Designation: D6429 − 99 (Reapproved 2011)´1

Standard Guide for

Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D6429; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

´1 NOTE—Editorially revised Section 3 in July 2011.

1. Scope with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to

1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical successfully complete a survey. Personnel not having special-
methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, ized training or experience should be cautious about using
hydrologic, and environmental investigations (hereafter re- geophysical methods and should solicit assistance from quali-
ferred to as site characterization), as well as forensic and fied practitioners.
archaeological applications. This guide does not describe the 1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Indi- guide. The values given in parentheses are for information
vidual guides are being developed for each surface geophysical only.
method. 1.8 This guide offers an organized collection of information
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and course of action. This document cannot replace education or
pore fluids, as well as buried objects. experience and should be used in conjunction with professional
judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
1.3 The geophysical methods presented in this guide are
circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to repre-
regularly used and have been proven effective for hydrologic,
sent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of
geologic, geotechnical, and hazardous waste site assessments.
a given professional service must be judged, nor should this
1.4 This guide provides an overview of applications for document be applied without consideration of a project’s many
which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this
address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, document means only that the document has been approved
field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous through the ASTM consensus process.
references are included for that purpose and are considered an 1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the
essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-20)2 and with responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, and D6285, as well as priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Method G57. bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.5 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical
2. Referenced Documents
methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references
cited in this guide, should be consulted. 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
D420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering Design
1.6 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon
and Construction Purposes (Withdrawn 2011)4
many factors. One of the most important factors is the
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying
Fluids
out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of
D4428/D4428M Test Methods for Crosshole Seismic Test-
the method’s theory, field procedures, and interpretation along
ing
D5088 Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment
1
Used at Waste Sites
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface
3
Characterization. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved July 1, 2011. Published September 2011. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2006 as D6429–99(2006). Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
DOI: 10.1520/D6429-99R11e1. the ASTM website.
2 4
The boldface numbers given in parentheses refer to a list of references at the The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
end of this standard. www.astm.org.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); 1

 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
D5608 Practices for Decontamination of Field Equipment 4.2 The selection of preferred geophysical methods for a
Used at Low Level Radioactive Waste Sites number of common applications is summarized in Table 1. The
D5730 Guide for Site Characterization for Environmental table is followed by brief descriptions of each application.
Purposes With Emphasis on Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone
and Ground Water 4.3 A brief description of each geophysical method along
D5753 Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole Geo- with some of the field considerations and limitations also are
physical Logging provided.
D5777 Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for 4.4 It is recommended that personnel consult appropriate
Subsurface Investigation references on each of the methods, applications, and their
D6235 Practice for Expedited Site Characterization of Va- interpretations. All geophysical measurements should be car-
dose Zone and Groundwater Contamination at Hazardous ried out by knowledgeable professionals who have experience
Waste Contaminated Sites and training in theory and application of the method, and the
D6285 Guide for Locating Abandoned Wells interpretation of the data resulting from the use of the specific
G57 Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity method.
Using the Wenner Four-Electrode Method
3. Terminology 5. Significance and Use
3.1 Definitions: 5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysi-
3.1.1 Definitions shall be in accordance with the terms and cal methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating
symbols given in Terminology D653. system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: to produce results under average field conditions when com-
3.2.1 See Ref (1) for specific geophysical terms and defini- pared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A”
tions. rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an
alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple
4. Summary of Guide methods that can be applied with equal success. There may also
4.1 This guide applies to surface geophysical techniques be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a
that are commonly used in site characterization, as well as lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site
forensic and archaeological applications. specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is

TABLE 1 Selection of Geophysical Methods for Common ApplicationsA,B

Geophysical Methods
Seismic Electrical Electromagnetic
Ground
Applications DC Frequency Time Pipe/Cable Metal
Refraction Reflection SP Penetrating Magnetics Gravity
Resistivity Domain Domain VLF (6.7) Locator Detectors
(6.1) (6.2) (6.4) Radar (6.11) (6.12)
(6.3) (6.5) (6.6) (6.8) (6.9)
(6.10)
Natural Geologic and Hydrologic
Conditions
Soil/unconsolidated layers A B A B A B A
Rock layers B A B B B
Depth to bedrock A A B B B B A B
Depth to water table A A B B B B A
Fractures and fault zones B B B A B A B B B
Voids and sinkholes B B B B B A A
Soil and rock properties A A B
Dam and lagoon leakage B A B B
Inorganic Contaminants
Landfill leachate A A A B B
Saltwater intrusion A A A B B
Soil salinity A A
Organic Contaminants
Light, nonaqueous phase liquids B B B B
Dissolved phaseC
Dense, nonaqueous phase
liquidsC
Manmade Buried Objects
Utilities B A B A
Drums and USTs A A A A A
UXO A B A
Abandoned wells B B B A
Landfill and trench boundaries B B A B A
Forensics B A B B A B
Archaeological features B B B A A A B
A
“A” implies primary choice of method.
B
“B” implies secondary choice or alternate method.
C
Also see natural geologic and hydrologic conditions to characterize contaminant pathways.

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
critical to have an experienced professional make the final a cross-section produced from the geophysical data may
decision as to the method(s) selected. resemble a geological cross-section, although the two are not
5.1.1 Benson (2) provides one of the earlier guides to the necessarily identical.
application of geophysics to environmental problems. 5.4 Geophysical methods commonly are used for the fol-
5.1.2 Ward (3) is a three-volume compendium that deals lowing reasons:
with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and envi-
5.4.1 Mapping natural hydrogeologic conditions;
ronmental problems.
5.4.2 Detecting and mapping contaminant plumes; and,
5.1.3 Olhoeft (4) provides an expert system for helping
select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites. 5.4.3 Locating and mapping buried objects.
5.1.4 EPA (5) provides an excellent literature review of the 5.5 Geophysical methods should be used in the following
theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated instances:
sites. 5.5.1 Surface geophysical methods can and should be used
early in a site characterization program to aid in identifying
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:
background conditions, as well as anomalous conditions so that
5.2.1 A primary factor affecting the accuracy of geotechni- boring and sampling points can be located to be representative
cal or environmental site characterization efforts is the number of site conditions and to investigate anomalies. Geophysical
of sample points or borings. Insufficient spatial sampling to methods also can be used later in the site characterization
adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the program after an initial study is completed to confirm and
number of samples is too small. Interpolation between these improve the site characterization findings and provide fill-in
sample points may be difficult and may lead to an inaccurate data between other measurements.
site characterization. Benson (2) provides an assessment of the 5.5.2 The level of success of a geophysical survey is
probability of target detection using only borings. improved if the survey objectives are well defined. In some
5.2.2 Surface and borehole geophysical measurements gen- cases, the objective may be refined as the survey uncovers new
erally can be made relatively quickly, are minimally intrusive, or unknown data about the site conditions. The flexibility to
and enable interpolation between known points of control. change or add to the technical approach should be built into the
Continuous data acquisition can be obtained with certain program to account for changes in interpretation of site
geophysical methods at speeds up to several km/h. In some conditions as a site investigation progresses.
cases, total site coverage is economically possible. Because of
5.6 Profiling and Sounding Measurements:
the greater sample density, the use of geophysical methods can
5.6.1 Profiling by stations or by continuous measurements
be used to define background (ambient) conditions and detect
provides a means of assessing lateral changes in subsurface
anomalous conditions resulting in a more accurate site charac-
conditions.
terization than using borings alone.
5.6.2 Soundings provide a means of assessing depth and
5.2.3 Geophysical measurements provide a means of map- thickness of geologic layers or other targets. Most surface
ping lateral and vertical variations of one or more physical geophysical sounding measurements can resolve three and
properties or monitoring temporal changes in conditions, or possibly four layers.
both.
5.7 Ease of Use and Interpretation of Data:
5.3 A contrast must be present for geophysical measure- 5.7.1 The theory of applied geophysics is quantitative,
ments to be successful. however, in application, geophysical methods often yield
5.3.1 Geophysical methods measure the physical, electrical, interpretations that are qualitative.
or chemical properties of soil, rock, and pore fluids. To detect 5.7.2 Some geophysical methods provide data from which a
an anomaly, a soil to rock contact, the presence of inorganic preliminary interpretation can be made in the field, for ex-
contaminants, or a buried drum, there must be a contrast in the ample, ground penetrating radar (GPR), frequency domain
property being measured, for example, the target to be detected electromagnetic profiling, direct current (DC) resistivity pro-
or geologic feature to be defined must have properties signifi- filing, magnetic profiling, and metal detector profiling. A map
cantly different from “background” conditions. of GPR anomalies or a contour map of the EM (electromag-
5.3.2 For example, the interface between fresh water and netic), resistivity, magnetic or metal detector data often can be
saltwater in an aquifer can be detected by the differences in created in the field.
electrical properties of the pore fluids. The contact between soil 5.7.3 Some methods, (for example, time domain electro-
and unweathered bedrock can be detected by the differences in magnetics and DC resistivity soundings, seismic refraction,
acoustic velocity of the materials. In some cases, the differ- seismic reflection, and gravity), require that the data be
ences in measured physical properties may be too small for processed before any quantitative interpretation can be done.
anomaly detection by geophysical methods. 5.7.4 Any preliminary interpretation of field data should be
5.3.3 Because physical properties of soil and rock vary treated with caution. Such preliminary analysis should be
widely, some by many orders of magnitude, one or more of confirmed by correlation with other information from known
these properties usually will correspond to a geologic discon- points of control, such as borings or outcrops. Such preliminary
tinuity; therefore, boundaries determined by the geophysical analysis is subject to change after data processing and is
methods will usually coincide with geological boundaries, and performed mostly as a means of quality control (QC).

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
5.7.5 It is the interpretation and integration of all site data 5.8.1.7 Soil and Rock Properties—This application refers to
that results in useful information for site characterization. The the measurement of the physical properties of soil and rock, for
conversion of raw data to useful information is a value-added example, elastic, plastic, and electrical. The choice of the
process that experienced professionals achieve by careful geophysical method selected will be determined by the specific
analysis. Such analysis must be conducted by a competent property to be measured. ASTM standards pertinent to those
professional to ensure that the interpretation is consistent with properties should be consulted. For example, rippability and
geologic and hydrologic conditions. acoustic velocities of rock are discussed in Guide D5777, the
5.8 Discussion of Applications : dynamic modulus measured between boreholes in Test Meth-
ods D4428/D4428M, soil resistivity in Test Method G57, and
5.8.1 Natural Geologic and Hydrologic Conditions:
density, porosity measurements and seismic velocity measure-
5.8.1.1 Soil/Unconsolidated Layers—This application in-
ments in boreholes in Guide D5753.
cludes determining the depth to, thickness of, and areal extent
5.8.1.8 Dam and Lagoon Leakage—This application refers
of unconsolidated layers. These layers may be discontinuous or
to the detection and mapping of fluids leaking along preferen-
include lenses of various materials. These layers can be
tial flow pathways from a dam or lagoon. The application of
detected because of differences in their physical properties as
surface geophysical methods to detect leakage is contingent
compared to adjacent materials.
upon the presence of localized flow or difference in conduc-
5.8.1.2 Rock Layers—This application includes determining
tivity.
the contact between different rock layers, for example, lime-
5.8.2 Inorganic Contaminants:
stone over granite or sandstone over shale, discontinuous
bedding planes, and unconformities and the thicknesses of 5.8.2.1 Landfill Leachate—This application includes all
these layers. Several geophysical methods can be used to types of waste disposal sites in which the primary leachate is
delineate rock layers depending on the physical properties and likely to be inorganic and electrically conductive. This includes
the depths and thicknesses of the layers. municipal landfill sites, hazardous waste sites, and mine
tailings. Inorganic contaminants can be detected using electri-
5.8.1.3 Depth to Bedrock—This application includes deter-
cal or electromagnetic geophysical methods.
mining depth to the top of competent rock covered by
5.8.2.2 Saltwater Intrusion—Saltwater intrusion refers to
unconsolidated overburden. The choice of geophysical method
movement of saline water into fresh water aquifers, and
depends on whether there is a physical property contrast
although this is primarily a coastal problem, it can occur
between the rock and the overlying material. In areas where the
naturally in inland aquifers or by man-made contamination, for
top of rock is weathered or highly fractured, top of rock may be
example, brine ponds. Saline water is highly conductive and
difficult to determine. Highly irregular rock surfaces may
can be detected by DC resistivity and electromagnetic meth-
present additional problems.
ods. The lateral boundary of the saltwater/fresh water interface
5.8.1.4 Depth to Water Table—This application includes
can be mapped and the depth of the saline water estimated.
determining the depth at which a subsurface unit is fully
5.8.2.3 Soil Salinity—Soil salinity is a condition in which
saturated. The water table (top of the saturated zone) can be
salt concentrations within soils have reached levels affecting
detected because of the changes in physical properties that are
the growth and yields of crops. DC resistivity and electromag-
caused by saturated conditions. The ability to detect the water
netic conductivity measurements provide means for measuring
table may depend on the geologic unit in which it occurs.
the soil salinity over a large area and at various depths.
Seismic methods can be used to detect the water table in most
unconsolidated materials; electrical, electromagnetic, or GPR 5.9 Organic Contaminants:
methods may be used to detect the water table in either 5.9.1 Light, Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (LNAPL)—This
consolidated or unconsolidated materials. application includes petroleum products present as discrete,
5.8.1.5 Fractures and Fault Zones—This application in- measurable contaminants with concentrations greater than their
cludes the location and characterization of joints, fractures, and solubility in water. The contaminants are lighter than water and
faults. These features range from individual joints and fracture “float” on the surface of an unconfined aquifer in porous
zones to larger regional structural features. Joints, fractures and media. The geometry of their occurrence in fractured soil or
fault zones may be dry, fluid-filled or filled with clays or rock is more complex and less well defined. LNAPL dissolves
weathered rock. The detectability of these features increases into water and acts as a source of dissolved contaminant
with the size of the feature and with the presence of distinctive plumes (see dissolved organic contaminants). LNAPL can be
pore fluids or conductive fill material. detected in some cases because its electrical properties are
5.8.1.6 Voids and Sinkholes—This application includes karst different from those of ground water; it depresses the ground
features, such as weathered depressions in rock, open, water- water surface if present in sufficient quantities; and, it can alter
filled, or sediment-filled sinkholes, and cavities or larger cave the capillary properties of soil.
systems. In many cases, the target of concern may be beyond 5.9.2 Dense, Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL):
the effective resolution or depth range of some or all of the 5.9.2.1 This application includes chlorinated organic sol-
surface geophysical methods; however, deep cavities often vents and other contaminants that are present as a discrete,
show signs of their presence in the near surface and may be measurable contaminant phase with concentrations greater than
interpreted using shallow geophysical data. The ability to their solubility in water. The contaminants are denser than
detect a given size cavity decreases with increasing depth for water and “sink” below the water table. The distribution of
all surface geophysical methods. DNAPL in the subsurface is complex and is controlled by

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
gravity and the capillary properties of subsurface materials, or metallic materials. While groups of drums may be detected,
rather than by ground water flow direction. DNAPL dissolves a single 200-L (55-gal) drum and smaller drums are more
into water and acts as a source of dissolved contaminant difficult to locate.
plumes (see dissolved organic contaminants). Moreover,“ re- 5.9.4.3 Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)—This application in-
sidual” DNAPL (immobile contaminant left behind during cludes a wide range of materials that were designed to explode,
migration) also can act as a source of dissolved organic such as bombs, mines, and antipersonnel weapons. UXO occur
contamination. Residual concentrations of DNAPL do not in a variety of sizes from a few centimeters to meters and are
significantly alter the properties measured by most geophysical made of a wide variety of metals and other materials. Shape,
methods. size, depth, composition and orientation of the UXO can limit
5.9.2.2 Some DNAPLs have dielectric properties that may detectability.
allow their detection using GPR if temporal measurements are 5.9.4.4 Abandoned Wells—This application includes aban-
made before the DNAPL is introduced to compare with doned wells that may be uncased or cased with steel, PVC, or
properties that exist after the DNAPL is present; thus, GPR concrete. Abandoned wells can be detected by various methods
may be useful to monitor the movement of DNAPL during depending upon construction, associated surface pits and other
remediation. facilities, leaking fluids, and the method of abandonment.
5.9.2.3 The geophysical methods listed in Table 1 under Guide D6285 provides a discussion of geophysical and other
methods to locate abandoned wells.
natural geologic and hydrologic conditions are appropriate to
characterize the hydrogeology of a site; therefore, an attempt 5.9.4.5 Landfill and Trench Boundaries—This application
can be made to predict DNAPL occurrence and distribution includes landfills, pits, and trenches. Those that contain buried
based upon an understanding of site geology. metallic materials can be detected because of the presence of
the metal. Boundaries of trenches and pits can sometimes be
5.9.3 Dissolved Phase: detected by changes in electrical conductivity, disturbance of
5.9.3.1 This application includes fuels, solvents, and other subsurface layers, or the presence of fill material. Determining
organic contaminants dissolved in ground water. Sources can the depth to the bottom of a landfill or trench is much more
be leaks and spills of LNAPL or DNAPL or can be leaks and difficult than defining the lateral boundaries.
spills of such small volume that the contaminant is dissolved as 5.9.4.6 Forensics—This application includes buried bodies
it reaches ground water. and a variety of metallic and nonmetallic objects. These objects
5.9.3.2 Dissolved organic contaminants are of regulatory can sometimes be detected directly or may be detected indi-
concern at very low concentrations (parts per billion) in ground rectly by disturbed soil conditions.
water. The properties of the dissolved organic plumes that can 5.9.4.7 Archaeological Features—This application includes
be measured by most geophysical methods are not sufficiently a wide range of targets, including stone foundations, walls,
different from those of ambient ground water to be detectable. roads, fire pits, caves, and graves, as well as metallic and
Some organic contaminants, such as alcohol, are highly nonmetallic objects. These targets and objects can sometimes
soluble, and are not detectable even at high concentrations. be detected directly or may be detected indirectly by changes
5.9.3.3 When sources of dissolved organic contaminants in soil conditions.
have been identified, geophysical methods can be used to
characterize the hydrogeology of a site so that pathways for 6. Discussion of the Geophysical Methods
migration of dissolved plumes can be identified. The appropri- 6.1 Seismic Refraction:
ate methods are discussed in the sections of this guide that
6.1.1 Introduction—Seismic refraction measurements are
pertain to geologic and hydrologic conditions.
made by measuring the travel time of direct and refracted
5.9.4 Man-Made Buried Objects: acoustic waves as they travel from the surface through one
5.9.4.1 Utilities—This application includes a very wide layer to another and back to the surface where their arrival
range of targets including pipes, cables, and utilities. Fortu- times are recorded. The travel time is a function of the seismic
nately, most utilities are buried near the ground surface, or acoustic velocity and the geometry of subsurface layers of
making them relatively easy targets to detect. The geophysical soil and rock.
method selected will depend on the material of which the pipes 6.1.2 Applications—The primary application for seismic
or utilities are made (ferrous or nonferrous metals or nonme- refraction is for determination of depth and thickness of
tallic materials). Nonmetallic utilities, that is, concrete or geologic layers, for example, depth to bedrock and water table,
plastic, can sometimes be detected with GPR. and to delineate geologic structure. Velocity measurements are
5.9.4.2 Underground Storage Tanks and Drums—This ap- a measure of the material properties and can be used as an aid
plication includes underground storage tanks (UST) and in assessing rock quality and rippability of rock. If compres-
drums. Since most underground storage tanks are large (more sional P-wave and shear S-wave velocities are measured, in
than 2000 L (500 gal)), buried shallow, and often made of steel, situ elastic moduli of soil and rock can be determined.
they are relatively easy to detect. If the tank is made of 6.1.3 Depth—Typical depths of measurements are less than
non-metallic material (for example, concrete or fiberglass), it is 30 m (100 ft), but measurements can be made to much greater
more difficult to detect. Drums of various sizes (typically 4 to depths, if necessary. Shallow measurements may be made
200 L (1 to 55 gal)) are manufactured from either non-metallic using the energy of a sledgehammer or a shotgun source while

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
deeper measurements will require larger mechanical energy become more common for use with modern seismographs. The
sources and possibly explosives. resulting field data must be processed prior to quantitative
6.1.4 Ease of Use—Seismic refraction measurements are interpretation.
labor intensive. Refraction measurements require that the 6.2.5 Resolution—Vertical resolution is proportional to the
geophones and the energy source be in contact with the ground. frequency of the seismic energy that can be generated and
Extensive cable handling and moving of the source is required. propagated. Resolution may be as good as 1 m with frequen-
The resulting data must be analyzed before a quantitative cies of 500 Hz. The optimum conditions for shallow reflection
interpretation can be made. The travel time of the P-wave surveys are saturated fine-grained soils that enable higher
arrivals are picked and then a time distance plot is drawn from frequency energy to be coupled with the ground. Lateral
which depths and velocities are determined. A variety of resolution is a function of geophone spacing, which is com-
interpretive methods can be used ranging from the simple time monly 0.3 to 3 m (1 to 10 ft). The reflection method provides
intercept method to delay time, ray tracing, and the generalized a high resolution cross section of soil or rock layers along a
reciprocal method. Each interpretive method requires specific profile line. Although two-dimensional reflection surveys are
common, three-dimensional reflection surveys also can be
data acquisition in the field. The results of seismic refraction
conducted.
data commonly are displayed as interpreted depth cross-
sections or as contour maps of stratigraphic layers. 6.2.6 Limitations—Measurements are sensitive to acoustic
noise and vibrations. The distance between the source and the
6.1.5 Resolution—Vertical resolution requires that a layer farthest geophone usually is 1 to 2 times the desired depth of
have a thickness that is a substantial fraction of the depth to its investigation, much less than that required for refraction
upper surface. Seismic refraction measurements can typically measurements.
resolve three to four layers. Lateral resolution is a function of 6.2.7 References—Steeples and Miller (15) provide an in-
geophone spacing, typically 2 to 6 m or more (5 to 20 ft). Large troduction to the reflection method with emphasis on the
spacings between source and geophones are used for deeper common depth point method. Pullan and Hunter (16) provide a
measurements. case history using the common offset method.
6.1.6 Limitations—Measurements are sensitive to acoustic
6.3 DC Resistivity:
noise and vibrations. Seismic velocity of layers must increase
6.3.1 Introduction—DC resistivity measurements are made
with depth. The method will not detect thin layers. A source to
by injecting a DC current into the ground through two current
geophone distance of up to three to five times the desired depth
electrodes and measuring the resulting voltage at the surface
of investigation is needed.
between two potential electrodes. This method measures bulk
6.1.7 References—Haeni (14) provides an excellent intro-
electrical resistivity that is a function of the soil and rock
duction to the method with case histories. Guide D5777 is the
matrix, percentage of fluid saturation, and the conductivity of
standard guide for the use of this method. pore fluids.
6.2 Seismic Reflection: 6.3.2 Applications—Resistivity measurements can be made
6.2.1 Introduction—The seismic reflection technique mea- as soundings to determine depth and thickness of geologic
sures the two way travel time of seismic waves from the layers, or as profiles to locate lateral changes in geologic
ground surface downward to a geologic contact at which part conditions, detecting and mapping inorganic contaminant
of the seismic energy is reflected back to geophones at the plumes, and locating buried wastes. Sounding measurements
surface. Reflections occur when there is a contrast in material are made by incrementally increasing the spacing between
density or velocity, or both, between two layers. electrodes to make a sequence of measurements at increasing
depths. Soundings generally are applicable to defining geologic
6.2.2 Applications—The primary application for the seismic
layers where the geology is laterally homogeneous and layers
reflection method is to identify and determine the depth and
are flat or gently dipping. Profile measurements are made with
thickness of geologic layers. The top of bedrock may be
a fixed electrode spacing. Profiling is used to locate and map
mapped along with overlying layers. The method also can be
areas of significant lateral variations in resistivity at a given
used to locate and characterize geologic structure. depth, for example, a conductive inorganic contaminant plume.
6.2.3 Depth—Reflection measurements detect layers from 6.3.3 Depth—The depth of measurements is related primar-
about 15 to 300 m (50 to 1000 ft) deep. Shallow measurements ily to electrode spacing and the electrical properties of the
often can be made using a sledge hammer, shotgun, or rifle as subsurface. Measurements can be made to depths of a few
seismic sources. Larger mechanical sources or explosives may hundred meters or more. There is no theoretical limit to the
be required for deeper explorations or in highly attenuative depth of investigation if sufficient space is available to lay out
material. the electrode array and sufficient energy is injected into the
6.2.4 Ease of Use—Seismic reflection measurements are ground.
relatively difficult to make and are labor intensive. Reflection 6.3.4 Ease of Use—Resistivity measurements are relatively
measurements require that the geophones and the energy slow and labor intensive since the method requires ground
source be in contact with the ground. Extensive cable handling contact. This is achieved by driving metal electrodes into the
and moving of the source is required. Two different approaches ground and deploying connecting cables. Measurements are
to data acquisition are used, the common offset method and the made on a station by station basis. Measurements also can be
common depth point (CDP) method. The CDP method has made by placing a grid of electrodes in the ground and making

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
measurements between various electrodes to achieve different used with little processing. Corrections are applied to improve
electrode spacings and geometries (as in azimuthal surveys). the signal to noise ratio and geometric curve matching and
Profile data can be plotted as apparent resistivity versus analytical models may be used for analysis; however, interpre-
distance along a profile line with little if any processing. tation of self-potential data is often qualitative, using the
Sounding data must be processed to obtain depth, thickness, anomalies observed in profile data or contour patterns to
and resistivity of layers. Processing can be done by curve identify seepage flow paths or other sources.
matching or by using forward and inverse modeling. Results of 6.4.5 Resolution—Lateral resolution is a function of station
grid surveys are modeled to provide an image of the subsur- spacing.
face. 6.4.6 Limitations—Measurements are susceptible to inter-
6.3.5 Resolution—Lateral resolution is a function of elec- ference from natural earth currents, soil conditions, topo-
trode spacing, as well as, the spacing between station measure- graphic effects and from stray earth currents, cathodic protec-
ments. Resistivity soundings typically can resolve three to four tion currents, and cultural features.
layers. 6.4.7 References—Corwin (13) provides an introduction and
6.3.6 Limitations—Measurements are susceptible, but less overview to the method.
so than EM measurements, to interference from nearby metal
pipes, cables, or fences. The spacing between electrodes must 6.5 Frequency Domain Electromagnetics (FDEM):
extend three to five times the depth of interest, which results in 6.5.1 Introduction—Frequency domain electromagnetics
long electrode spreads and cables. Finding sufficient accessible (sometimes called EM or terrain conductivity) measures the
space can sometimes be a problem. Obtaining a good connec- electrical conductivity of the subsurface using the magnitude
tion with the ground can sometimes be a problem in areas with and phase of the secondary field resulting from induced
high resistivity soils. electromagnetic currents. Electrical conductivity is a function
6.3.7 References—Ward (11) provides an introduction to the of the electrical properties of the soil and rock matrix,
method and Zohdy (12) provides an introduction and applica- percentage of fluid saturation, and the conductivity of pore
tions of the method. fluids.
6.4 Spontaneous Potential (SP): 6.5.2 Applications—FDEM measurements are used for pro-
filing to detect and map lateral changes in geologic and
6.4.1 Introduction—The spontaneous, or self, potential (SP)
hydrogeologic conditions. The method also is applicable to
method measures the natural voltage that exists at the ground
detecting and mapping inorganic (and sometimes organic)
surface. Measurements are made between two nonpolarizing
contaminant plumes and can be used for locating and mapping
electrodes, usually copper-copper sulfate cells, in contact with
buried wastes, metal drums and tanks, and metal utilities. The
the ground. Usually one electrode is fixed as a reference
method also can be used to obtain sounding data for a limited
electrode and measurements are made with the second roving
number of layers.
electrode. SP voltages are produced by two different sources, as
a result of the electrochemical differences between soils, rock, 6.5.3 Depth—Depth of measurement is a function of the
pore fluids, or minerals and their oxidation or reduction state, spacing between transmitter and receiver coil and coil orien-
as well as by the electrokinetic effect of the presence of flowing tation. Various instruments provide measurements from 0.75 to
water, sometimes called streaming potential. Voltages pro- 60 m (2.5 to 200 ft) deep. Some instruments can be used with
duced can be as great as a few 100 millivolts, but are more two coil orientations, coil axis vertical (vertical dipole) or coil
commonly a few tens of millivolts. axis horizontal (horizontal dipole). The vertical dipole provides
6.4.2 Applications—The primary application for SP mea- greater depth of measurement compared to the horizontal
surements is assessing seepage from dams and embankments. dipole with the same coil separation.
Environmental and engineering applications of the self- 6.5.4 Ease of Use—EM measurements are relatively easy to
potential method have been investigations of subsurface water make and are not intrusive. The instruments may be carried by
movement. These include landslide investigations, location of hand or in a vehicle at speeds from 0.8 to 8 kph (0.5 to 5 mph)
faults, location and study of drainage structures, location of or more. Field EM data can be plotted as a profile line or
shafts, tunnels and sinkholes, and the mapping of coal mine contoured. The data can sometimes be interpreted without any
fires. Time series SP measurements also can be made to data processing.
monitor changes in seepage. It is possible that SP can be used 6.5.5 Resolution—Frequency domain electromagnetics can
to map geochemical variations associated with contaminant provide excellent lateral resolution particularly when continu-
plumes. ous measurements are used. Lateral resolution is determined by
6.4.3 Depth—SP is a potential field technique, so source the spacing between the transmitter and receiver coils and
parameters cannot be changed to vary the depth of investiga- station spacing between measurements. Frequency domain EM
tion. The size, depth, orientation, and magnitude of subsurface methods have limited depth sounding capabilities. By using
targets all affect the magnitude of the detected SP anomaly. several intercoil spacings and both horizontal and vertical
Depth of investigation is usually less than 30 m (100 ft). dipole configurations, interpretations of two or three contrast-
6.4.4 Ease of Use—SP measurements are made on a station ing layers can be obtained.
to station basis and are relatively easy to make; however, the 6.5.6 Limitations—EM measurements are susceptible to
electrodes must be in good electrical contact with the ground. interference from nearby metal pipes, fences, vehicles, noise
Results can be plotted as profiles or contoured and often can be from power lines and atmospheric storms. The effectiveness of

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
electromagnetic measurements decreases at very low conduc- conductive material, such as water, clays, inorganic contami-
tivities and the measurements become nonlinear at high con- nants, or minerals within these features.
ductivity values. 6.7.2 Applications—VLF measurements are primarily used
6.5.7 References—McNeill (19) provides an excellent intro- for location and mapping of near vertical contacts, fractures or
duction and overview of the method. faults, and sources of water or minerals. The VLF method can
6.6 Time Domain Electromagnetics (TDEM): also be used in a resistivity mode by placing two electrodes in
6.6.1 Introduction—The time domain electromagnetic contact with the ground to map conductive organic plumes at
method measures the electrical resistivity of subsurface condi- landfills and to determine the depth to bedrock and depth to
tions by inducing pulsed currents in the ground with a clay.
transmitter loop. The decay of the induced currents results in a 6.7.3 Depth—The exploration depth varies with the conduc-
secondary magnetic field. This decaying secondary field is then tivity of the subsurface material. At a typical site with a
measured with a separate receiver coil. Electrical resistivity is resistivity of 100 ohm-Vm, exploration depth is about 20 m (60
a function of the soil and rock matrix, percentage of fluid ft).
saturation, and the conductivity of pore fluids. 6.7.4 Ease of Use—VLF measurements are relatively easy
6.6.2 Applications—Time domain electromagnetic measure- and rapid to make. The resulting data are plotted as profiles or
ments are primarily used for soundings to determine depth and contour maps and indicate the presence of a high conductivity
thickness of geologic and hydrologic layers. They also can be zone. Usually some corrections and filtering are done to the
applied to detection and mapping of inorganic plumes, seepage data and some data processing may be necessary.
from brine pits, and salt-water intrusion. Time domain EM 6.7.5 Resolution—Lateral resolution is a function of station
soundings provide similar data to DC resistivity soundings. spacing between measurements. VLF resistivity measurements
6.6.3 Depth—Depth measurements can be made from about will resolve two and sometimes three layers.
6 to 1000 m (20 to 3000 ft) or more. Shallow measurements 6.7.6 Limitations—The axis of a steeply dipping feature
can be made with a small transmitter loop of 1 to 10 m (3 to 30 must be oriented approximately inline (645°) toward the VLF
ft). Deeper measurements can require a large transmitter loop transmitter for maximum response. VLF measurements are
of 300 to 600 m (1000 or 2000 ft). TDEM methods can be used susceptible to interference from nearby metal pipes, cables,
whenever there is a measurable resistivity contrast between fences, vehicles, noise from power lines and atmospheric
subsurface layers. storms.
6.6.4 Ease of Use—Time domain electromagnetic measure- 6.7.7 References—McNeill and Labson (10) provide a com-
ments are relatively easy to make but are relatively slow. The prehensive review of the VLF method.
method is not intrusive and measurements are made on a
station by station basis. Deeper measurements with large 6.8 Pipe and Cable Locator:
transmitter loops are labor intensive. TDEM measurements are 6.8.1 Introduction—Pipe and cable locators operate in the
usually used in a sounding mode and processing of data is frequency domain using a separate transmitter and receiver.
required to determine layer thickness and depth. Measurements The receiver coil is oriented perpendicular to the transmitter.
also can be made in a profiling mode. The transmitter coil creates an alternating magnetic field and
6.6.5 Resolution—TDEM measurements provide better lat- induces eddy currents in a metallic target. These eddy currents
eral resolution than DC resistivity measurements for the same produce a secondary field, which is measured as a change in
depth of penetration because of the relatively smaller loop size the primary field. This change results in an audio signal or
compared to the length of a resistivity array. Lateral resolution meter deflection in the instrument. The pipe locator can be used
is limited by transmitter loop size and by the spacing between as a metal detector with an effective coil diameter (the distance
sounding measurements. Typically, three to four layers can be between the transmitter and receiver coils) of about 1 m. Its
resolved. most effective use is to couple the transmitter directly or
6.6.6 Limitations—Measurements are susceptible to inter- inductively to a metallic pipe or cable, and then to use the
ference from nearby metal pipes, cables, fences, vehicles, noise receiver to trace the length of the pipe or cable.
from power lines and atmospheric storms. 6.8.2 Applications—Pipe and cable locators are commonly
6.6.7 References—McNeill (7,8) provides an introduction to used to trace buried pipes and cables and to locate large
the method along with some applications. Fitterman and underground storage tanks and shallow 200 L (55-gal) drums.
Stewart (9) provides case histories for groundwater applica- The large effective coil size makes the pipe and cable locator
tion. insensitive to small pieces of metallic debris at the surface.
6.7 VLF (Very Low Frequency): 6.8.3 Depth—The exploration depth of a pipe and cable
6.7.1 Introduction—VLF measurements are made by mea- locator in the metal detector mode varies with the surface area
suring the distortions of a VLF electromagnetic plane wave (15 of the target but is limited to about 3 m.
to 30 kHz) from a distant high power military transmitter. 6.8.4 Ease of Use—Pipe and cable locators are efficient
These distortions occur because of local changes in electrical tools for mapping buried metallic utilities.
conductivity usually found within steeply dipping fractures, 6.8.5 Resolution—Pipe and cable locators are most often
shear zones and dikes or other geologic features. The increase used to map buried utilities with some surface or near surface
in electrical conductivity is a function of the presence of expression. Lateral resolution is extremely good.

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
6.8.6 Limitations—Pipe and cable locators are not cali- can be used to locate small targets such as steel rebar in
brated. The response generated by buried metallic objects is, concrete. GPR is also used for detection of unexploded
therefore, qualitative. ordnance (UXO).
6.8.7 References—Benson (2) provides a diagram and dis- 6.10.3 Depth—The primary limitation of radar is its depth
cussion of pipe and cable locators. of penetration, which is site specific. GPR penetration can be
6.9 Metal Detector: more than a 30 m (100 ft) in materials having conductivity of
6.9.1 Introduction—A metal detector responds to the pres- a few milliSiemens/meter, (massive salt deposits and ice), but
ence of both ferrous and nonferrous metals. Metal detectors penetration is commonly less than 10 m (30 ft) in most soil and
induce secondary EM currents in metal objects. Metal detec- rock. Penetration in mineralogic clays and in materials having
tors are either frequency domain (continuous frequency) or conductive pore fluids may be limited to less than 1 m (3 ft).
time domain (pulsed) systems. The response of most metal GPR measurements also can be made in lakes and rivers with
detectors offsets the zero of a mechanical null or an electronic low conductivity (fresh) water.
null of a bridge circuit. Time domain electromagnetic metal 6.10.4 Ease of Use—GPR measurements are relatively easy
detectors transmit a pulse that induces eddy currents in metal to make and are not intrusive. Antennas may be pulled by hand
objects. The decay rate of this secondary EM field is then or with a vehicle at speeds from 0.8 to 8 kph (0.5 to 5 mph), or
measured at the receiver coil. A wide range of metal detectors more, that can produce considerable data/unit time. Station
is commonly available. profile measurements are slower but can be made in more
6.9.2 Applications—Metal detector measurements can be difficult terrain (brush, steep hills). GPR data can often be
used to detect the presence of buried metal trash, drums and interpreted without data processing. Graphic displays of these
tanks, and to trace buried utilities. They also are used to detect data often resemble geologic cross sections.
unexploded ordnance (UXO). 6.10.5 Resolution—GPR provides the highest lateral and
6.9.3 Depth—The metal detector response is a function of vertical resolution of any surface geophysical method. Various
the surface area of the metal object and its depth. The response frequency antennas (10 to 3000 mHz) can be selected so that
to a metal target is approximately proportional to the reciprocal the resulting data can be optimized to the project needs. Lower
of the depth to the sixth power, therefore, response decreases frequencies provide greater penetration with less resolution.
with depth. Higher frequencies provide less penetration with higher reso-
6.9.4 Ease of Use—Metal detector measurements are rela- lution. Vertical resolution ranges from a few centimeters to a
tively easy and rapid to make. Since they do not require ground meter (inches to more than a foot). Horizontal resolution is
contact, continuous profile measurements can be made. Instru- determined by the distance between station measurements, or
ments can be carried or transported by a vehicle. Data can be the sample rate, or both, and with the towing speed of the
plotted along a profile line or as a contour map. antenna.
6.9.5 Resolution—Metal detector measurements often pro- 6.10.6 Limitations—The major limitation of radar is its site
vide better lateral definition of shallow buried targets than do specific performance. Often, the depth of penetration is limited
magnetometer measurements. by the presence of mineralogic clays or high conductivity pore
6.9.6 Limitations—Frequency domain metal detector mea- fluids.
surements are susceptible to interferences from nearby fences, 6.10.7 References—Daniels (6) and Sharma (20) provide
pipes, cables, vehicles, buildings and metallic surface debris. excellent introductions to GPR.
Time domain metal detectors can be used in close proximity to 6.11 Magnetics:
fences and buildings without interference. Pipes, utilities, and
6.11.1 Introduction—A magnetometer is used to measure
metallic surface debris that affect time domain instruments can
the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field. Deviations of
usually be seen and avoided. Some metal detectors can provide
magnetic intensity are caused by variations in concentrations of
an estimate of the size and depth of buried targets.
natural ferrous minerals or by the presence of ferrous metals.
6.9.7 References—Benson (2) provides an overview of
There are two types of measurements that are commonly made,
metal detectors.
total field and gradient. Total field data requires the use of a
6.10 Ground Penetrating Radar: base station so that diurnal and other temporal variations in the
6.10.1 Introduction—Ground penetrating radar is a reflec- earth’s magnetic field can be removed from the data. Gradi-
tion technique that uses high frequency electromagnetic (EM) ometer measurements are not affected by diurnal changes in the
waves (from 10 to 3000 mHz) to acquire subsurface informa- earth’s field and are not much affected by cultural interference,
tion. A transmitter generates a short pulse of EM energy that is but have less sensitivity.
radiated into the ground. Energy is reflected back to the 6.11.2 Applications—Magnetic measurements can be used
receiving antenna from interfaces having a sufficient contrast in for geologic mapping to provide an estimate of the thickness of
EM properties. GPR responds to changes in EM properties that nonmagnetic sediments overlying magnetic rock and location
are a function of soil and rock materials and of their pore fluids. of structure and faults within magnetic rock. Magnetic mea-
6.10.2 Applications—GPR is used to obtain high resolution surements are commonly used for location and mapping of
cross sections of soil and rock stratigraphy, to locate anoma- buried ferrous metals, for example, metal wastes, drums or
lous conditions, and to detect some contaminants. GPR com- underground tanks and utilities). Magnetic measurements also
monly is used to locate buried materials, tanks, and utilities. It are used for detection of unexploded ordnance (UXO).

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1
6.11.3 Depth—A magnetic anomaly is proportional to the 6.12.7 References—Butler (18) provides an overview of the
mass of whatever is causing the anomaly and is inversely micro gravity method.
proportional to the depth of the object.
6.11.4 Ease of Use—Magnetic measurements are relatively 7. Field Considerations
easy and rapid to make and can be made by one person. Since 7.1 Survey Grids and Data Density of Geophysical Surveys:
they do not require ground contact, continuous profile mea- 7.1.1 An important aspect of any geophysical survey is to
surements can be made as well as station measurements. establish the location of the measurements. Single survey lines
Measurements also can be made from a vehicle. Data can be are used and placed in strategic locations over the area of
plotted along a profile line or as a contour map. Data often are interest. A survey grid with multiple lines and multiple stations
used with little processing. is used to provide areal coverage of a site.
6.11.5 Resolution—Horizontal resolution is a function of the
7.1.2 Measurements along a geophysical survey line and
anomaly size and the station spacing or sample interval.
spacing between lines is dependent upon the target size, depth,
Gradient measurements provide better horizontal resolution
and detectability.
than total field measurements.
7.1.3 If the spacing of measurements along a line and
6.11.6 Limitations—Magnetic measurements are susceptible
between lines is too large, small targets can be missed.
to interference from steel pipes, fences, vehicles, and buildings
7.1.4 In general, survey lines should be oriented perpen-
as well as from natural fluctuations in the earth’s field.
dicular to any linear feature, for example, buried channel,
6.11.7 References—Breiner (17) provides a technical over-
fracture, fault, or a pipeline. In some cases, survey lines in
view of magnetic methods.
multiple directions may be necessary, especially if the orien-
6.12 Gravity: tation of the feature is unknown. In all cases, the survey line(s)
6.12.1 Introduction—Gravity measurements detect changes or grid should extend into background conditions.
in the earth’s gravitational field caused by local changes in the
7.2 Limitations:
density of soil and rock or the presence of engineered struc-
7.2.1 Each surface geophysical method has specific advan-
tures. Lateral variations or anomalies in gravity data are
tages and limitations. There is no single, universally applicable
attributed to lateral variations in the densities of subsurface
surface geophysical method to meet all site characterization
materials, for example, buried channels, caves, or structures.
needs. Furthermore, some methods are quite site specific in
Microgravity measurements are used to detect very small
their performance. Each method measures some specific physi-
changes in gravity.
cal, electrical or chemical parameter. The geophysical method
6.12.2 Applications—Standard gravity measurements are
or methods should be selected carefully with the specific site
primarily applied to mapping regional geologic structures
conditions and project requirements in mind.
using widely spaced stations 30 to 300 m (100 to 1000 ft) apart.
Microgravity measurements use closely spaced measurements 7.2.2 Natural and Cultural Limitations—A wide range of
2 to 15 m (5 to 50 ft) apart and are used to characterize natural and cultural factors can cause interference with surface
localized geologic conditions, such as bedrock channels, caves, geophysical measurements. Cultural interferences can include
and abandoned tunnels and mines, usually within 30 m (100 ft) buildings, fences, vehicles, underground utilities, overhead
of the surface. Gravity measurements have also been used to power lines, or ground vibrations. Natural interferences can
delineate the boundaries, thickness, and volume of landfills. include rain, earthquakes, solar flares, and atmospheric storms.
6.12.3 Depth—The size of a gravity anomaly decreases as When one method is so affected by site conditions as to render
the target depth increases. it useless, another method might be used effectively in the
6.12.4 Ease of Use—Gravity station measurements are slow same environment.
to make. While they do not require ground coupling, they must 7.2.3 Non-Unique Interpretations —A fundamental limita-
be made station by station. Gravity measurements require very tion of all geophysical methods lies in the fact that a given set
accurate elevation measurements, within 3 mm (0.01 ft). A of data cannot be associated with a unique set of subsurface
base station must be occupied periodically to account for conditions. In most situations, surface geophysical measure-
instrument drift. Extensive corrections must be applied to ments alone cannot resolve all ambiguities, and some addi-
gravity data before it can be interpreted. Data are presented as tional information, such as geophysical, geologic, hydrologic
profile lines or a contour map, or both. or contaminant data, or combination thereof, is required.
6.12.5 Resolution—Lateral resolution is a function of sta-
tion spacing. Vertical resolution is a function of the ability to 8. Keywords
accurately estimate density of the geologic units. 8.1 DC resistivity; frequency domain electromagnetics;
6.12.6 Limitations—Gravity measurements are susceptible geophysical methods; geophysics; gravity; ground penetrating
to manmade and natural vibrations; however, a gravity survey radar (GPR); magnetics; metal detector; pipe/cable location;
can be undertaken in areas where cultural effects may preclude self-potential; seismic reflection; seismic refraction; site char-
the use of other geophysical methods. Gravity measurements acterization; time domain electromagnetics; VLF
can be made inside buildings and structures and in urban areas. electromagnetics

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 D6429 − 99 (2011)´1

REFERENCES

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(2) Benson, R., Glaccum, R. A., and Noel, M. R., Geophysical Techniques cal Survey, Techniques of Water Resources Investigation, Book 2,
for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration, Office of Research Chapter D1, 1974.
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Sounding for Groundwater,” Geophysics, Vol 51, No. 4, 1986. cations, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 1980.
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