength between CEB with
0.4% fiber reinforcement and CEB without fibers is 24% for 5% of cement and 16%
for 10% of cement. Consequently, the incorporation of fibers has a negative impact
on DCS. Figure 12.11 shows also that the DCS increases with an increasing cement
content, e.g., the average value of DCS for the unreinforced blocks is 8.16 MPa
for 5% of cement and 10.11 MPa for 10% of cement. The obtained results are in
good agreement with previous work from the literature on the influence of cement
content on the strength of CEBs filled with date palm fibers. Similar finding was
noted by Taallah et al. (2014), where same correlations between cement content and
DCS were highlighted. They reported in their study that the DCS reached average
values of 7.5 MPa, 9.75 MPa, and 12.2 MPa for 5%, 6,5%, and 8% cement contents,
respectively. This finding is also in agreement with the finding of Bahar et al. They
concluded that the increase in cement from 4 to 12% led to an increase in DCS
from 2.2 to 5.00 MPa and that the better result of 6.20 MPa corresponded to 20%
cement stabilization for the unreinforced CEBs (Bahar et al. 2004). On the other side,
and based on our findings, the decrease in compressive strength for fiber addition
could be explained by the low stiffness of Alfa fibers, compared to earth–cement
materials. This behavior has been highlighted by previous works (Khedari et al. 2005;
MacVicar et al. 1999; Omrani et al. 2020). It was noticed that the incorporation of
fibers increases the void network in the blocks, which is the main factor leading to
decreased DCS. Moreover, the weak interfacial bond between fibers and the matrix
decreases the mechanical performance. Also, the heterogeneous dispersion of fibers
during the preparation of CEBs mixture related to their baling effects leads to lower
compressive strength. It should be mentioned that the fractures are initiated around
the surface of the fibers when the CEB is loaded, which highly accelerates the failure
Fig. 12.11 Result of dry compressive strength according to the fiber content
of the composite. Overall, it must be concluded that, in spite of this reduction in

strength, the values found for DCS were very satisfactory, since it is recommended
that the dry strength for CEBs be superior to 2.4 MPa at 28 days according to Houben
et al. (1996).
Erosion Resistance
Following New Zealand Standard NZS 4298, the resistance of earth blocks to water
erosion was also used to evaluate their durability (New Zealand Standard 1998). It
must be mentioned that, in accordance with the aforementioned standard, resistance
to erosion decreased as erosion depth increased. Figure 12.12 shows the erosion depth
of the three samples tested for each formulation. As can be seen in this figure, For all
samples, the water did not cause any surface deterioration, indicating how effective
this CEB stabilization technique is at preventing water erosion. All the tested CEB
had an erosive depth inferior to 5 mm, which corresponds to an erodibility index
lower than class 3, allowing us to classify the blocks as slightly erosive materials,
and thus satisfying the requirement of NZS (New Zealand Standard 1998).
This finding also demonstrates how cement stabilization of earth blocks improves
their resistance to erosion. Additionally, the better the erosion resistance, the higher
the cement content. The good performance of this composite material in terms of
erosion resistance appears to be mainly attributable to the good compactness and
Fig. 12.12 CEBs after being tested for erosion resistance
cohesion between the cement and soil with a low content of fibers, based on visual
observations throughout this experimental test. By binding soil particles to fibers
and preventing water infiltration into the block, the cement’s hydration reaction with
the matrix helps to reduce the void network within the mixture. The results of the
erosion test demonstrate that the composite material produced during this study can
meet the specifications for this type of building material. This is extremely important
because, due to their use in masonry and the external loading they endure throughout
their service life, CEBs’ durability is just as significant as their mechanical strength.
The result indicates that CEBs with lower cement and higher fiber content have good
erosion resistance which is crucial in areas prone to extreme weather events like
floods and storms, which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate
change.
Conclusions
In this study, we investigated the effect of Alfa fiber content and Portland cement
stabilization on the physical, mechanical and durability properties of compressed
earth blocks. According to the experimental tests, the following conclusions could
be drawn:
• The apparent density of the CEB containing 0.40% Alfa fibers was reduced by
approximately 20% in comparison to the CEB composite without fibers, regardless
of the Portland cement percentage.
• The impact of Alfa fibers on the ultrasonic pulse velocity was favorable to promote
sound insulation characteristics and damping vibration, owing to the reduction in
its value by up to 44% for 5% cement stabilization reinforced with 0.40% fiber
content.
• The integration of fibers into CEB composite reduce the value of elastic dynamic
modulus by about 150% regardless the cement content, which is beneficial for
vibration dampening, energy absorption and greater bending and deformation
before damage.
• The incorporation of Alfa fibers from 0 to 0.4% results in a moderate decrease in
the dry compressive strength of CEBs.
• The durability criteria were respected based on the results of the experimental
resistance to erosion tests.
These findings lead us to the conclusion that good properties can be obtained in a
CEB composite, which can provide safe, comfortable, and long-lasting building
materials, by combining Portland cement as a stabilizer with Alfa fibers as a
reinforcement.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge Cadi Ayyad University for their support.
Author Contributions R. S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualisation, Methodology,

Testing, Writing original draft, Writing—Review and editing. H. K.: Conceptualization, Supervi-
sion, Validation, Writing—Review and Editing. M. B.: Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation,
Writing—Review and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding This research received no external funding. The authors gratefully acknowledge Cadi
Ayyad University for their support.
Institutional Review Board Statement Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Index
A Durum wheat, 111–119

Abiotic stressors, 132, 137, 138 Dynamic modulus, 184, 194, 198
Absolute record, 27
Agriculture, 3–5, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 76, 100,
108, 109, 113–115, 139 E
Agro-pastoral, 99, 100, 102, 104, 108 Erosion resistance, 181, 182, 184, 191, 192,
Alfa fiber, 181, 184, 186–188, 192–195, 196, 197
197, 198 Extensive livestock, 108
Anthropogenic factors, 6
Arid zone, 123
F
Flows, 8, 14, 15, 40, 41, 76, 79–81, 85–89,
B 94, 118, 133, 157
Bactrocera oleae, 47, 48, 53
Breeding, 16, 112, 114, 115, 117
G
Genetic advance, 112, 116
C Genetic resistance, 47, 48
Climate change, 3–11, 14–16, 21, 22, Global warming, 3, 5–7, 11, 31, 38, 66, 76,
35–38, 40, 41, 44, 47, 61, 65, 66, 79, 117, 123, 149, 155, 156
80, 109, 111, 112, 117, 119, 156,
182, 197
Climate variability, 5, 35, 36, 44 H
Climatic drought, 65, 66, 68, 70, 76 Heat wave, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27–31, 117
Compressed earth blocks, 181, 182, 184, Hydraulic basin of Oum Er Rbia, 65–68,
185, 195, 197 84, 85
Compressive strength, 181, 183, 184, 190, Hydrological regimes, 15, 79, 80, 85, 90
191, 195, 196, 198 Hydrological risks, 35, 44
Construction industry, 150, 151, 181
Control technics, 50
Crops, 15, 16, 53, 104, 108, 113, 115, 117, I
123 Impacts, 3–5, 7, 9, 15, 16, 21, 27, 35, 36,
38, 41, 53, 65, 66, 70, 76, 79, 80, 99,
106, 109, 111, 113–118, 132, 139,
D 149–151, 153, 155–159, 163, 164,
Drought stress, 116, 118, 137 175, 179, 182, 183, 195, 197
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 201
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
Climate, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59603-2
202 Index
Industrial activities, 3, 163, 164 R

Remote sensing, 163–165, 167, 179
Resilience, 5, 16
J Rheris watershed, 35–37, 40–42
June and July 2022, 21, 22, 25, 27–30
K S
Kenitra, 163, 165, 170–178 Source of Ain Asserdoune (Morocco),
79–88, 94
Summer, 10, 15, 22, 24–28, 30, 31, 36, 40,
L 41, 84, 117, 172
Life cycle assessment, 149–153, 157–159 Surface temperature, 7, 163–165, 167, 168,
170, 172, 173, 175–177, 179
Susceptibility, 48, 52, 53, 60
M Sylvo-pastoral, 99, 100, 102, 105, 107–109
Morocco, 3, 4, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 22, Systematic literature review, 149, 150, 152
29–31, 35, 36, 39, 40, 44, 54, 65–67,
70, 76, 79–81, 100, 108, 111–119,
149, 150, 158–160, 164, 165, 186
V
Variability, 5, 7, 10, 15, 41, 44, 72, 79, 84,
O 100, 116, 158
Olea europaea, 47, 48
P W
Phosphorus uptake, 133, 134 Water nutrition, 136
Precipitation, 3–5, 10, 11, 13–15, 38–42, Water resources, 3, 4, 10, 13, 14, 16, 22, 31,
44, 68, 76, 80, 85, 88, 94, 108 65–67, 76, 79, 80, 84, 112, 136

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Springer Climate

Climate Change Effects

ISSN 2352-0698 ISSN 2352-0701 (electronic)

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Morocco’s geographical location is both a curse and a blessing. The kingdom’s

in the international fight against climate change. A highly professional academic

February 2024 Sebastian Vagt

Part I Climate Observation and Prediction in Morocco

Part II Climate Change Effects on Ecosystems and Water

Part III Climate Change and Adaptation: Focus on Agricultural

Part IV Urbanism, Green Building and Land Use: What can We

Mohamed El Yamani, Abdelali Boussakouran,

Abstract Manifestations of climate change have been occurring more frequently in

M. El Yamani (B) · K. Kahime

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

Keywords Climate change · Anthropogenic factors · Water resources ·

Climate change is currently recognized as a significant global concern for humanity.

significant increase in vulnerability to risks and hazards. Hence, there is a growing

Comprehensive Insights into Global Climate Change

History and Meaning

Causes and Future Projections

Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate Change

Climate change can be driven by both natural and human-induced (anthropogenic)

Future Climate Scenarios

Water Vulnerabilities in the Face of Climate Change: Issues

On the other hand, climate change-induced warming results in more intense,

Climate Change in Morocco

Geographic Location and Climate Characteristics

Climate Forecasts and Trends in Morocco

Future Temperature Projections

Future Precipitation Projections

Perceived and Potential Effects of Climate Change in Morocco

Water Availability and Supply

(Hssaisoune et al. 2020). Similarly, Aoubouazza et al. (2013) reported an alarming

Agriculture and Food Security

Agriculture, the primary source of income for impoverished rural communities, is

Tramblay Y, Somot S, Zsolt Torma C, Coppola E, Romera R, Domínguez M, Ángel Gaertner M,

Jaafar El Kassioui and Mohamed Hanchane

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) classified heat waves as

J. El Kassioui (B) · M. Hanchane

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 21

The Study Area

The geographical position of Morocco in the North-West of the African continent

Fig. 2.1 Geographical location of the stations studied

Table 2.2 The missing days

Results and Discussion

Trend of the Two Indices Tx50 and Tx90

Absolute Maximum Temperature Records

Heat Waves in Morocco

The Maximum Annual Number of Heat Waves

The Longest Maximum Duration of Heat Waves

Awasthi A, Vishwakarma K, Pattnayak KC (2022) Retrospection of heatwave and heat index.

Abdelmoumen Benchattou and Mohamed El Ghachi

Abstract Climate change is a widely recognized reality today in the scientific

Keywords Climate change · Rheris watershed · Climate variability ·

A. Benchattou (B) · M. El Ghachi

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 35

Materials and Methods

Presentation of the Study Area