AS Biology

Topic 1 summary
Students will be assessed on their ability to:
1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the practical and
investigative skills identifed in numbers 4 and 5 in the table of How
Science Works on page 12 of this specifcation.

producing risk assessments : considering factors in practical experiment, their known

hazards, protective methods and techniques, and recognizing if the experiment is safe to
perform.

Analysing data , using statistic methods(mean, mode, median,error bars,etc...) ,graphical

representation and patterns of relation

2 Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its

dipole nature.
Water is an unusual and excellent solvent . Many substances will dissolve in it . The fact that
water is dipole means that many ionic substances like sodium chloride , which are made
up of positive and negative ions will dissolve In it . The positive and negative ions
separate and become surrounded with water molecules that keep them in solution . Polar
substances will not usualy dissolve in orgainc substances such as ethanol , but will dissolve
in water . Water can also carry many non polar substances - Chemicals that do not form ions
they may form colloids , where the particles of the solute are larger than the solvent. The
solute particles spread out but do not separate out . Some substances do not dissolve in water
but are important to the body . These may form emulsions ( liquid droplets in another liquid)
or suspentions ( a solid mixed with a liquid and will separate out if not mixed or stirred
constantly), or molecules can be broken down into smaller , soluble molecules for transport
and are rebuild when needed.

3 Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

(glycogen and starch – amylose and amylopectin) and relate their
structures to their roles in providing and storing energy (β-glucose and
cellulose are not required in this topic).

monosaccharides : simple sugars that have the general formula (CH2O)n ,where n can
be any number but it is usually small. They have many uses in the body , for example
pentose (n=5) is a key part of DNA . Most of the monosaccharides taste sweet .

disaccharides : made up of two or more monosaccharides joined together in a

condensation reaction , where a molecule of H2O is removed . The link between the
two monosaccharides is a covalent bond known as a Glycosidic Bond . Disaccharides
have the general formule (C6H12O6)n . when different monosaccharides join together,
different disaccharides are formed . Many disaccharides taste sweet .

polysaccharides : they are the most complex carbohydrates. They are made from many
monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds as the results of many condensation
recations. Molecules with 3-10 monosaccharides are known as oligosaccharides , while
those with 11 or more are known as polysaccharides . The sweet taste of monosaccharides
 and disaccharides is lost in polysaccharides . Polysaccharides can form very compact
molecuules , ideal for storing carbohydrate in cells . When simple surgars are needed for
respiration , the glycosidic bonds in these polysaccharides are broken to release
the monosaccharide units in a process called hydrolysis. Polysaccharides are chemically
and physically inactive, and are not very soluble in water, meaning they have little effect
on osmosis and diffusion in a cell.

glycogen : it is the only carbohydrate storage form in animals . It is made up of many

glucose units that form branched chains , which means that it can be broken down rapidly
for energy . This makes it ideal for energy storage in active tissues , such as the liver and
muscle tissue , which need a readily available energy supply at all times . Its is much like
amylopectin , but contains more 1,6 glycosidic bonds.

startch : startch is made up of long chains of glucose , but it is actually made of a mixture
of two compounds , amylose and amylopectin

amylose : an unbranched polymer . As the chain lengthens the molecule spirals , which
makes the molecule more compact . An amylose molecule will be made up of between
200 and 5000 glucose molecules . The glucose molecules can only be released by enzymes
working from each end of the amylose molecule . Amylose is made up of only
1.4 glycosidic bonds , where carbon 1 on a glucose molecule bonds to carbon 4 on the
other . This is why the molecules form straight chains, making them suitable for long term
storage and structure.

Amylopectin : It is also a polymer of glucose molecules but the amylopectin chains branch.
These branching chains have lots of terminal (end) glucose molecules which can be broken
off rapidly when energy is needed. Made from both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, making
it more suitable for short term energy storage (similar to glycogen)

4 Describe how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose,

lactose and maltose) and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose)
through condensation reactions forming glycosidic bonds, and how these
can be split through hydrolysis reactions.

forming bonds between monosaccharides : bonds are formed between monosaccharide

molecules to form disaccharides. This bond is called a condensation reaction and its result
is the formation of a glycosidic bond and the loss of a water molecule.

1- sucrose : glucose + fructose

2- lactose : glucose + galactose
3- maltose : glucose + glucose

forming polysaccharides: the same as forming disaccharides , but on a larger scale , with
more molecules .

glycogen : 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds form , where carbon 1 bonds with carbon 4 on the
other molecule and carbon 1 bonds with carbon 6 on the other molecule , respectivly

amylose : 1,4 glycosidic bonds form between the molecules of glucose in a condensation
 reaction , making a long straight chain polymer that winds itself up

hydrolysis : it is the breaking up of the glycosidic bond by adding water , separating the
monosaccharide units .

5 Describe the synthesis of a triglyceride by the formation of ester bonds

during condensation reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids and
recognise diferences between saturated and unsaturated lipids.

Synthesis of triglyceride : a triglyceride forms when ester bonds form between a glycerol
molecule and 3 chains of fatty acids in a condensation ( esterifiaction in this case) reaction ,
where 1 molecule of H2O is removed per ester bond , ie three molecules of water are
removed . The nature of the lipid formed depends on which fatty acid is present .

unsaturated fatty acids : these are fatty acid chains that contain one or more double bonds in
them , known as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated acids respectivly.

Saturated fatty acids : these are fatty acid chains that contain no double bonds in their
structure ie every carbon atom is surrounded by 4 single bonds

the nature of the triglyceride molecules depends on which fatty acids are present . For
exampls, lipids containing saturated fatty acids are more likely to be solid at room
temperature than those containing unsaturated ones . Scientists also believe that unsaturated
fats have a positive effect on the body , helping it cope with saturated fats. There is also
belief that polyunsaturated fats , with two or more double bonds , show this effect even
further .

6 Explain why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport
to overcome limitations of difusion in meeting the requirements of
organisms).
For single celled organisms , the membrane and cytoplasm , with respect to the surroundings
, provide the cell with enough nutrients and allow gaseous exchange by means of simple
diffusion . However , multicellular organisms are much larger , and nutrients and oxygen
cannot reach the core of the organisms body fast enough , meaning that there is a build up of
wastes and not enough nutrients for the organism to survive . This is where the role of a
mass transport system comes in . In most animals , the mass transport system is a well
developed network of veins , arteries , and capillaries , connected to a pump , the heart , that
allows food and oxygen to reach the core of the body fast enough , and carries wastes from
the core of the body to the surface for disposal , by means of a liquid transport system, the
blood. In animals such as fish this is a single circulation . The heart pumps deoxygenated
blood to the gills , where it takes on oxygen and becomes oxygenated . It then travels around
the body of the fish , giving up oxygen to the body cells before returning . Mammals and
birds however require more oxygen than fish. Not only do they move around a lot , they
also have to maintain a constant body temperature . They have a double circulation , made
up of two sections

systemic circulation : carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the cells of the body where
oxygen is used , and carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 pulmonary circulation : carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lung to be
oxygenated and carries the oxygenated blood back to the heart .

the benefits of a double circulation are that the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not
meet , so all tissues receive the maximum amount of oxygen . Another advantage is that
blood can be delivered quickly to the body tissues at high pressure . The blood going through
the tiny blood vessels in the lung is at relativley low pressure so it does not damage the
vessels and allows for gaseous exchange to happen . If it were returned to the huge vessels to
go back to the body it would move slowly . Because it returns to the heart , the oxygenated
blood can be pumped hard and sent around the body at high pressure . This means it reaches
the tiny capillaries between the body cells rapidly, and allows for an active way of life.

7 Describe the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole)
and relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its
function, including the major blood vessels.

The heart is continuously contracting then relaxing . The contraction of the heart is known as
systole . This can be divided into atrial systole , and ventricular systole . The relaxation
statge is known as diastole . Ventricular systole happens about 0.13 seconds after atrial
systole , and forces blood from the heart to the pulmonary artery and aorta . During diastole ,
the atrium fills with blood . One cycle of systole and diastole makes up a single heartbeat ,
which lasts about 0.8 seconds in humans . It is known as the cardiac cycle
summing it up, the cardiac cycle is as follows
1- atrial systole
2- ventricular systole
3- diastole

structure of the mammilian heart :

inferior vena cava : collects blood from the lower parts of the body

superior vena cava : collect blood from the head , neck , arms , and chest

right atrium : resives blood from the great veins . As the pressure builds up , the tricuspid
valves open and blood goes into the ventricle . Has thin muscular walls , as it recives blood
at low pressure and only needs to pump it to the right ventricle. One way semilunar valves at
the entrance of the atrium stop the backflow of blood into the veins.

The tricuspid or atrioventricular valve : is a valve made of three flaps and separates an
atrium and a ventricle . The valve allows blood to pass from the atrium to the ventricle , but
not the other direction . The tough tendinous cords make sure the valves are not turned
inside out by the great pressure exerted when the ventricles contract .

right ventricle : fills with blood when the atrium contracts , then it contracts . Its muscular
walls produce the pressure needed to force blood out of the heart into the pulmonary arteries
. This carries deoxygenated blood to the capillary beds in the lungs . Semilunar valves ( like
those in the veins ) prevent the blood flowing back from the artery to the ventricle.

left atrium : the oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the lungs by the pulmonary veins
. The blood is at relatively low pressure after passing through the extensive capillaries of the
lungs . It is another thin walled chamber that performs the same function as the right atrium.
It contracts blood to the left ventricle . Blood backflow is prevented by the bicuspid valve.
 left atrium : as the left atrium contracts , the left ventricle is filled with blood at high
pressure . It contracts to force the blood out of the heart into the aorta , the major artery of
the body.

8 Explain how the structures of blood vessels (capillaries, arteries and veins)
relate to their functions.

arteries have thick walls , and the central space inside or the Lumen gets smaller further
away from the heart . They have a tough external layers , a middle layer of elastic fiber and
smooth muscle . The lumen has a smooth lining to allow for easiest possible blood flow ,
and the lumen is small when unstretched by blood flow from the heart. The function of an
artery allows it to withstand blood at high pressure without constricting its flow . The smooth
muscles in them may contract , reducing the size of the lumen and controlling the amount of
blood reaching a certain organ or area , regulating its activity .

veins have very thin walls and have semilunar valves at frequent intervals , allowing the
blood to flow to the heart only . They have a smooth inner surface , a tough outer layers
consisting mainly of collagen fibres , and a relatively large lumen , with a relatively thin
layer of smooth muscle with few elastic fibres . Many of the larger veins are situated
between the large muscle blocks of the body particularly in the arms and legs . When the
muscles contract during physical activity , they squeeze the veins , and help the blood reach
the heart. So the veins structure allows the unconstricted flow of blood , but at the same time
it also prevents the backflow of blood away from the heart , and allows them to be squeezed
by muscles during physical activity , which helps in the return of blood to the heart.

Capillaries : these are the smallest blood vessels that are only one cell thick with no other
constricions . They allow for the easy diffusion of substances between the blood and
surrounding cells . They are the main connection point between arteries and veins , and
allow for easy diffusal.

9 Describe how the efect of cafeine on heart rate in Daphnia can

be investigated practically, and discuss whether there are ethical
issues in the use of invertebrates.

obtain daphnia . The larger the better

place them in spring water or mineral water and let them grow and reproduce
make up solutions containing different concentrations of cafeine
place the daphnia on the concave slide and place the coverslip
place under a microscope , and count the heart beat over 30 seconds by tapping over a paper
repeat several times using the same concentration solutions and take averages
repeat using several cafeine concentrations
repeat once more using spring water
make a table out of the data
 the use of daphnia in such research is acceptable , as daphnia are common and easily
obtained , and feel little pain due to the simple nervous system . However , because their
nervous system is simple , this can cause a problem in the observation . Furthermore , they
may be killed in the process . However , they are suitable for use in these kinds of
experiments .

10 Describe the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion

of prothrombin to thrombin and fbrinogen to fbrin) and its role in
cardiovascular disease (CVD)
1. damaged tissues release platelets
2. platelets release thromboplastin
3. prothrombin catalyses thromboplastin to thrombin in the presence of Ca ions
4. thrombin catalyses fibrinogen to fibrin
5. fibrin forms a mesh that traps blood cells and platlets forming a clot
6. special proteins in the structure of platlets contract , making the clot tighter

plaques may build up in conorary arteries reducing blood flow to parts of the blood muscle.
The wall of the artery affected with a plaque is stiffened , making it much more likely to
suffer cracks or damage . Platelets come to contact with the damaged tissue and cause the
clotting cascade to happen , forming a blood clot in the vessel known as a Thrombosis . The
clot may block oxygen from parts of the heart , causing a myocardial infraction, ie a heart
attack . The location of the thrombosis determines the severity of the damage . A thrombosis
in a conorary artery near the conarary arch may cause the shut down of the heart and most of
the tissue dying . One lower down the heart causes damage , and may render the person
incapable of physical activity . Clots near the bottom of the heart cause the least damage ,
and may cause the person to become tired quicker than normal . In all cases myocardial
infraction causes pain similar to an angia attack , but much more severe . It may be triggered
by exersise or happen on its own . Death may occur very rapidly with no previous symptoms
, or may happen after several days of being tired and suffering from indigestion .

11 Explain the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial

damage, infammatory response, plaque formation, raised blood pressure).

This process is usually triggered by small damage to the endothelial cells in the artery wall
that causes an inflommatroy response . Blood cells arrive at the site and accumulate
chemicals from the blood , particularly cholestrol. This forms an arethroma . Fibrous tissue
and calcium salts build up around the arethroma , turning it into a hardend plaque . This
causes the lumen to become smaller due to the arethroma , and the part of the artery that has
the arethroma is less elastic . This causes increased blood pressure . The raised blood
pressure makes the likehood of damage elsewhere in the system , and more plaques may
form , which causes the formations of plaques elswhere.

12 Describe the factors that increase the risk of CVD (genetic, diet, age,
gender, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity).

There are many factors that impact the risk of CVD

 genetic : some fammilies and ethnic groups have a tendency to develop CVDs. There may be
a tendency to develop hypertention , which may cause arterial damage and make CVDs
more likely, or cholestrol metabolsim may be faulty.

Age : as you get older , your blood vessels begin to lose their elasticity and to narrow
slightly , making it more likely to suffer from CVDs, particularly heart disease

Gender : statistically , under the age of 50 , men are more likely to suffer from CVDs than
women. The female hormone oestrogen , which plays an important role in the menstrual
cycle, appears to reduce the build-up of plaque . This gives women some protection against
CVDs until they go through menopause and oestrogen levels fall.
Diet : the diet has shown a link to CVDs . Several studies have shown that in countries
where people eat a lot of fatty meat and diary products foods ( mostly saturated fats) , many
people die of heart disease . This suggests that high levels of saturated fats in the diet may be
a risk factor (shows correlation and not causation)

high blood pressure : raised blood pressure ( due to stress or other reasons ) also has a link to
CVDs . Higher blood pressure increases the probability of artery damage and increases the
risk of CVDs it is shown that people with high blood pressure tend to develop CVDs more
than people that dont .

Smoking : studies have shown that smokers are far more likely to develop CVDs than non-
smokers with a similar lifestyle , and 9 out of 10 people needing bypass surgery are
smokers . Results from several studies have shown that smiking increases the risk of
developing CVDs , but that the impact on some people is greater than others when all other
factors are taken into account. Chemicals in tobacco smoke can damage the lining of the
arteries , making the build up of plaque more likely . Smoking also causes the arteries to
narrow , raising the blood pressure and increasing the risk of CVDs

inactivity : the heart is a msucle , and like any other muscle it gets stronger and works more
efficiently if it is used regularly . Regular exercise can slow the heart rate , lower blood
pressure , lower blood cholestrol level , and balance the lipoproteins in your blood . The lack
of exercise makes the heart muscle weaker , and allows for the build up of fats in the blood
stream .

13 Describe the benefts and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives,

plant statins, anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs).

antihypertensives : drugs that reduce blood pressure . The most commonly described
antihypertensive drugs are:

1- Diuretics , which increase the volume of urine produced . This gets rid of excess fluids
and salts , so that blood volume falls . With less blood , a smaller volume is pumped from the
heart and the blood pressure falls .

2- Beta blockers interfere with the normal system for controlling the heart . They block the
response of the heart to hormones such as adrenaline , which normally act to speed up the
heart and increase blood pressure . So beta blockers make the heart rate slower and the
contractions less strong , so the blood pressure is lower

3- Sympathetic nerve inhibitors affect the sympathetic nerves which go from your CNS to
all parts of your body. Sympathetic nerves simulate your arteries to constrict , which in turn
raises your blood pressure . The inhibitors prevent the nerves from signalling to the arteries ,
which helps to keep the arteries dialated and your blood pressure lower.

4- ACE inhibitors block the production of angiotensin , a hormone which stimulates the
constriction of your blood vessels and so causes the blood pressure to rise. Blocking
angiotensin production reduces the constricion of blood vessels and so keeps your blood
pressure lower.

The benefits of these drugs in reducing blood pressure are clear . Not only is the risk of
CVDs greatly reduced , but also the risk of damage to rogans such as the kidneys and eyes
from high blood pressure . However , there are also risks to these treatments . If they are not
carefully monitored , the blood pressure may become too low . That can lead to falls and
injuries , which in elderly patients can be serious . The other major risk is side effects that
may result from the way your body reacts to these drugs . Each drug has its own side effects,
the most common of are coughs , swelled ankles , impotence , tirdness , fatigue , and
constipation . These are not high compared to the benefits , but to the patient may be
important . High blood pressure doesnt make you feel ill , but the medication for it affects
your quality of life . Patients may stop taking their medication and ignore the larger risk of
CVDs.

Statins : a group of drug that lower the level of cholestrol in the blood and block the enzyme
in the liver that is responsible for making cholestrol , and are particularly effective at
blocking the production of LDLs. Statins also improve the balance of LDLs and HDLs and
reduce the inflamation in the lining of the arteries . Both functions reduce the risk of
atherosclerosis developing.

Some statins are so effective that they are no longer perception only , and can be used by
people as a precautionary measure . This suggests that the risk of using these drugs is small .
They have little or no ill side-effect . Side-effects of muscle and joint aches ,nausea ,
constipation , and diarrhoea are sometimes reported. However , there are two serious but
very rare side-effects. In a tiny number of people , statins trigger a form of muscle
inflamation which can be fatal . Statins can also cause liver problems in a small group.
Another risk is more subtle . There is a risk if people take statins to lower their blood
cholesterol, they will no longer try to eat a healthy diet , and statins give no protection
against other ill effects of a bad diet .

Plant sterols are also sold in food , they have a similare structure to cholesterol. They reduce
the amount of cholesterol absorbed from the gut to the blood , and reduce the level of LDLs
in blood.

Anticoagulants : drugs that interfere with the production of prothrombin in the body . Low
levels of prothrombin make the blood clot less easily . Their dose is carfully monitored , to
make sure that the clotting of the blood is reduced and not prevented completely. An
example of this is warafin

platelet inhibitor drugs : make platelets less sticky , and so reduce the clotting ability of the
blood . The cheapest and most common of these is asprin. The side effects of asprin are well
known . It irritates the stomach lining and causes bleeding in the stomach which can become
serious .
14 Analyse and interpret data on the possible signifcance for health of
blood cholesterol levels and levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). Describe the evidence for a causal
relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol) and CVD.

the balance of lipoproteins in the blood is now recognised as a clear indication of your risk
of developing CVDs . Further research was conducted on two lipoproteins in the body

LDL: low density lipoproteins are formed from saturated fats , cholesterol , and protein ,
they carry more cholesterol than HDLs and bind to cell surface membranes before being
taken into cells. If your LDL levels are high , your cell membranes become saturated and so
mor LDL cholesterol is left in your blood , and as it was proven , the more cholesterol there
is in the blood the higher the risk of a plaque forming

HDL : high-density lipoproteins are formed from unsaturated fats , cholesterol , and protein.
They carry cholesterol from the body tissues to the liver where it is broken down , lowering
blood cholesterol levels . HDLs can even help to remove cholesterol from fatty plaques on
the arteries , reducing the risk of heart disease from atherosclerosis.

15 Discuss how people use scientifc knowledge about the efects of diet
(including obesity indicators), exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of
coronary heart disease.

Much research has been conducted in the area of heart disease and how to prevent it. Today ,
it is known that diet and lifestyle has a large effect on the risk of developing heart disease .
Those with a diet rich in saturated fats and surgars have shown a tendency to develop heart
disease.people that are obese or overweight know that they are at risk of developing heart
disease , or CVDs in general . those who wish to avoid future health problems often closely
monitor their own diet and often use scales such as BMI or %body fat to calculate the risk
they are putting themselves in. Linking smoking and heart disease through research , and an
increase in awarness of people about the subject of heart disease has caused some people to
rethink their smoking habits , and some have decided on quitting. People are also persuing a
more active lifestyle , as the heart is a muscle , and using it more makes it stronger and
more efficient . Education and increasing awarness in the area of heart disease in general
hase caused some shift in the habits of todays society .

16 Describe how to investigate the vitamin C content of food and

drink.
Make up a solution of 1% vitamin c
Make up a solution of 1% DCPIP
Transfer 2 mm vitamin C solution to a test tube
Uel se a pipette and add DCPIP drop by drop until the last drop is not decolorised
repeat again and take an average
repeat again using different types of juices
• if the juice decolorises more that 5 cm3 DCPIP dillute it and try again
• if the juice has a color that my interfere with the test , dillute it first
 calculate the amount of vitamin C in the standard solution in mg/cm3
calcualte the amount of vitamin C in the other juices in mg/cm3
• if it is food you must turn it liquid , by blending and adding to water

17 Analyse data on energy budgets and diet so as to be able to discuss the

consequences of energy imbalance, including weight loss, weight gain,
and development of obesity.

BMR: basal metabolic rate . This the amount of energy your body needs for your organs to
function properly and reactions of life in your cells can take place . In young children, BMR
is higher . In people with more muscle tissue , BMR is higher .men usually have higher
BMRs than women . Older people tend to have a lower BMR.

PAL : physical activity level . A factor that BMR is multiplied in to give the EAR

EAR: estimated average requirment . This is the amount of energy a person requires for their
lifestyle to go on healthy.

The type of a diet a person has and his activity levels impact his weight . People with a lazy
lifestyle and a high fat diet are bound to gain weight , sometimes becoming obese . Those
with an active lifestyle that involves much physical activity and a diet with little energy in it
causes them to lose weight . There must be a balance between the needs of the body and the
energy we take in from food. Too much energy and we become fat , too little and we lose
weight and my lose some organ functions.

18 Analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates to

determine health risks (including distinguishing between correlation and
causation and recognising conficting evidence).
READ HSW PAGE 58
correlation: one factor seems to effect the other , but no true link has been found the ties
them together
causation or casual link : there is a direct scientificaly proven link between the two
factors .
19 Evaluate design of studies used to determine health risk factors
(including sample selection and sample size used to collect data that is
both valid and reliable).
READ HSW PAGE 58
validity : the experiment shows what it was designed to show
reliability : repeating the experiment multiple times , where the data are close or the same

20 Explain why people’s perceptions of risks are ofen diferent from the
actual risks (including underestimating and overestimating the risks due
to diet and other lifestyle factors in the development of heart disease).
Precived risk is in no way connected to the actual risk of doing something . Perception of
risk is based on a number of factors which inclde familiarity with the activity , how much
you enjoy it , and whether or not you approve of it . Sometimes , one may overestimate the
risk of something , such as driving a motorcycle , or their chances of winning the lottery.
They may also underestimate risk , such as the risk of getting in a car accident , or how
far their lifestyle imapcts their risk of developing CVDs , such as those who eat too much
fat , but take statins and as such consider that they are at less risk .
TAREQ KIRRESH