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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

LEARNING MODULE
IN
ENGLISH 117
( Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies )

MA. THERESA B. VALERIO, Ph D

Associate Professor V

_______________________________________________________

MODULE 1
MAJOR 117 Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

Literature : Its Types, Forms and Teaching Approaches

Module Overview : This module gives opportunities to students to gain in depth

understanding of the varied forms and types of literary genres. It focuses also on varied
assessment tools in teaching literary studies.

Competencies: At the end of the semester, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the general concepts of literature and its types;

2. Use appropriate teaching methods and strategies in teaching specific
literary texts including the key elements and features;
3. Apply different assessment tools and models in teaching literature
entwined with localization and contextualization;

LESSON 1
What Is Literature?

Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material.

Derived from the Latin word literature meaning "writing formed with letters," literature
most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama,
fiction, non-fiction, and in some instances, journalism, and song.

Simply put, literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or people.
The concept is difficult to precisely define, though many have tried; it's clear that the
accepted definition of literature is constantly changing and evolving.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

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For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form; merely putting words on
a page doesn't necessarily equate to creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of
works for a given author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is,
culturally representative of a particular genre (poetry, prose, or drama).

Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author

writes or says and how he or she says it. We may interpret and debate an author's
message by examining the words he or she chooses in a given novel or work or observing
which character or voice serves as the connection to the reader.

In the academe, the decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of
literary theory using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other
approaches to better understand the context and depth of a work.

Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze it, literature is important
to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us on a deeply personal level.

Ponder on the following common quotes on literature and try to contemplate on

them.

"The difficulty of literature is not to write, but to write what you mean; not
to affect your reader, but to affect him precisely as you wish."
- Robert Louis Stevenson

“I’ ll call for pen and ink and write my mind.”

-William Shakespeare’s "Henry VI"

Literature and the 21st Century Learners

In today’s globalized, technology-mediated society, a course on contemporary

literature can be especially useful for exploring national, ethnic, linguistic, and socio-
political issues, in addition to serving as a model of connected and active student
learning. Nonetheless, teaching literature in the 21st century also poses challenge to
teachers and curriculum developers specifically on finding ways to represent current
writers from diverse regions and to connect literary works to students’ personal and
communal lives, across cultural and national boundaries.

The early literary genres that were developed are still being studied and read until
today such as poetry, drama, fiction, essay, and epic. From these genres, as we live in the

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internet age and the continuous blooming of technology happens, literary genres
continue to develop and grow, and they are not limited to the above mentioned.

21st century literature is in progress and thriving now along with the genres to be
able to accommodate the present resources and lifestyle we have, especially for the
students who now have a different learning process and resources.

In the modern vernacular, 21st century literature is associated with its academic
context, pertaining to the enduring works of fiction, philosophy, history, etc. that have
been studied for generations and molded the foundations of our thought. Yet literature by
its definition comprises all written works, a truth that has never been more applicable
than in our current internet age, when the written word is more accessible and
democratic than ever before.

The 21st century reader grew up using technology as a primary learning tool and
this made them skilled in navigating and interpreting digital formats and media
messages. They have literacy skills which consists of technological abilities such as the
use of the keyboard, internet navigation, ability to communicate and interpret coded
language and decipher graphics.

21st century literature deals with current themes and issues and it also reflects a
technological culture, it also breaks traditional writing rules; hence, themes and issues we
are going through now are freely written, expressed, and conveyed through technology.
For this reason, genres such as IM and blog format books, digi-fiction, doodle, creative
non-fiction, manga, and graphic novels, among others are emerging.

Students, readers and writers alike need to develop proficiency with the tools of
technology and build associations with others to pose and solve problems collaboratively
and cross-culturally. They also need to design and share information for global
communities to see various purposes. They must manage, analyze, and synthesize a
manifold of streams of synchronized information. They should create, critique, analyze,
and evaluate multi-media texts. Hence, the internet serves as a tool for efficient
expressiveness and sharing of ideas and information.

Social media, blogsites, and marketing sites such as Amazon and Rakuten that
freely lets people publish their works as electronic books enables and encourages us to
bring out our creativity. They are avenues for people to write and read different kinds of
works with various relevant themes and issues happening around us and they become
part of the 21st century literature.

It is essential for the students’ awareness to be raised, as well as their interest to

the social and cultural conditions we have now. It is important for students to be more
socially and culturally conscious of what the world needs to be able to shape what is in
store for the future and with the help of technology, as long as they get to use it well with
the help of education, they may be able to do so.

Prose and Poetry: Their Forms and Genres

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A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined

by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. The
distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with
subgroups.

A genre is a broad term that translates from the French to mean 'kind' or 'type.'
In entertainment, this can translate to horror, romance, science fiction, etc. In general,
these types differ for all sorts of reasons, from the actions in their plots to the feelings
they elicit from the audience. However, in literature, there are some more defined genres.
It is important to know which genre a piece of work falls into because the reader will
already have certain expectations before he even begins to read.

Genre, in broad terms, refers to any works that share certain characteristics. If
enough characteristics are in common, then the pieces are said to be in the same genre.
In literature, there are four main genres to help the reader focus their expectations for
the piece, though these genres can be broken down even further.

Two Classifications of Literary Genres

I. PROSE

Prose It is a literary piece which is written in the pattern of ordinary spoken

language and within the common flow of conversation. It is derived from the Latin word
“prosa ” which means ‘straightforward’.

Prose can be categorized as:

1. Fiction or fictional prose. It is a series of imagined facts which shows truths

about human life. This is the most popular type of literary prose, used in novels
and short stories, and generally has characters, plot, setting, and dialogue.

Examples are:

a. Short Story – brief, artistic form of prose which is centered on a major

main incident.

b. Novel – a more extensive form of prose which is elastic and can expand
to complicated twists or plots.

c. Legends- A Short narrative which explains the origin of things and

others.
d. Fables - Fable is a literary genre: a succinct fictional story, in prose or
verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or
forces of nature that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a
particular moral lesson (a "moral"), which may at the end be added explicitly
as a concise maxim or saying.

A fable differs from a parable in that the latter excludes animals, plants,

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inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other
powers of humankind
e. Myths. Stories of gods and goddesses.
f. Anecdotes - Ashort amusing or interesting story about a real incident or
person; An account regarded as unreliable or hearsay.
g. parables. A parable is a short and simple story that teaches a religious or
moral lesson. The parable of the Good Samaritan and the parable of the
Prodigal Son are just two examples of the many parables attributed to Jesus,
as recorded in the four gospels. Parable descends from the Greek parabolē "a
comparison, analogy," from paraballein "to compare," from the prefix para-
"beside" plus ballein "to throw." The sense of comparing, or throwing an idea
beside another, is at the heart of the word. When you hear a parable, you're
meant to use the comparison to learn how to act––the fox's "sour grapes" are
compared to your own downgrading of the thing you cannot have.
h. science fiction/fictitious stories
i.novels/novelette

2. Non-Fiction or Nonfictional prose. Prose that is a true story or factual account

of events or information is nonfiction. Textbooks, newspaper articles, and
instruction manuals all fall into this category. Anne Frank’s Diary of a Young
Girl, composed entirely of journal excerpts, recounts the young teen’s
experience of hiding with her family in Nazi-occupied Netherlands during World
War II./

Another samples of Nonfictional prose are formal essays These are

literary works that are based mainly on facts rather than on the imagination.
Essay is defined as a composition with moderate length, usually expository in
nature. There are several types of essay:

1. Formal Essay – deals with serious and important topics

2. Informal Essay – deals with any subject, even the ordinary
3. Critical Essay – seeks to analyze or evaluate a literary work
4. Biographical essay – deals with the personal life and achievement of a
person

3. Heroic prose. A literary work that is either written down or preserved through
oral tradition, but is meant to be recited. Heroic prose is usually a legend or
fable. The twelfth-century Irish tales revolving around the mythical warrior Finn
McCool are an example of heroic prose.

4.Prose poetry. Poetry written in prose form. This literary hybrid can sometimes
have rhythmic and rhyming patterns. French poet Charles Baudelaire wrote prose
poems, including “Be Drunk” which starts off: “And if sometimes, on the steps of a
palace or the green grass of a ditch, in the mournful solitude of your room.

4. Travelogue – informs others of vicarious experiences in a given place and time.

II. POETRY

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It refers to those expressions in verse, with measures, rhymes, lines, stanzas

and melodious tones. It came from the Greek word “ poiesis ” which means ‘making’.

Poetry is a special kind of writing that uses the sound and rhythm of words to tell
a story and to make the reader feel a certain way. These feelings are created through
setting, mood, and tone. Setting is the time and place a story or poem takes place in.
Mood and tone have to do with how the poem makes you feel. It could be a funny, silly
poem or a dark, sad one.

Sometimes, poems rhyme, but sometimes they don’t. Sometimes, poems follow
specific rules, like how many words are in each line, but not always. Some poems have
several stanzas or sections, and other don't. Some poems have a specific number of
syllables in each line, but some poems have no rules at all.

Types of Poetry

1.Lyric Poetry

In earlier days, it was meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical

instrument known as lyre.

Examples are:
a. Simple Lyric – embraces a wide variety of poems and is characterized by subjectivity,
imagination, melody and emotion.
b. Song – short lyric poem which has a specific melodious quality and is intended to be
sung
c. Sonnet – a poem expressing of 14 lines with a formal rhyme
d. Elegy – a poem expressing lament or grief for the dead.
e. Ode – most splendid type of lyric.

2.Narrative Poetry. It tells a story following an order of events.

Narrative poetry includes:
a. Ballad – short simple narrative poem composed to be sung and is
orally told from one generation to another
b. Metrical Romance – a long rambling love story in verse which is
centered around the adventures of knights and lords, and their royal ladies during
the age of chivalry.
c. Epic – a long, majestic narrative poem which tells the adventures of a traditional hero
and the development of a nation.

3.Dramatic Poetry. It has the elements that are closely related to drama because it
is written in dramatic form or makes use of a dramatic technique.
It includes:
a. Dramatic Monologue – a combination of drama and poetry which presents the
speech of a character in a particular situation at a critical moment.
b. Soliloquy – passage spoken by the speaker in a poem of a by the character in a
play except that there is no one present to hear him except the audience or the reader.

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c. Character Sketch – poem which the writer is concerned less with complete or
implied matters of a story, but rather with arousing sympathy or antagonism for, or some
interest in an individual.

LESSON 2

Critical Approaches to Literature

Critical approaches to literature reveal how or why a particular work is

constructed and what its social and cultural implications are. Understanding critical
perspectives will help you to see and appreciate a literary work as a multilayered
construct of meaning. Reading literary criticism will inspire you to reread, rethink, and
respond. Soon you will be a full participant in an endless and enriching conversation
about literature.

1.The formalist approach

This is a way of analyzing a literary genre. It answers the question: “ what the
literary genre means through extracting the and how it conveys its meaning or style.

The formalistic approach to literature examines a text by its "organic form" - its
setting, theme, scene, narrative, image and symbol. It is often referred as "a scientific
approach to literature," because it advocates methodical and systematic readings of
texts. Excluding any external elements or outside information (i.e author's personal life or
the social, historic background of the time the text was written or the reader's bias) in
criticism, the formalistic approach aims to analyze merely the text itself. Therefore, all
interpretations must be supported by evidences found in the text.

The formalistic approach has dominated the American literary scene for most of
the twentieth century, when this approach was called the New Criticism, and has retained
its great influence in academic quarters. Developed in the 1920's - 1930's and peaked in
the 1940's - 1950's, the New Criticism replaced the traditional literary approach by
rejecting impressionism, moral tones, and philological studies; traditionally, scholars and
professors "surrounded" literature rather than closely examining it by its form. The New
Criticism practitioners valued poetry rich in ambiguity, irony, and intention, and wanted
to make literary criticism a science. Even though current literary theorists tend to criticize
the formalistic approach for its "narrow-mindedness," they cannot deny that it has left a
lasting impression on American literary scholarship.

Writing a Formalist Literary Analysis

Using formalism, a critic can show how the various parts of a work are welded
together to make an organic whole. This approach examines a text as a self-contained
object; it does not, therefore, concern itself with biographical information about the
author, historical events outside of the story, or literary allusions, mythological patterns,
or psychoanalytical traits of the characters (except those aspects described specifically in
the text.)

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A formalist critic examines the form of the work as a whole, the form of each
individual part of the text (the individual scenes and chapters), the characters, the
settings, the tone, the point of view, the diction, and all other elements of the text which
join to make it a single text. After analyzing each part, the critic then describes how they
work together to make give meaning (theme) to the text.

Point of View
Setting
Characters
Plot
Symbols
Theme

2. The humanist/ethical approach

The effect the work has on the audience/ reader. The larger function of literature is
to teach morality and to probe philosophical issues. Literature should instruct and delight.

"Good" work has a positive, enriching, impact on the reader; "bad" work has
negative, dulling, impact.

Examples: Christian humanist, Marxist, feminist, "moral crusader "

3.The historical approach: This is a way of criticizing a genre through the relationship
of the work to history. The impact of the work on history and the importance of historical
knowledge in understanding a work. It is a way of examining how history and literature
inform and affect each other. Examples are given below:

4.1 Social / political history;

4.2 Literary history

5.The biographical approach: the relationship of the writer's life to the work.

Biographical Criticism is “a form of Literary criticism which analyses a writer’s

biography to show the relationship between the author’s life and their works of literature”
(“Biographical criticism”). This too is a method that has long been in use and can be
traced back to the period of the Renaissance (Period in Modern Europe extending from
the fourteenth to the seventeenth century). George A. Kennedy in The Cambridge History
of Literary Criticism: Classical Criticism observes that in the Hellenistic age (323 BC-
31BC),

The works of authors were read as sources of information about their lives,
personalities, and interests. Some of this material was then used by other commentators
and critics to explain passages in their works.

6.The psychological approach: This is discerning what the work tells us about the
human mind. Literature as a tool of psychoanalysis.

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Example : Freudian literary analysis; e.g., the unconscious, dream interpretations,

sexual motivation, the importance of childhood on adult development, neuroses, the
tripartite scheme of the human mind (id, ego, superego), the "talking cure," etc.

7. The mythic approach: This is a way of analyzing universal patterns of human

behavior and thinking as conveyed in literature.
Jungian literary analysis. Archetypal story patterns; e.g., stories of creation, of "the fall,"
of social / sexual initiation, of the Quest. Archetypal image patterns, colors -- red, black.

8. The textual approach: As you analyze a genre,the theme may answer the
following :

1.) What is the actual text? What are the possible changes in the history of a text;
2.)What is the impact of translation 3) oral tradition 4) What are the substantive ,
accidental, authorial made by editor .

Both textual and contextual analysis are generally used when doing an in depth
rhetorical analysis of various works. While they are both taken advantage of, they are on
opposite ends of the spectrum of analysis and entail entirely different approaches.
Textual analysis involves looking at the text as it is and what literary strategies it entails.
There is an emphasis on analyzing the style of the piece, words used and the way in
which the speaker delivers the message.

Textual analysis also looks at the appeals; pathos, ethos and logos, to better
understand the argument that the author or speaker is trying to convey in their work.
Overall, the textual approach to rhetorical analysis is used to dig deep into the literal text
and better understand what is being said and what the speaker is trying to defend or
present to the reader.

One famous example that can be analyzed for contextual as well as textual
analysis is Dr. Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech. Looking at it textually, King
makes use of repetition of the phrase, “I have a dream” to emphasize how he sees
something better for the country that he hopes one day will happen. He is relying on
pathos throughout in order to relate to his audience, regardless of race, because the
issue of discrimination is a powerful subject and his details bring out emotion. He also
uses words such as we, us and together throughout to stress that the country needs to
strive for unity among all and by repeating these words he is emphasizing that this truly
is important for all people.

As part of the bigger picture, this speech was given in 1963 during the
Civil Rights Movement, a time in which African Americans were fighting for equal rights.
Therefore, it is important to know that Dr. King is African American and that this
movement directly effects him making his speech more meaningful and powerful. It also
makes people realize that equality among people is not literally a dream, instead it is
something that needed to be done in the United States and it needed to happen as soon
as possible so everyone could be treated fairly.

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9. The linguistic approach: what the text tells us about the language of the time of the
work.

It would seem obvious that as linguists we have a special role in the teaching of
literature, because we are experts in the medium – language – from which literary texts
are made. However, linguists do not have a monopoly on discussion or theorization of
language in literary studies. Poets and writers, particularly in their manifestos or
statements about practice, make various statements about the language of poetry which
ignore or deny what linguists know about language. One characteristic claim is that a
particular writing practice involves ‘a new syntax’ or that a poet ‘creates a new
language’.

10. The subjective or personal approach

This can be categorized into :

10.1. Reader- Based criticism -- the effect that the differences of readers has on
reading common "text".

Reader-response suggests that the role of the reader is essential to the meaning
of a text, for only in the reading experience does the literary work come alive. For
example, in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818), the monster doesn’t exist,
so to speak, until the reader reads Frankenstein and reanimates it to life, becoming a co-
creator of the text.

Thus, the purpose of a reading response is examining, explaining, and defending

your personal reaction to a text.

Your critical reading of a text asks you to explore:

-why you like or dislike the text;

-explain whether you agree or disagree with the author;
-identify the text’s purpose; and
-critique the text.

There is no right or wrong answer to a reading response. Nonetheless, it is

important that you demonstrate an understanding of the reading and clearly explain and
support your reactions. Do not use the standard approach of just writing: “I liked this text
because it is so cool and the ending made me feel happy,” or “I hated it because it was
stupid, and had nothing at all to do with my life, and was too negative and boring.” In
writing a response you may assume the reader has already read the text. Thus, do not
summarize the contents of the text at length. Instead, take a systematic, analytical
approach to the text.

10.2. Personal reaction -- that which is beyond literary analysis; did you enjoy the
work?
Enrichment Activities

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Task 1 :Complete the graphic organizer below:

Prose Poetry

Forms : Poetry:
1. _________________ 1. _______________
2. ________________ 2._______________
3. _______________ 3. _______________
4. _______________
3 Types of Lyric Poetry

2.Criticize the poem below using the personal approach. Answers should be in 2
paragraphs
Only.

POEMS BY JOSE GARCIA VILLA

God Said, “I Made a Man”

God said, “I made a man

Out of clay –
But so bright he, he spun
Himself to brightest Day
Till he was all shining gold,
And oh,
He was handsome to behold!
But in his hands held he a bow
Aimed at me who created
Him. And I said,
‘Wouldst murder me
‘Who am thy Fountainhead’
Then spoke he the man of gold:
‘I will not
Murder thee! I do but
Measure thee. Hold
Thy peace!’ And this I did,
But I was curious
Of this so regal head.
‘Give thy name!’ –Sir! Genius’”

3.Read any short story or novel and use one approach to criticize the short story you
chose to read.

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Comprehension Check:
Task 1. Can you differentiate Prose from Poetry on how they are presented or written?

Task 2. Can you cite sample of literary genres which become parts of human history?
Give at least 10 specific titles of the genre.

Check you answers :

Enrichment Activities :

Task 1 :Complete the graphic organizer below:

Prose Poetry

Prose: Poetry:

1. Fiction or fictional prose 1.Lyric Poetry .

2. Non-Fiction or Nonfictional prose 2. Narrative Poetry
3. Heroic prose 3. Dramatic Poetry
4. Prose Poetry

2.Criticize the poem below using the personal approach. Answers should be in 2
paragraphs only.
( Answers may vary )

3.Read one short story or poem. Analyze your choice and use one approach to criticize
the short story or poem you chose to read.

( Answers may Vary )

End of Module 1
You are done.

References :

1.Baltazar, Silverio,Ereston,T., Estanislao M. F., Literature, Past and Present. Quezon City.
Katha Publishing,Co. Inc.

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2.Kahayon, Alicia H. and Zulueta, Celia A. ( 2000). Literature Through the Years, National
Book Store.

3.Saymo,Apolinario S. et Al (2004). Philippine Literature. Trinitas Publishing, Inc.

MODULE 2

Levels of Comprehension as Applied in Reading Literary Genres

Competencies : At the end of the module, the students can be

able to :

1.Differentiate the different levels of comprehension.

2.Formulate sample questions along literary genres using the various levels of
comprehension.

Module overview:

This module tackles the different levels of comprehension which can be

applied in reading literary genres.

I. Lesson 1

Levels of Reading Comprehension

Comprehension is understanding what is being said or read. When it comes

to reading, It is an active process that must be developed if a learner is to
become a proficient reader. Effective reading skill development is further
accomplished when the learner becomes proficient in literal, inferential and
critical comprehensive reading.

1. First Level Literal Comprehension = what the author is actually

saying.
The first level, literal comprehension, is the most obvious.
Comprehension at this level involves surface meanings. At this level,
teachers can ask students to find information and ideas that are
explicitly stated in the text. In addition, it is also appropriate to test
vocabulary. "being able to read for literal meanings is stated ideas is
influenced by one's mastery of word meanings in context'.
The reader needs to understand ideas and information explicitly
stated in the reading material. Some of this information is in the form of
recognizing and recalling facts, identifying the main idea, supporting
details, categorizing, outlining, and summarizing.
The reader is also locating information, using context clues to
supply meaning, following specific directions, following a sequence,
identifying stated conclusion, and identifying explicitly stated

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relationships and organizational patterns. These organizational patterns

can include cause and effect as well as comparison and contrast.

For example, some questions and activities may include: What

words state the main idea of the story? How does the author
summarize what she/he is saying? Outlining the first paragraph of the
story. What happened first, second and last? How are these things
alike? How are they different? What things belong together? What
happened? What are important dates? What are the stated facts?
2. Second Level. Inferential\Interpretive comprehension =
“What the author means by what is said”. The second level or
strand is interpretive or referential comprehension.

At this level, students go beyond what is said and read for

deeper meanings. They must be able to read critically and analyze
carefully what they have read. Students need to be able to see
relationships among ideas, for example how ideas go together and also
see the implied meanings of these ideas.

It is also obvious that before our students can do this, they have
to first understand the ideas that are stated (literal comprehension).
Interpretive or referential comprehension includes thinking processes
such as drawing conclusions, making generalizations and predicting
outcomes.
At this level, teachers can ask more challenging questions
such as asking students to do the following:
 Re-arrange the ideas or topics discussed in the text.
 Explain the author's purpose of writing the text.
 Summarize the main idea when this is not explicitly stated in
the text.
 Select conclusions which can be deduced from the text .
The reader must simply read between the lines and make
inferences about things not directly stated.
Again these inferences are made in the main idea, supporting
details, sequence, and cause and effect relationships. Inferential
comprehension could also involve interpreting figurative language,
drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, determining the mood, and
judging the author’s point of view.

The following questions are usually asked:

What does the author value?
What is the theme?
What effect does this character/event have on the story?
How do you think this story will end?

3.Third Level. Critical\Applied Comprehension

Finally, the third level of comprehension is critical reading
whereby ideas and information are evaluated.

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This level of comprehension deals with the question “ Why the

author says what he or she says”.

Critical evaluation occurs only after our students have

understood the ideas and information that the writer has presented. At
this level, students can be tested on the following skills:
 The ability to differentiate between facts and opinions.
 The ability to recognize persuasive statements.
 The ability to judge the accuracy of the information given in the text.
This high level of comprehension requires the reader to use
some external criteria from his/her own experience in order to evaluate
the quality, values of the writing, the author’s reasoning,
simplifications, and generalizations.
The reader will react emotionally and intellectually with the
material. Because everyone's life experiences are varied, answers to
some of the following questions will vary:

Could this possibly happen?

Is this argument logical?
What alternatives are there?
Is this a fact or an opinion?
Do you agree or disagree with the author?
What is the best solution to this problem?

To conclude, literal, inferential and critical comprehensive

reading is what makes a skilled, strong reader. This skill must be
learned and developed. It does not just happen. With that thought in
mind, it has also been shown that strong readers make good writers.
Sustained exposure to the English language does allow for an expanded
vocabulary and knowledge of correct grammar usage. When this is
combined with literal, inferential and critical reading experiences, it
enables writers to better express themselves.

II. Lesson 2. The Art of Questioning

“To question well is to teach well. In the skillful use of the question
more than
anything else lies the fine art of teaching; for in it we have the guide to clear and
vivid ideas, the quick spur to imagination, the stimulus to thought,
the incentive to action. ”
-C. DeGarmo

Test and Assessment in Teaching Literature

What is Assessment? Why do we assess students?

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In creating a quality test, the teacher should consider the characteristics of a

good test. A good test should have a positive effect on learning, and teaching
should result in improve d learning habits.

The test should enable the teacher to find out which parts of the language
program cause difficulty for the class. This way the teacher can evaluate the
effectiveness of the syllabus as well as the methods and materials used during
the lesson proper

A good test should also motivate by measuring student performance without

in any way setting “traps” for them. A well –developed language test should
provide an opportunity for students to show their ability to perform certain
language tasks.

A test should be constructed with the goal of having students learn from
their weaknesses. If this is followed, a good test can be used as a valuable
teaching tool.

Tests are used to measure students’ reading ability, to discover how much
they have been learning, to diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses and to
motivate students in learning.

Assessment is the act of gathering information in order to understand the

individuals learning and needs. In the context of language teaching and learning,
it refers to the act of collecting information and making judgment about the
learners knowledge of language and ability to use it.

Testing refers to the procedures that are based on tests. In learning it is a

salient part of assessment.

Tests are used in teaching as a means to ensure effective teaching, to

improve teaching quality and to obtain feedback on student learning .

Tests can have a backwash effect, which means that they may result in
changes of instructional programs or teaching practices to reflect the test
contents because language teachers want their students to do well on high
stakes tests for many different reasons.

Measurement broadly includes testing and other types of measurement,

as well as other types of information that result in quantitative data such as
attendance, records, questionnaires, teacher ratings of students, etc.

Evaluation refers to the culminating act of interpreting the gathered

information for the purpose of making judgment about student’s learning and
needs. It forms as part of assessment.

Assessment of Learning is about reflecting the evidence of learning. This is

part of the cycle of assessment where pupils and staff set learning goals, share

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learning intentions and success criteria, and evaluate their learning through
dialogue and self and peer assessment. Through this, learners become more
aware of What they learn How they learn, and What helps them learn.

Kinds of Questions

1.Reflecting 2. Open-ended 3. Closed-ended

Sentence Prompts. Questionings may start with the following :

• “So you’re thinking that…

• “Sounds like you’re concerned that…”

• “You feel…because…”

• “I’m hearing that…”

• “Let me see if I understand what you are

saying…”

2.Open-ended Questions. Questions allow other person to express what is on

his/her mind, to tell you what he/she considers to be important.

• Gives maximum latitude to speak freely

3.Closed-ended Questions. Limit the length of the response to a few.

Words.This• Call for a precise piece of information and the short response
focuses directly on a specific point.

Importance of the Art of Questioning in teaching Literature

People begin asking questions almost as early as they begin to speak. Questions
solicit information for the purpose of understanding something. Everyday
questions are different from the questions effective teachers ask, because
effective teachers formulate questions with an eye to increasing someone else’s
understanding. Questions designed to drill for rote answers require little
imagination, but mastering the art of questioning teaches students how to think.
Purposeful dialogue is like a dance between the teacher and student. Lesson
plans should take into consideration the importance of questioning in teaching.

Art of Questioning

Artistry implies a degree of skill and creativity. Simply asking prepared questions
may be effective, but it does not creatively and respectfully engage the student
in her own learning process. Innovative and spontaneous improvisation by
teachers in the classroom creates an “arc of questioning.” During an arc of
questioning, each student response gives rise to another question from the
teacher that demands a deeper interpretation of the topic. This requires close
attention to student responses, from which follow-on questions are developed,
and it directly and respectfully involves students in the learning process.

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Teaching Literature and the Use of Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers can be helpful since they portray key terms,

concepts and relationships by drawing a visual idea of a text for an
observer/learner. Thus, there is the opportunity of such organizers assisting
students when collecting useful information that may help the processes of
reading. Graphic organizers in general can have a positive influence on the
learning outcomes of students.

In reading genres, graphic organizers can help the readers organize

their thoughts.

What are Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is a teaching and learning tool that is used to organize

information and ideas in a way that is easy to comprehend and internalize. By
integrating text and visuals, graphic organizers show relationships and
connections between concepts, terms, and facts.

Graphic organizers can be used in all grade levels, and have proven to be
effective learning tools for gifted children and students with special needs. And
with adult learners, graphic organizers can help enable the connection between
what they already know and newly acquired knowledge.

Benefits of graphic organizers

Different types of graphic organizers can be used across the curriculum for
teaching, learning, and note-taking. They are easy to create and impactful in
simplifying information.

-Help visualize or present information in a way that is easier to

comprehend, by breaking down larger or complex concepts or ideas into smaller
and simpler parts and they provide students the opportunity to actively
contribute and participate in the learning process through the creation of graphic
organizers.

- Help develop cognitive skills such as brainstorming, critical and creative

thinking, categorizing and prioritizing content, reflection, etc.

- Help recall prior knowledge about a subject and quickly connect it to new
information

- Promotes self-learning. By using graphic organizers for note-taking,

analyzing, studying, etc. students can familiarize themselves with a lesson far
more easily.

Types of Graphic Organizers

Here we have listed 19 types of graphic organizers for teaching and learning.
Based on their varied purposes, you can utilize them in reading, writing,
researching, brainstorming, and analyzing.

1.Fishbone.It can be used as outputs in stories.

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2. Sequence Chart

A sequence graphic organizer is a tool that helps visualize the order of steps of a
process or a timeline of events, etc. It can also be used for note-taking, lesson
planning, and essay writing.

3.Sequence Graphic Organizer

4. Story map

A story map can be used to identify the different elements such as characters,
character plots, themes, techniques, etc. in a book students are reading. It’s a
useful tool that teachers can integrate into the lesson to improve students’
comprehension.

5. Biography graphic organizer

This is a tool that assists with understanding a character from a novel,

autobiography or movie or a historical figure more in-depth. It brings attention to
various important factors about a person’s life.

6. KWL chart

KWL chart is used for gathering information from student’s prior knowledge
or experience. This 3 column chart captures the before (what the reader already
knows), during (what the reader wants to learn) and after (what the reader
learned) stages of reading.

7. Learning map

Learning maps visually depict the key takeaways – skills, ideas, knowledge –
students should get from a lesson. It usually provides a high-level view of the
lesson/ unit/ course that is to be studied and the connection between its different
components. Students can also use learning maps in the classroom for note-
taking.

8. Analogy graphic organizer

The analogy graphic organizer uses analogy to help students identify similarities
and differences between a new topic and a topic that they are already familiar
with.

9. Vocabulary graphic organizer

This tool can be used to assess the vocabulary knowledge of students. You can
create graphic organizers including various elements to help students learn new
words, and learn antonyms and synonyms.

10. Timeline graphic organizer

Timeline diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows a sequence of

events in chronological order.

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They come in handy when studying history as you can use it to display major
historical events that occurred during a period of time along with important
details such as dates and locations in which they took place.

11. T chart

T charts allow students to study two facets of a topic. For example,

disadvantages and advantages, pros and cons, differences and similarities, etc.

12. Hierarchy chart

Hierarchy charts visualize the elements of a system, organization or concept

from its highest position to the lowest. Students can use this tool to understand
the superordinate and subordinate categories of a topic and the relationship
between them.

13. Star diagram

Star diagrams are used to organize the characteristics of a chosen topic. It can
also be used to brainstorm around new topics.

14. Cluster diagram

Cluster diagrams can be used to facilitate a brainstorming session or structure

idea generation and even to help with exploring new topics.

15. Lotus diagram

Lotus diagram is an analytical tool that can be used to breakdown broader and
more complex topics into smaller components for easy understanding. It can be
used for brainstorming and studying new topics.

16. Cause and effect graphic organizer

This type of graphic organizer shows the causes and effects of an event. The
cause is the reason why something has happened, and effect is the result of what
has happened. Visualization helps clearly understand the different cause and
effect relationships.

Using a cause and effect graphic organizer, identify the causes and effects
related to the problem you are studying or writing about. There could be several
models of cause and effect events, such as one cause leading to one effect or
multiple effects, or multiple causes leading to one effect or multiple effects.

17. Mind map

A mind map is a tool that helps capture the free flow of thought and is
widely used for brainstorming around topics. Additionally, it can also be used to
organize and group information about a topic.

18. Double bubble map

The double bubble map is one of the popular thinking maps. It is much like a
Venn diagram and is used to identify similar and different qualities between two
things.

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19. Venn diagram

Another graphic organizer that helps you visually represent a comparison of

differences and similarities between two subjects, is the Venn diagram. What
makes it different from the double bubble map is that it can include more than
two topics and one common area.

Lesson 3. Models in Teaching Literature

1. The Cultural model

This model represents the traditional approach to teaching literature. Such a

model requires learners to explore and interpret the social, political, literary and
historical context of a specific text. By using such a model to teach literature we
not only reveal the universality of such thoughts and ideas but encourage
learners to understand different cultures and ideologies in relation to their own.

2.The Language Model

The most common approach to literature in the classroom is what Carter and
Long (1991) refer to as the ‘language-based approach’. Such an approach
enables learners to access a text in a systematic and methodical way in order to
exemplify specific linguistic features e.g. literal and figurative language, direct
and indirect speech. This approach lends itself well to the repertoire of strategies
used in language teaching - cloze procedure, prediction exercises, jumbled
sentences, summary writing, creative writing and role play - which all form part
of the repertoire of activities used by teachers to deconstruct literary texts in
order to serve specific linguistic goals.

3.The Personal Growth Model

This model attempts to bridge the cultural model and the language model
by focusing on the particular use of language in a text, as well as placing it in a
specific cultural context. Learners are encouraged to express their opinions,
feelings and opinions and make connections between their own personal and
cultural experiences and those expressed in the text. Another aspect of this
model is that it helps learners develop knowledge of ideas and language –
content and formal schemata – through different themes and topics. This function
relates to theories of reading (Goodman, 1970) which emphasise the interaction
of the reader with the text. As Cadorath and Harris point out (1998:188) "text
itself has no meaning, it only provides direction for the reader to construct
meaning from the reader's own experience". Thus, learning is said to take place
when readers are able to interpret text and construct meaning on the basis of
their own experience.

These three approaches to teaching literature differ in terms of their focus

on the text: firstly, the text is seen as a cultural artefact; secondly, the text is
used as a focus for grammatical and structural analysis; and thirdly, the text is
the stimulus for personal growth activities. What is needed is an approach to
teaching literature in the EFL classroom which attempts to integrate these
elements in a way that makes literature accessible to learners and beneficial for
their linguistic development.

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Enhancement Tasks

1.1. Read the story below and construct 5 questions for each using each level
of comprehension. Submit all your outputs to your instructor through e- mail :
terekiks@gmail.com

Footnote to Youth
by: Jose Garcia Villa

The sun was salmon and hazy in the west. Dodong thought to himself he
would tell his father about Teang when he got home, after he had unhitched the
carabao from the plow, and led it to its shed and fed it. He was hesitant about
saying it, he wanted his father to know what he had to say was of serious
importance as it would mark a climacteric in his life. Dodong finally decided to
tell it, but a thought came to him that his father might refuse to consider it.

His father was a silent hardworking farmer, who chewed areca nut, which
he had learned to do from his mother, Dodong’s grandmother.
He wished as he looked at her that he had a sister who could help his
mother in the housework.
I will tell him. I will tell it to him.

The ground was broken up into many fresh wounds and fragrant with a
sweetish earthy smell. Many slender soft worm emerged from the further rows
and then burrowed again deeper into the soil. A short colorless worm marched
blindly to Dodong’s foot and crawled clammilu over it. Dodong got tickled and
jerked his foot, flinging the worm into the air. Dodong did not bother to look
where into the air, but thought of his age, seventeen, and he said to himself he
was not young anymore.

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Dodong unhitched the carabao leisurely and fave it a healthy tap on the
hip. The beast turned its head to look at him with dumb faithful eyes. Dodong
gave it a slight push and the animal walked alongside him to its shed. He placed
bundles of grass before it and the carabao began to eat. Dodong looked at it
without interest.

Dodong started homeward thinking how he would break his news to his
father. He wanted to marry, Dodong did. He was seventeen, he had pimples on
his face, then down on his upper lip was dark-these meant he was no longer a
boy. He was growing into a man – he was a man.

Dodong felt insolent and big at the thought of it, although he was by
nature low in stature.
Thinking himself man – grown, Dodong felt he could do anything.

He walked faster, prodded by the thought of his virility. A small angled

stone bled his foot, but he dismissed it cursorily. He lifted his leg and looked at
the hurt toe and then went on walking. In the cool sundown, he thought wild
young dreams of himself and Teang, his girl. She had a small brown face and
small black eyes and straight glossy hair. How desirable she was to him. She
made him want to touch her, to hold her. She made him dream even during the
day.

Dodong tensed with desire and looked at the muscle of his arms. Dirty.
This fieldwork was healthy invigorating, but it begrimed you, smudged you
terribly. He turned back the way he had come, then marched obliquely to a
creek.

Must you marry, Dodong?”

Dodong resented his father’s question; his father himself had married
early.
Dodong stripped himself and laid his clothes, a gray under shirt and red
kundiman shorts, on the grass. Then he went into the water, wet his body over
and rubbed at it vigorously. He was not long in bathing, then he marched
homeward again. The bath made him feel cool.

It was dusk when he reached home. The petroleum lamp on the ceiling
was already lighted and the low unvarnished square table was set for supper. He
and his parents sat down

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on the floor around the table to eat. They had fried freshwater fish, and rice, but
did not partake of the fruit. The bananas were overripe and when one held the,,
they felt more fluid than solid. Dodong broke off a piece of caked sugar, dipped it
in his glass of water and ate it.

He got another piece and wanted some more, but he thought of leaving
the remainder for his parent.

Dodong’s mother removed the dishes when they were through, and went
with slow careful steps and Dodong wanted to help her carry the dishes out. But
he was tired and now, feld lazy. He wished as he looked at her that he had a
sister who could help his mother in the housework. He pitied her, doing all the
housework alone.

His father remained in the room, sucking a diseased tooth. It was paining
him, again. Dodong knew, Dodong had told him often and again to let the town
dentist pull it out, but he was afraid, his father was. He did not tell that to
Dodong, but Dodong guessed it. Afterward, Dodong himself thought that if he
had a decayed tooth, he would be afraid to go to the dentist; he would not be any
bolder than his father.

Dodong said while his mother was out that he was going to marry Teang.
There it was out, what we had to say, and over which he head said it without any
effort at all and without self-consciousness. Dodong felt relived and looked at his
father expectantly. A decresent moon outside shed its feebled light into the
window, graying the still black temples of his father. His father look old now.

“I am going to marry Teang,” Dodong said.

His father looked at him silently and stopped sucking the broken tooth, The
silenece became intense and cruel, and Dodong was uncomfortable and then
became very angry because his father kept looking at him without uttering
anything.
“I will marry Teang,” Dodong repeated. “I will marry Teang.”

His father kept gazing at him in flexible silence and Dodong fidgeted on his
seat.

I asked her last night to marry me and she said… “Yes. I want your
permission… I… want… it…” There was an impatient clamor in his voice, an
exacting protest at his coldness, this indifference. Dodong looked at his father

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sourly. He cracked his knuckles one by one, and the little sound it made broke
dully the night stillness.

“Must you marry, Dodong?”

Dodong resented his father’s question; his father himself had married
early. Dodong made a quick impassioned essay in his mind about selfishness, but
later, he got confused.
“You are very young, Dodong.”
“I’m seventeen.”
“That’s very young to get married at.”
“I… I want to marry… Teang’s a good girl…
“Tell your mother,” his father said.
“You tell her, Tatay.”
“Dodong, you tell your Inay.”
“You tell her.”
“All right, Dodong.”
“All right, Dodong.”
“You will let me marry Teang?”
“Son, if that is your wish… of course…” There was a strange helpless light
in his father’s eyes. Dodong did not read it. Too absorbed was he in himself.

Dodong was immensely glad he has asserted himself. He lost his

resentment for his father, for a while, he even felt sorry for him about the pain I
his tooth. Then he confined his mind dreaming of Teang and himself. Sweet
young dreams…
***
Dodong stood in the sweltering noon heat, sweating profusely so that his
camiseta was damp. He was still like a tree and his thoughts were confused. His
mother had told him not to leave the house, but he had left. He wanted to get out
of it without clear reason at all. He was afraid, he felt afraid of the house. It had
seemingly caged him, to compress his thoughts with severe tyranny. He was also
afraid of Teang who was giving birth in the house; she face screams that chilled
his blood. He did not want her to scream like that. He began to wonder madly if
the process of childbirth was really painful. Some women, when they gave birth,
did not cry.

In a few moments he would be a father. “Father, father,” he whispered the

word with awe, with strangeness. He was young, he realized now contradicting
himself of nine months ago. He was very young… He felt queer, troubled,
uncomfortable.
Dodong felt tired of standing. He sat down on a saw-horse with his feet close
together. He looked at his calloused toes. Then he thought, supposed he had ten
children…
The journey of thought came to a halt when he heard his mother’s voice
from the house.
Some how, he was ashamed to his mother of his youthful paternity. It
made him feel guilty, as if he had taken something not properly his.
“Come up, Dodong. It is over.”

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Suddenly, he felt terribly embarrassed as he looked at her. Somehow, he was

ashamed to his mother of his youthful paternity. It made him feel guilty, as if he
has taken something not properly his. He dropped his eyes and pretended to dust
off his kundiman shorts.
“Dodong,” his mother called again. “Dodong.”
He turned to look again and this time, he saw his father beside his mother.
“It is a boy.” His father said. He beckoned Dodong to come up.
Dodong felt more embarrassed and did not move. His parent’s eyes
seemed to pierce through him so he felt limp. He wanted to hide or even run
away from them.
“Dodong, you come up. You come up,” his mother said.
Dodong did not want to come up. He’d rather stayed in the sun.
“Dodong… Dodong.”
I’ll… come up.

Dodong traced the tremulous steps on the dry parched yard. He ascended
the bamboo steps slowly. His heart pounded mercilessly in him. Within, he
avoided his parent’s eyes. He walked ahead of them so that they should not see
his face. He felt guilty and untru. He felt like crying. His eyes smarted and his
chest wanted to burst. He wanted to turn back, to go back to the yard. He wanted
somebody to punish him.
“Son,” his father said.
And his mother: “Dodong..”
How kind their voices were. They flowed into him, making him strong.
“Teang?” Dodong said.
“She’s sleeping. But you go in…”
His father led him into the small sawali room. Dodong saw Teang, his
wife, asleep on the paper with her soft black hair around her face. He did not
want her to look that pale.

Dodong wanted to touch her, to push away that stray wisp of hair that
touched her lips. But again that feeling of embarrassment came over him, and
before his parent, he did not want to be demonstrative.

The hilot was wrapping the child Dodong heard him cry. The thin voice
touched his heart. He could not control the swelling of happiness in him.
“You give him to me. You give him to me,” Dodong said.
***
Blas was not Dodong’s only child. Many more children came. For six
successive years, a new child came along. Dodong did not want any more
children. But they came. It seemed that the coming of children could not helped.
Dodong got angry with himself sometimes.

Teang did not complain, but the bearing of children tolled on her. She was
shapeless and thin even if she was young. There was interminable work that kept
her tied up. Cooking, laundering. The house. The children. She cried sometimes,
wishing she had no married. She did not tell Dodong this, not wishing him to
dislike her. Yet, she wished she had not married.

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Not even Dodong whom she loved. There had neen another suitor, Lucio
older than Dodong by nine years and that wasw why she had chosen Dodong.
Young Dodong who was only seventeen. Lucio had married another. Lucio, she
wondered, would she have born him children? Maybe not, either. That was a
better lot. But she loved Dodong… in the moonlight, tired and querulous. He
wanted to ask questions and somebody to answer him. He wanted to be wise
about many thins.

Life did not fulfill all of Youth’s dreams.

Why must be so? Why one was forsaken… after love?
One of them was why life did not fulfill all of the youth’ dreams. Why it
must be so. Why one was forsaken… after love.
Dodong could not find the answer. Maybe the question was not to be
answered. It must be so to make youth. Youth must be dreamfully sweet.
Dreamfully sweet.
Dodong returned to the house, humiliated by himself. He had wanted to
know little wisdom but was denied it.
When Blas was eighteen, he came home one night, very flustered and
happy. Dodong heard
Blas’ steps for he could not sleep well at night. He watched Blass undress
in the dark and lie down softly. Blas was restless on his mat and could not sleep.
Dodong called his name and asked why he did not sleep.

You better go to sleep. It is late,” Dodong said.

Life did not fulfill all of youth’s dreams. Why it must be so? Why one was
forsaken after love?
“Itay..” Blas called softly.
Dodong stirred and asked him what it was.
“I’m going to marry Tona. She accepted me tonight.
“Itay, you think its over.”
Dodong lay silent.
I loved Tona and… I want her.”
Dodong rose from his mat and told Blas to follow him. They descended to
the yard where everything was still and quiet.
The moonlight was cold and white.
“You want to marry Tona, Dodong said, although he did not want Blas to
marry yet. Blas was very young. The life that would follow marriage would be
hard…
“Yes.”
“Must you marry?”
Blas’ voice was steeled with resentment. “I will mary Tona.”
“You have objection, Itay?” Blas asked acridly.
“Son… none…” But for Dodong, he do anything. Youth must triumph…
now. Afterward… It will be life.
As long ago, Youth and Love did triumph for Dodong… and then life.
Dodong looked wistfully at his young son in the moonlight. He felt extremely sad
and sorry for him.

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Sample of a questions or task:

1. literal level : Describe the setting of the short story.
2. Interpretive level: . What is meant by this line as pondered by Dodong:
Youth must triumph… now. Afterward… It will be life.
3. Critical\Applied level of Comprehension : Do you agree or disagree with
the title of this story : “ Footnote to the Youth ? ”Justify your answer.

Task 2

Make samples of students’ tasks by which their outputs are based on graphic
organizers. Select 3 graphic organizers which your future students can use to
organize their thoughts. Make accurate directions to your students.

REFERENCES :

Akyel, A. & Yalcin, E. (1990). “Literature in the EFL class: a study of goal-
achievement incongruence”, ELT Journal,44/3: 174-180.

Cadorath, J. & Harris, S. (1998). "Unplanned Classroom Language and Teacher

Training," ELT Journal, 52/3: 188.

Carter, R & Long, M. (1991). Teaching Literature, Longman

Carter, R. & McRae, J. (eds) (1996). Language, Literature and the

Learner. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman.

Carter, R. & Nash, W. (1990) Seeing through Language. Oxford: Blackwell.

O’Brien, T. (1999). “A suggested model for teaching literature”, M.Ed, course

notes, University of Manchester

Or, Winnie Wing-fung. (1995). “Reinstating literature in the EFL syllabus”. In

Thinking language : issues in the study of language and language curriculum
renewal. Editors : Kitty P. Y. Wong and Christopher F. Green. Hong Kong :

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Language Centre, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,

c1995 http://repository.ust.hk/retrieve/1190/thinklang12.pdf

Short, M. (1996) Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. London:
Longman.

Short, M. H. & Candlin, C. N. 1986. Teaching study skills for English literature. In
C. J. Brumfit & R. A. Carter (Eds.), Literature and Language Teaching (pp. 89-
109). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Widdowson, H. (1975). Stylistics and the teaching of literature. London:

Longman.

Widdowson, H. (1979) Explorations in Applied

Linguistics . Oxford: Oxford University Press

M O D U LE 3

Literary Analysis on Genres

Literary analysis is a way of closely studying a text and discussing how

its meaning is conveyed through concepts like imagery, tone and perspective.

When you are asked to analyze a literary text, they often look for
something frequently called close reading. Close reading is deep analysis of how

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a literary text works; it is both a reading process and something you include in a
literary analysis paper, though in a refined form.

Fiction writers and poets build texts out of many central components,
including subject, form, and specific word choices. Literary analysis involves
examining these components, which allows us to find in small parts of the text
clues to help us understand the whole.

For example, if an author writes a novel in the form of a personal journal

about a character’s daily life, but that journal reads like a series of lab reports,
what do we learn about that character? In effect, you are putting the author’s
choices under a microscope.

The process of close reading should produce a lot of questions. It is when

you begin to answer these questions that you are ready to participate
thoughtfully in class discussion or write a literary analysis paper that makes the
most of your close reading work.

Close reading sometimes feels like over-analyzing. Close reading is a

process of finding as much information as you can in order to form as many
questions as you can. When it is time to write your paper and formalize your
close reading, you will sort through your work to figure out what is most
convincing and helpful to the argument you hope to make and, conversely, what
seems like a stretch. This guide imagines you are sitting down to read a text for
the first time on your way to developing an argument about a text and writing a
paper. The four major components of literary texts: subject, form, word choice
(diction), and theme.
Analysis through identification of the elements of short story
Elements of Literature
Before you dive straight into your analysis of symbolism, diction, imagery,
or any other rhetorical device, you need to have a grasp of the basic elements of
what you're reading. When we read critically or analytically, we might disregard
character, plot, setting, and theme as surface elements of a text. Aside from
noting what they are and how they drive a story, we sometimes don't pay much
attention to these elements. However, characters and their interactions can
reveal a great deal about human nature. Plot can act as a stand-in for real-world
events just as setting can represent our world or an allegorical one. Theme is the
heart of literature, exploring everything from love and war to childhood and
aging.

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With this in mind, you can begin your examination of literature with a
“Who, What, When, Where, How?” approach. Ask yourself “Who are the
characters?” “What is happening?” “When and where is it happening?” and “How
does it happen?” The answers will give you character (who), plot (what and how),
and setting (when and where). When you put these answers together, you can
begin to figure out theme, and you will have a solid foundation on which to base
your analysis
We will be exploring several of the following literary elements in the following
pages so that we can have a common vocabulary to be talk about fiction:
Tone
Character
Plot
Setting
Narration
Rhetorical Devices
Theme
Imagery
Symbolism

Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place.

What aspects make up the setting?

Geography, weather, time of day, social conditions?

What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or
theme? Or is it just a backdrop against which the action takes place?

Study the time period which is also part of the setting.When was the story
written?
Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?
Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters are described through dialogue?
by the way they speak? physical appearance? thoughts and feelings?
interaction - the way they act towards other characters?
Are they static characters who do not change?
Do they develop by the end of the story?
What type of characters are they?
What qualities stand out?
Are they stereotypes?

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Are the characters believable?

Plot and structure
The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story
What are the most important events?
How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move back and
forth?
Are there turning points, a climax and/or an anticlimax?
Is the plot believable?
Narrator and Point of view
The narrator is the person telling the story.
Point of view: whose eyes the story is being told through.
Who is the narrator or speaker in the story?
Is the narrator the main character?
Does the author speak through one of the characters?
Is the story written in the first person “I” point of view?
Is the story written in a detached third person “he/she” point of view?
Is the story written in an “all-knowing” 3rd person who can reveal what all the
characters are thinking and doing at all times and in all places?
Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the novel and is related to the main
character.
How would you describe the main conflict?
Is it internal where the character suffers inwardly?
is it external caused by the surroundings or environment the main character finds
himself/herself in?
Theme

The theme is the main idea, lesson or message in the novel. It is usually an
abstract, universal idea about the human condition, society or life, to name a
few.
How does the theme shine through in the story?
Are any elements repeated that may suggest a theme?
What other themes are there?
Style

The author’s style has to do with the author’s vocabulary, use of imagery, tone or
feeling of the story. It has to do with his attitude towards the subject. In some
novels the tone can be ironic, humorous, cold or dramatic.

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Is the text full of figurative language?

Does the author use a lot of symbolism? Metaphors, similes?

An example of a metaphor is when someone says, "My love, you are a rose". An
example of a simile is "My darling, you are like a rose."

What are the images used?

Literary Analysis in Essay Form

The purpose of a literary analysis written in essay form is to carefully

examine and sometimes evaluate a work of literature or an aspect of a work of
literature.

As with any analysis, this requires you to break the subject down into its
component parts. Examining the different elements of a piece of literature is not
an end in itself but rather a process to help you better appreciate and understand
the work of literature as a whole.

For instance, an analysis of a poem might deal with the different types of
images in a poem or with the relationship between the form and content of the
work. If you were to analyze (discuss and explain) a play, you might analyze the
relationship between a subplot and the main plot, or you might analyze the
character flaw of the tragic hero by tracing how it is revealed through the acts of
the play.

Analyzing a short story might include identifying a particular theme (like

the difficulty of making the transition from adolescence to adulthood) and
showing how the writer suggests that theme through the point of view from
which the story is told; or you might also explain how the main character’s
attitude toward women is revealed through his dialogue and/or actions.

Writing an analysis is the sharpened, focused expression of thought and

study. As you develop your writing skills, you will also improve your perceptions
and increase your critical abilities. Writing ultimately boils down to the
development of an idea. Your objective in writing a literary analysis essay is to
convince the person reading your essay that you have supported the idea you
are developing.

Unlike ordinary conversation and classroom discussion, writing must stick

with great determination to the specific point of development. This kind of writing

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demands tight organization and control. Therefore, your essay must have a
central idea (thesis), it must have several paragraphs that grow systematically
out of the central idea, and everything in it must be directly related to the central
idea and must contribute to the reader’s understanding of that central idea.

These three principles are listed again below:

1. Your essay must cover the topic you are writing about.
2. Your essay must have a central idea (stated in your thesis) that governs its
development.
3. Your essay must be organized so that every part contributes something to the
reader’s understanding of the central idea.
An analysis may contain a simple synopsis followed by the critical
analysis of the story.

Here are samples of an analysis. During yur previous classes in literature

subjects, you were able to read the story titled The Wedding Dance. An analysis
of that story is presented below.As you read the sample synopsis,try to ponder
how the theme was extracted based n the given synopsis and analysis.

The Wedding Dance

by Amado Daquio

Synopsis:
The Wedding Dance is a story of Lumnay and Awiyao, who as members of
a tribe in Cordillera, have to conform to the dictates of their culture. After seven
harvests, Lumnay and awiyao are still childless. Not having a child creates a
problem with them. Lumnay, as a woman is expected to be suspected as infertile.
Awiyao has to look for another wife even if he loves Lumnay so much. At the day
of Awiyao’swedding to Malidumay he paid visit to Lumnay for the last time and
invited her to come to her wedding. They are both wretched. Lumnaytried to fight
for her husband. She wanted to defy the unwritten law of the tribe besides they
both love each other. During the course of their conversation Awiyao explains his
opposition to his marriage to other woman but is defeated with cultural dictates.

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Awiyao called by the loud sound of the gongs goes back to the ceremony.
Lumnay considered breaking into the ceremony but ends up alone in the
company of bean plants. The love for their tribe reigned over Awiyao. Lumnay
becomes the image of a woman whose qualities as a good wife and the best
dancer among all the other women in their tribe mean nothing if she cannot bear
a child.
Analysis: The Wedding Dance The Wedding Dance tells the reader “that
there could be a conflict between your personal love and love for one’s people
(tribe) and culture, and in some cases culture prevails.” The story clearly
demonstrates how their culture prevents Lumnay and Awiyao from loving each
other and living together as husband and wife.Their love for each other is
revealed through their conversation. Awiyao, no matter how it pains him to leave
Lumnay has to conform to the social dictates. Lumnay, no matter how much she
loves Awiyao chose to give in to their unwritten law. There could also be an
underlying theme of the story that is love as self- sacrifice. The couple, Lumnay
and Awiyao has to give up for their love not only because of what their culture
dictates but alsoto save each other from the scorn of the society. In Awiyao’s
case he had been mocked being childless because a man to be considered a man
should have a child.

Here in another sample of analysis of The Wedding Dance through the

formalistic approach
( Analyzing using the elements of story)
Characters
Lumnay
a woman who was left by her husband because he had to marry another woman.
Awiyao
The husband of Lumnay.
Madulimay
Awiyao’s new wife.
Setting
The setting is a mountain village of the Philippines where Awiyao has been
remarried.
Plot

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Exposition
Awiyao has left his wife Lumnay because she couldn’t give him a child. He has
now married Madulimay in hopes to have a son and Lumnay is upset because she
loves Awiyao and doesn’t want this separation.
Rising Action
Outside, the villagers are dancing in celebration of the wedding. Awiyao leaves to
try and comfort Lumnay. He offers her many items of the life that they built
together. Lumnay refuses them and clings to Awiyao, wishing he would stay.
Climax
Awiyao finally leaves to re-join the wedding and Lumnay runs into the hills.
Falling Action
Lumnay sits on the side of the mountain overlooking the blazing fire and dancing
women, thinking about how her life has changed. She has a sense of desperation,
isolation, and worthlessness.

Resolution
The reader is left not knowing what will become of Lumnay.
Point of View
The short story is told from a third person omniscient point of view. The narrator
of the story is able to enter the minds and feelings of characters. This kind of
narration offers a lot of information for the readers to understand better how the
characters exactly think and feel.
Theme
The theme of the story that is love as self- sacrifice. The couple, Lumnay and
Awiyao has to give up for their love not only because of what their culture
dictates but also to save each other from the scorn of the society. In Awiyao’s
case he had been mocked being childless because a man to be considered a man
should have a child.
Mood
The feeling arises of this short stories is sadness because of the varied
happenings just like for example Lumnay and Awiyao has to give up their love for
the purpose of their culture.

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ENHANCEMENT TASK

Read the stories below and analyze it .Write first the synopsis and then the
analysis. The sample was presented above through the “The Wedding Dance “
synopsis & analysis.

DEAD STARS by Paz Marquez Benitez

THROUGH the open window the air-steeped outdoors passed into his room,
quietly enveloping him, stealing into his very thought. Esperanza, Julia, the sorry
mess he had made of life, the years to come even now beginning to weigh down,
to crush–they lost concreteness, diffused into formless melancholy. The tranquil
murmur of conversation issued from the brick-tiled azotea where Don Julian and
Carmen were busy puttering away among the rose pots.

“Papa, and when will the ‘long table’ be set?”

“I don’t know yet. Alfredo is not very specific, but I understand Esperanza
wants it to be next month.”

Carmen sighed impatiently. “Why is he not a bit more decided, I wonder.

He is over thirty, is he not? And still a bachelor! Esperanza must be tired
waiting.”

“She does not seem to be in much of a hurry either,” Don Julian nasally
commented, while his rose scissors busily snipped away.

“How can a woman be in a hurry when the man does not hurry her?”
Carmen returned, pinching off a worm with a careful, somewhat absent air.
“Papa, do you remember how much in love he was?”

“In love? With whom?”

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“With Esperanza, of course. He has not had another love affair that I know of,”
she said with good-natured contempt. “What I mean is that at the beginning he
was enthusiastic–flowers, serenades, notes, and things like that–”
Alfredo remembered that period with a wonder not unmixed with shame.
That was less than four years ago. He could not understand those months of a
great hunger that was not of the body nor yet of the mind, a craving that had
seized on him one quiet night when the moon was abroad and under the dappled
shadow of the trees in the plaza, man wooed maid. Was he being cheated by life?
Love–he seemed to have missed it. Or was the love that others told about a mere
fabrication of perfervid imagination, an exaggeration of the commonplace, a
glorification of insipid monotonies such as made up his love life? Was love a
combination of circumstances, or sheer native capacity of soul? In those days
love was, for him, still the eternal puzzle; for love, as he knew it, was a stranger
to love as he divined it might be.
Sitting quietly in his room now, he could almost revive the restlessness of
those days, the feeling of tumultuous haste, such as he knew so well in his
boyhood when something beautiful was going on somewhere and he was trying
to get there in time to see. “Hurry, hurry, or you will miss it,” someone had
seemed to urge in his ears. So he had avidly seized on the shadow of Love and
deluded himself for a long while in the way of humanity from time immemorial. In
the meantime, he became very much engaged to Esperanza.
Why would men so mismanage their lives? Greed, he thought, was what
ruined so many. Greed–the desire to crowd into a moment all the enjoyment it
will hold, to squeeze from the hour all the emotion it will yield. Men commit
themselves when but half-meaning to do so, sacrificing possible future fullness of
ecstasy to the craving for immediate excitement. Greed–mortgaging the future–
forcing the hand of Time, or of Fate.
“What do you think happened?” asked Carmen, pursuing her thought.
“I supposed long-engaged people are like that; warm now, cool tomorrow. I
think they are oftener cool than warm. The very fact that an engagement has
been allowed to prolong itself argues a certain placidity of temperament–or of
affection–on the part of either, or both.” Don Julian loved to philosophize. He was
talking now with an evident relish in words, his resonant, very nasal voice toned
down to monologue pitch. “That phase you were speaking of is natural enough
for a beginning. Besides, that, as I see it, was Alfredo’s last race with escaping
youth–”

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Carmen laughed aloud at the thought of her brother’s perfect physical

repose–almost indolence–disturbed in the role suggested by her father’s
figurative language.
“A last spurt of hot blood,” finished the old man.
Few certainly would credit Alfredo Salazar with hot blood. Even his friends had
amusedly diagnosed his blood as cool and thin, citing incontrovertible evidence.
Tall and slender, he moved with an indolent ease that verged on grace. Under
straight recalcitrant hair, a thin face with a satisfying breadth of forehead, slow,
dreamer’s eyes, and astonishing freshness of lips–indeed Alfredo Salazar’s
appearance betokened little of exuberant masculinity; rather a poet with
wayward humor, a fastidious artist with keen, clear brain.
He rose and quietly went out of the house. He lingered a moment on the stone
steps; then went down the path shaded by immature acacias, through the little
tarred gate which he left swinging back and forth, now opening, now closing, on
the gravel road bordered along the farther side by madre cacao hedge in tardy
lavender bloom.
The gravel road narrowed as it slanted up to the house on the hill, whose wide,
open porches he could glimpse through the heat-shrivelled tamarinds in the
Martinez yard.
Six weeks ago that house meant nothing to him save that it was the Martinez
house, rented and occupied by Judge del Valle and his family. Six weeks ago Julia
Salas meant nothing to him; he did not even know her name; but now–
One evening he had gone “neighboring” with Don Julian; a rare enough
occurrence, since he made it a point to avoid all appearance of currying favor
with the Judge. This particular evening however, he had allowed himself to be
persuaded. “A little mental relaxation now and then is beneficial,” the old man
had said. “Besides, a judge’s good will, you know;” the rest of the thought–“is
worth a rising young lawyer’s trouble”–Don Julian conveyed through a shrug and
a smile that derided his own worldly wisdom.
A young woman had met them at the door. It was evident from the excitement of
the Judge’s children that she was a recent and very welcome arrival. In the
characteristic Filipino way formal introductions had been omitted–the judge
limiting himself to a casual “Ah, ya se conocen?”–with the consequence that
Alfredo called her Miss del Valle throughout the evening.
He was puzzled that she should smile with evident delight every time he
addressed her thus. Later Don Julian informed him that she was not the Judge’s
sister, as he had supposed, but his sister-in-law, and that her name was Julia

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Salas. A very dignified rather austere name, he thought. Still, the young lady
should have corrected him. As it was, he was greatly embarrassed, and felt that
he should explain.
To his apology, she replied, “That is nothing, Each time I was about to correct
you, but I remembered a similar experience I had once before.”

“Oh,” he drawled out, vastly relieved.

“A man named Manalang–I kept calling him Manalo. After the tenth time or so,
the young man rose from his seat and said suddenly, ‘Pardon me, but my name
is Manalang, Manalang.’ You know, I never forgave him!”

He laughed with her.

“The best thing to do under the circumstances, I have found out,” she pursued,
“is to pretend not to hear, and to let the other person find out his mistake without
help.”

“As you did this time. Still, you looked amused every time I–”

“I was thinking of Mr. Manalang.”

Don Julian and his uncommunicative friend, the Judge, were absorbed in a game
of chess. The young man had tired of playing appreciative spectator and
desultory conversationalist, so he and Julia Salas had gone off to chat in the vine-
covered porch. The lone piano in the neighborhood alternately tinkled and
banged away as the player’s moods altered. He listened, and wondered
irrelevantly if Miss Salas could sing; she had such a charming speaking voice.

He was mildly surprised to note from her appearance that she was unmistakably
a sister of the Judge’s wife, although Doña Adela was of a different type
altogether. She was small and plump, with wide brown eyes, clearly defined
eyebrows, and delicately modeled hips–a pretty woman with the complexion of a
baby and the expression of a likable cow. Julia was taller, not so obviously pretty.
She had the same eyebrows and lips, but she was much darker, of a smooth rich
brown with underlying tones of crimson which heightened the impression she
gave of abounding vitality.

On Sunday mornings after mass, father and son would go crunching up the
gravel road to the house on the hill. The Judge’s wife invariably offered them
beer, which Don Julian enjoyed and Alfredo did not. After a half hour or so, the
chessboard would be brought out; then Alfredo and Julia Salas would go out to
the porch to chat. She sat in the low hammock and he in a rocking chair and the
hours–warm, quiet March hours–sped by. He enjoyed talking with her and it was
evident that she liked his company; yet what feeling there was between them

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was so undisturbed that it seemed a matter of course. Only when Esperanza

chanced to ask him indirectly about those visits did some uneasiness creep into
his thoughts of the girl next door.
Esperanza had wanted to know if he went straight home after mass. Alfredo
suddenly realized that for several Sundays now he had not waited for Esperanza
to come out of the church as he had been wont to do. He had been eager to go
“neighboring.”
He answered that he went home to work. And, because he was not habitually
untruthful, added, “Sometimes I go with Papa to Judge del Valle’s.”
She dropped the topic. Esperanza was not prone to indulge in unprovoked
jealousies. She was a believer in the regenerative virtue of institutions, in their
power to regulate feeling as well as conduct. If a man were married, why, of
course, he loved his wife; if he were engaged, he could not possibly love another
woman.
That half-lie told him what he had not admitted openly to himself, that he was
giving Julia Salas something which he was not free to give. He realized that; yet
something that would not be denied beckoned imperiously, and he followed on.
It was so easy to forget up there, away from the prying eyes of the world, so easy
and so poignantly sweet. The beloved woman, he standing close to her, the
shadows around, enfolding.
“Up here I find–something–”
He and Julia Salas stood looking out into the she quiet night. Sensing unwanted
intensity, laughed, woman-like, asking, “Amusement?”
“No; youth–its spirit–”
“Are you so old?”
“And heart’s desire.”
Was he becoming a poet, or is there a poet lurking in the heart of every man?
“Down there,” he had continued, his voice somewhat indistinct, “the road is too
broad, too trodden by feet, too barren of mystery.”
“Down there” beyond the ancient tamarinds lay the road, upturned to the stars.
In the darkness the fireflies glimmered, while an errant breeze strayed in from
somewhere, bringing elusive, faraway sounds as of voices in a dream.
“Mystery–” she answered lightly, “that is so brief–”
“Not in some,” quickly. “Not in you.”
“You have known me a few weeks; so the mystery.”
“I could study you all my life and still not find it.”
“So long?”

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“I should like to.”

Those six weeks were now so swift–seeming in the memory, yet had they been so
deep in the living, so charged with compelling power and sweetness. Because
neither the past nor the future had relevance or meaning, he lived only the
present, day by day, lived it intensely, with such a willful shutting out of fact as
astounded him in his calmer moments.

Just before Holy Week, Don Julian invited the judge and his family to spend
Sunday afternoon at Tanda where he had a coconut plantation and a house on
the beach. Carmen also came with her four energetic children. She and Doña
Adela spent most of the time indoors directing the preparation of the merienda
and discussing the likeable absurdities of their husbands–how Carmen’s Vicente
was so absorbed in his farms that he would not even take time off to accompany
her on this visit to her father; how Doña Adela’s Dionisio was the most
absentminded of men, sometimes going out without his collar, or with
unmatched socks.

After the merienda, Don Julian sauntered off with the judge to show him what a
thriving young coconut looked like–“plenty of leaves, close set, rich green”–while
the children, convoyed by Julia Salas, found unending entertainment in the
rippling sand left by the ebbing tide. They were far down, walking at the edge of
the water, indistinctly outlined against the gray of the out-curving beach.

Alfredo left his perch on the bamboo ladder of the house and followed. Here were
her footsteps, narrow, arched. He laughed at himself for his black canvas
footwear which he removed forthwith and tossed high up on dry sand.

When he came up, she flushed, then smiled with frank pleasure.

“I hope you are enjoying this,” he said with a questioning inflection.

“Very much. It looks like home to me, except that we do not have such a lovely
beach.”

There was a breeze from the water. It blew the hair away from her forehead, and
whipped the tucked-up skirt around her straight, slender figure. In the picture
was something of eager freedom as of wings poised in flight. The girl had grace,
distinction. Her face was not notably pretty; yet she had a tantalizing charm, all
the more compelling because it was an inner quality, an achievement of the
spirit. The lure was there, of naturalness, of an alert vitality of mind and body, of
a thoughtful, sunny temper, and of a piquant perverseness which is sauce to
charm.

“The afternoon has seemed very short, hasn’t it?” Then, “This, I think, is the last
time–we can visit.”

“The last? Why?”

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

“Oh, you will be too busy perhaps.”

He noted an evasive quality in the answer.
“Do I seem especially industrious to you?”
“If you are, you never look it.”
“Not perspiring or breathless, as a busy man ought to be.”
“But–”
“Always unhurried, too unhurried, and calm.” She smiled to herself.
“I wish that were true,” he said after a meditative pause.
She waited.
“A man is happier if he is, as you say, calm and placid.”
“Like a carabao in a mud pool,” she retorted perversely
“Who? I?”
“Oh, no!”
“You said I am calm and placid.”
“That is what I think.”
“I used to think so too. Shows how little we know ourselves.”
It was strange to him that he could be wooing thus: with tone and look and covert
phrase.
“I should like to see your home town.”
“There is nothing to see–little crooked streets, bunut roofs with ferns growing on
them, and sometimes squashes.”
That was the background. It made her seem less detached, less unrelated, yet
withal more distant, as if that background claimed her and excluded him.
“Nothing? There is you.”
“Oh, me? But I am here.”
“I will not go, of course, until you are there.”
“Will you come? You will find it dull. There isn’t even one American there!”
“Well–Americans are rather essential to my entertainment.”
She laughed.
“We live on Calle Luz, a little street with trees.”
“Could I find that?”
“If you don’t ask for Miss del Valle,” she smiled teasingly.
“I’ll inquire about–”
“What?”
“The house of the prettiest girl in the town.”
“There is where you will lose your way.” Then she turned serious. “Now, that is
not quite sincere.”
“It is,” he averred slowly, but emphatically.
“I thought you, at least, would not say such things.”
“Pretty–pretty–a foolish word! But there is none other more handy I did not mean
that quite–”
“Are you withdrawing the compliment?”
“Re-enforcing it, maybe. Something is pretty when it pleases the eye–it is more
than that when–”
“If it saddens?” she interrupted hastily.
“Exactly.”
“It must be ugly.”
“Always?”

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Toward the west, the sunlight lay on the dimming waters in a broad, glinting
streamer of crimsoned gold.
“No, of course you are right.”
“Why did you say this is the last time?” he asked quietly as they turned back.
“I am going home.”
The end of an impossible dream!
“When?” after a long silence.
“Tomorrow. I received a letter from Father and Mother yesterday. They want me
to spend Holy Week at home.”
She seemed to be waiting for him to speak. “That is why I said this is the last
time.”
“Can’t I come to say good-bye?”
“Oh, you don’t need to!”
“No, but I want to.”
“There is no time.”
The golden streamer was withdrawing, shortening, until it looked no more than a
pool far away at the rim of the world. Stillness, a vibrant quiet that affects the
senses as does solemn harmony; a peace that is not contentment but a cessation
of tumult when all violence of feeling tones down to the wistful serenity of regret.
She turned and looked into his face, in her dark eyes a ghost of sunset sadness.
“Home seems so far from here. This is almost like another life.”
“I know. This is Elsewhere, and yet strange enough, I cannot get rid of the old
things.”
“Old things?”
“Oh, old things, mistakes, encumbrances, old baggage.” He said it lightly,
unwilling to mar the hour. He walked close, his hand sometimes touching hers for
one whirling second.
Don Julian’s nasal summons came to them on the wind.
Alfredo gripped the soft hand so near his own. At his touch, the girl turned
her face away, but he heard her voice say very low, “Good-bye.”
ALFREDO Salazar turned to the right where, farther on, the road broadened
and entered the heart of the town–heart of Chinese stores sheltered under low-
hung roofs, of indolent drug stores and tailor shops, of dingy shoe-repairing
establishments, and a cluttered goldsmith’s cubbyhole where a consumptive
bent over a magnifying lens; heart of old brick-roofed houses with quaint hand-
and-ball knockers on the door; heart of grass-grown plaza reposeful with trees, of
ancient church and convento, now circled by swallows gliding in flight as smooth
and soft as the afternoon itself. Into the quickly deepening twilight, the voice of
the biggest of the church bells kept ringing its insistent summons. Flocking came
the devout with their long wax candles, young women in vivid apparel (for this
was Holy Thursday and the Lord was still alive), older women in sober black
skirts. Came too the young men in droves, elbowing each other under the talisay
tree near the church door. The gaily decked rice-paper lanterns were again on
display while from the windows of the older houses hung colored glass globes,
heirlooms from a day when grasspith wicks floating in coconut oil were the chief
lighting device.
Soon a double row of lights emerged from the church and uncoiled down the
length of the street like a huge jewelled band studded with glittering clusters

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

where the saints’ platforms were. Above the measured music rose the untutored
voices of the choir, steeped in incense and the acrid fumes of burning wax.

The sight of Esperanza and her mother sedately pacing behind Our Lady of
Sorrows suddenly destroyed the illusion of continuity and broke up those lines of
light into component individuals. Esperanza stiffened self-consciously, tried to
look unaware, and could not.

The line moved on.

Suddenly, Alfredo’s slow blood began to beat violently, irregularly. A girl was
coming down the line–a girl that was striking, and vividly alive, the woman that
could cause violent commotion in his heart, yet had no place in the completed
ordering of his life.

Her glance of abstracted devotion fell on him and came to a brief stop.

The line kept moving on, wending its circuitous route away from the church and
then back again, where, according to the old proverb, all processions end.

At last Our Lady of Sorrows entered the church, and with her the priest and the
choir, whose voices now echoed from the arched ceiling. The bells rang the close
of the procession.

A round orange moon, “huge as a winnowing basket,” rose lazily into a clear sky,
whitening the iron roofs and dimming the lanterns at the windows. Along the still
densely shadowed streets the young women with their rear guard of males
loitered and, maybe, took the longest way home.

Toward the end of the row of Chinese stores, he caught up with Julia Salas. The
crowd had dispersed into the side streets, leaving Calle Real to those who lived
farther out. It was past eight, and Esperanza would be expecting him in a little
while: yet the thought did not hurry him as he said “Good evening” and fell into
step with the girl.

“I had been thinking all this time that you had gone,” he said in a voice that was
both excited and troubled.

“No, my sister asked me to stay until they are ready to go.”

“Oh, is the Judge going?”

“Yes.”

The provincial docket had been cleared, and Judge del Valle had been assigned
elsewhere. As lawyer–and as lover–Alfredo had found that out long before.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

45
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

“Mr. Salazar,” she broke into his silence, “I wish to congratulate you.”

Her tone told him that she had learned, at last. That was inevitable.

“For what?”

“For your approaching wedding.”

Some explanation was due her, surely. Yet what could he say that would not
offend?

“I should have offered congratulations long before, but you know mere visitors
are slow about getting the news,” she continued.

He listened not so much to what she said as to the nuances in her voice. He
heard nothing to enlighten him, except that she had reverted to the formal tones
of early acquaintance. No revelation there; simply the old voice–cool, almost
detached from personality, flexible and vibrant, suggesting potentialities of song.

“Are weddings interesting to you?” he finally brought out quietly

“When they are of friends, yes.”

“Would you come if I asked you?”

“When is it going to be?”

“May,” he replied briefly, after a long pause.

“May is the month of happiness they say,” she said, with what seemed to him a
shade of irony.

“They say,” slowly, indifferently. “Would you come?”

“Why not?”

“No reason. I am just asking. Then you will?”

“If you will ask me,” she said with disdain.

“Then I ask you.”

“Then I will be there.”

The gravel road lay before them; at the road’s end the lighted windows of the
house on the hill. There swept over the spirit of Alfredo Salazar a longing so keen
that it was pain, a wish that, that house were his, that all the bewilderments of

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

the present were not, and that this woman by his side were his long wedded wife,
returning with him to the peace of home.

“Julita,” he said in his slow, thoughtful manner, “did you ever have to choose
between something you wanted to do and something you had to do?”

“No!”

“I thought maybe you had had that experience; then you could understand a
man who was in such a situation.”

“You are fortunate,” he pursued when she did not answer.

“Is–is this man sure of what he should do?”

“I don’t know, Julita. Perhaps not. But there is a point where a thing escapes us
and rushes downward of its own weight, dragging us along. Then it is foolish to
ask whether one will or will not, because it no longer depends on him.”

“But then why–why–” her muffled voice came. “Oh, what do I know? That is his
problem after all.”

“Doesn’t it–interest you?”

“Why must it? I–I have to say good-bye, Mr. Salazar; we are at the house.”

Without lifting her eyes she quickly turned and walked away.

Had the final word been said? He wondered. It had. Yet a feeble flutter of hope
trembled in his mind though set against that hope were three years of
engagement, a very near wedding, perfect understanding between the parents,
his own conscience, and Esperanza herself–Esperanza waiting, Esperanza no
longer young, Esperanza the efficient, the literal-minded, the intensely
acquisitive.

He looked attentively at her where she sat on the sofa, appraisingly, and with a
kind of aversion which he tried to control.

She was one of those fortunate women who have the gift of uniformly acceptable
appearance. She never surprised one with unexpected homeliness nor with
startling reserves of beauty. At home, in church, on the street, she was always
herself, a woman past first bloom, light and clear of complexion, spare of arms
and of breast, with a slight convexity to thin throat; a woman dressed with self-
conscious care, even elegance; a woman distinctly not average.

She was pursuing an indignant relation about something or other, something

about Calixta, their note-carrier, Alfredo perceived, so he merely half-listened,

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

understanding imperfectly. At a pause he drawled out to fill in the gap: “Well,

what of it?” The remark sounded ruder than he had intended.

“She is not married to him,” Esperanza insisted in her thin, nervously pitched
voice. “Besides, she should have thought of us. Nanay practically brought her up.
We never thought she would turn out bad.”

What had Calixta done? Homely, middle-aged Calixta?

“You are very positive about her badness,” he commented dryly. Esperanza was
always positive.

“But do you approve?”

“Of what?”

“What she did.”

“No,” indifferently.

“Well?”

He was suddenly impelled by a desire to disturb the unvexed orthodoxy of her

mind. “All I say is that it is not necessarily wicked.”

“Why shouldn’t it be? You talked like an–immoral man. I did not know that your
ideas were like that.”

“My ideas?” he retorted, goaded by a deep, accumulated exasperation. “The only

test I wish to apply to conduct is the test of fairness. Am I injuring anybody? No?
Then I am justified in my conscience. I am right. Living with a man to whom she
is not married–is that it? It may be wrong, and again it may not.”

“She has injured us. She was ungrateful.” Her voice was tight with resentment.

“The trouble with you, Esperanza, is that you are–” he stopped, appalled by the
passion in his voice.

“Why do you get angry? I do not understand you at all! I think I know why you
have been indifferent to me lately. I am not blind, or deaf; I see and hear what
perhaps some are trying to keep from me.” The blood surged into his very eyes
and his hearing sharpened to points of acute pain. What would she say next?

“Why don’t you speak out frankly before it is too late? You need not think of me
and of what people will say.” Her voice trembled.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Alfredo was suffering as he could not remember ever having suffered before.
What people will say–what will they not say? What don’t they say when long
engagements are broken almost on the eve of the wedding?

“Yes,” he said hesitatingly, diffidently, as if merely thinking aloud, “one tries to

be fair–according to his lights–but it is hard. One would like to be fair to one’s self
first. But that is too easy, one does not dare–”

“What do you mean?” she asked with repressed violence. “Whatever my

shortcomings, and no doubt they are many in your eyes, I have never gone out of
my way, of my place, to find a man.”

Did she mean by this irrelevant remark that he it was who had sought her; or was
that a covert attack on Julia Salas?

“Esperanza–” a desperate plea lay in his stumbling words. “If you–suppose I–” Yet
how could a mere man word such a plea?

“If you mean you want to take back your word, if you are tired of–why don’t you
tell me you are tired of me?” she burst out in a storm of weeping that left him
completely shamed and unnerved.

The last word had been said.

III

AS Alfredo Salazar leaned against the boat rail to watch the evening settling over
the lake, he wondered if Esperanza would attribute any significance to this trip of
his. He was supposed to be in Sta. Cruz whither the case of the People of the
Philippine Islands vs. Belina et al had kept him, and there he would have been if
Brigida Samuy had not been so important to the defense. He had to find that
elusive old woman. That the search was leading him to that particular lake town
which was Julia Salas’ home should not disturb him unduly Yet he was disturbed
to a degree utterly out of proportion to the prosaicalness of his errand. That inner
tumult was no surprise to him; in the last eight years he had become used to
such occasional storms. He had long realized that he could not forget Julia Salas.
Still, he had tried to be content and not to remember too much. The climber of
mountains who has known the back-break, the lonesomeness, and the chill, finds
a certain restfulness in level paths made easy to his feet. He looks up sometimes
from the valley where settles the dusk of evening, but he knows he must not
heed the radiant beckoning. Maybe, in time, he would cease even to look up.

He was not unhappy in his marriage. He felt no rebellion: only the calm of
capitulation to what he recognized as irresistible forces of circumstance and of
character. His life had simply ordered itself; no more struggles, no more stirring
up of emotions that got a man nowhere. From his capacity of complete
detachment he derived a strange solace. The essential himself, the himself that

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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

had its being in the core of his thought, would, he reflected, always be free and
alone. When claims encroached too insistently, as sometimes they did, he
retreated into the inner fastness, and from that vantage he saw things and
people around him as remote and alien, as incidents that did not matter. At such
times did Esperanza feel baffled and helpless; he was gentle, even tender, but
immeasurably far away, beyond her reach.

Lights were springing into life on the shore. That was the town, a little up-tilted
town nestling in the dark greenness of the groves. A snubcrested belfry stood
beside the ancient church. On the outskirts the evening smudges glowed red
through the sinuous mists of smoke that rose and lost themselves in the purple
shadows of the hills. There was a young moon which grew slowly luminous as the
coral tints in the sky yielded to the darker blues of evening.

The vessel approached the landing quietly, trailing a wake of long golden ripples
on the dark water. Peculiar hill inflections came to his ears from the crowd
assembled to meet the boat–slow, singing cadences, characteristic of the Laguna
lake-shore speech. From where he stood he could not distinguish faces, so he
had no way of knowing whether the presidente was there to meet him or not. Just
then a voice shouted.

“Is the abogado there? Abogado!”

“What abogado?” someone irately asked.

That must be the presidente, he thought, and went down to the landing.

It was a policeman, a tall pock-marked individual. The presidente had left with
Brigida Samuy–Tandang “Binday”–that noon for Santa Cruz. Señor Salazar’s
second letter had arrived late, but the wife had read it and said, “Go and meet
the abogado and invite him to our house.”

Alfredo Salazar courteously declined the invitation. He would sleep on board

since the boat would leave at four the next morning anyway. So the presidente
had received his first letter? Alfredo did not know because that official had not
sent an answer. “Yes,” the policeman replied, “but he could not write because we
heard that Tandang Binday was in San Antonio so we went there to find her.”

San Antonio was up in the hills! Good man, the presidente! He, Alfredo, must do
something for him. It was not every day that one met with such willingness to
help.

Eight o’clock, lugubriously tolled from the bell tower, found the boat settled into a
somnolent quiet. A cot had been brought out and spread for him, but it was too
bare to be inviting at that hour. It was too early to sleep: he would walk around
the town. His heart beat faster as he picked his way to shore over the rafts made
fast to sundry piles driven into the water.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

How peaceful the town was! Here and there a little tienda was still open, its dim
light issuing forlornly through the single window which served as counter. An
occasional couple sauntered by, the women’s chinelas making scraping sounds.
From a distance came the shrill voices of children playing games on the street–
tubigan perhaps, or “hawk-and-chicken.” The thought of Julia Salas in that quiet
place filled him with a pitying sadness.

How would life seem now if he had married Julia Salas? Had he meant anything to
her? That unforgettable red-and-gold afternoon in early April haunted him with a
sense of incompleteness as restless as other unlaid ghosts. She had not married–
why? Faithfulness, he reflected, was not a conscious effort at regretful memory. It
was something unvolitional, maybe a recurrent awareness of irreplaceability.
Irrelevant trifles–a cool wind on his forehead, far-away sounds as of voices in a
dream–at times moved him to an oddly irresistible impulse to listen as to an
insistent, unfinished prayer.

A few inquiries led him to a certain little tree-ceilinged street where the young
moon wove indistinct filigrees of fight and shadow. In the gardens the cotton tree
threw its angular shadow athwart the low stone wall; and in the cool, stilly
midnight the cock’s first call rose in tall, soaring jets of sound. Calle Luz.

Somehow or other, he had known that he would find her house because she
would surely be sitting at the window. Where else, before bedtime on a moonlit
night? The house was low and the light in the sala behind her threw her head into
unmistakable relief. He sensed rather than saw her start of vivid surprise.

“Good evening,” he said, raising his hat.

“Good evening. Oh! Are you in town?”

“On some little business,” he answered with a feeling of painful constraint.

“Won’t you come up?”

He considered. His vague plans had not included this. But Julia Salas had left the
window, calling to her mother as she did so. After a while, someone came
downstairs with a lighted candle to open the door. At last–he was shaking her
hand.

She had not changed much–a little less slender, not so eagerly alive, yet
something had gone. He missed it, sitting opposite her, looking thoughtfully into
her fine dark eyes. She asked him about the home town, about this and that, in a
sober, somewhat meditative tone. He conversed with increasing ease, though
with a growing wonder that he should be there at all. He could not take his eyes
from her face. What had she lost? Or was the loss his? He felt an impersonal
curiosity creeping into his gaze. The girl must have noticed, for her cheek
darkened in a blush.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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DIFFUN CAMPUS
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Gently–was it experimentally?–he pressed her hand at parting; but his own felt
undisturbed and emotionless. Did she still care? The answer to the question
hardly interested him.

The young moon had set, and from the uninviting cot he could see one half of a
star-studded sky.

So that was all over.

Why had he obstinately clung to that dream?

So all these years–since when?–he had been seeing the light of dead stars, long
extinguished, yet seemingly still in their appointed places in the heavens.

An immense sadness as of loss invaded his spirit, a vast homesickness for some
immutable refuge of the heart far away where faded gardens bloom again, and
where live on in unchanging freshness, the dear, dead loves of vanished youth.

END OF MODULE 3

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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