Solar Thermal Energy Systems

0406420
Prof. Ibrahim El-Sharkawy
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department
Office: M9-210
Lectures: Monday, Wednesday 12:30 – 1:45 PM
Office Hours: Monday, Wednesday 10:00 – 11:00 AM
E-mail: [email protected]
Fall 2024/2025
 Chapter (2) Heat transfer concept and
properties of materials for solar applications

Outlines Part I
• Basic concepts
• Radiation from real surfaces
• Radiation exchanges between two surfaces

Part II
• The variation of extraterrestrial radiation
• Atmospheric attenuation
• Terrestrial irradiation
• Total radiation received on sloped surfaces

August.
Sept. thth
1931 Energy Systems Lecture (7)
Solar Thermal (2) Fall 2024-2025
 Part I
Basic concepts of radiation heat transfer
Basic Concept
❑ Conduction and convection heat transfer require the presence of a temperature gradient in some form of
matter. Thermal radiation in contrast requires no matter.
❑ In solar collectors, thermal radiation is a significant mode of heat transfer.

The solid will emit thermal radiation, associated with a

reduction of the stored internal energy, and will intercept
and absorb radiation originating from the surroundings.
The net heat transfer by radiation is from the solid,
and will cease when Ts = Tsur.

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31 Energy Systems
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 Basic Concepts:
❖All substances, solids, liquids, and gases above the absolute zero temperature, emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
❖ The radiation wavelength that is important to solar energy applications is between 0.15 and 100 μm (contains
ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions). The wavelengths in the visible region lie between 0.38 and 0.72 μm.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Nuclear engineers, concern Electrical engineers, concern
with short wavelength with long wavelength

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31 Energy Systems
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 Blackbody Radiation:
❑ Different bodies may emit different amounts of radiation per
unit surface area.
❑ A blackbody emits the maximum amount of radiation by a
surface at a given temperature.
❑ It is an idealized body to serve as a standard against which the
radiative properties of real surfaces may be compared.
❑ A blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
❑ A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of
wavelength and direction.

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31 Energy Systems
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 Spectral power
1- Spectral emissive power
The rate at which radiation of wavelength λ is emitted in all directions from a surface per
unit wavelength interval and per unit area.

Emission: Radiation emitted by a

Total emissive power is the rate at which radiation is emitted per unit area at all wavelengths,
surface will be in all directions
and in all directions. associated with a hypothetical
hemisphere about the surface and
2- Spectral irradiation is characterized by a directional
distribution
The rate at which radiation of wavelength λ is incident on a surface, per unit area
of the surface and per unit wavelength interval dλ about λ.

Total irradiation, i.e. the rate at which radiation is incident

per unit area from all directions and at all wavelengths

3- Spectral Radiosity
The spectral radiosity represents the rate at which radiation of wavelength
λ leaves a unit area of the surface, per unit wavelength interval dλ.
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31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (6) Fall 2024-2025
 The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody:

Blackbody emissive power

Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Monochromatic Emissive Power

The rate of energy emission per unit area at a particular wavelength

Planck’s
law

Planck’s equation for blackbody radiation

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31 Energy Systems
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 Planck Distribution
Planck distribution

Notes:
❑ At any given wavelength Eλ,b increases with increasing
temperature.

❑ The spectral region in which the radiation is

concentrated depends on the temperature.

❑ A significant portion of the radiation emission by the

sun, blackbody at 5800 K, is in the visible (0.4 – 0.7 μm).

From the Planck distribution, it is seen that for any

given temperature, there exists a wavelength that
8
maximizes the blackbody spectral distribution

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (8) Fall 2024-2025
 Wien’s law

From the Planck distribution, it is seen that for any given temperature, there exists a wavelength that maximizes the
blackbody spectral distribution. Differentiating the Planck law with respect to λ, and equating to zero gives:

Wien’s displacement law

It expresses the fact that the maximum

spectral emissive power is displaced (or
shifted) towards shorter wavelengths with
increasing temperature.

The spectral radiation distribution for blackbody radiation at three temperature sources. (Planck’s Law and
Wien’s displacement Law)
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31 Energy Systems
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 Stefan Boltzmann law
Planck distribution

Integrating the Planck’s distribution over the entire wavelength spectrum for the total
emissive power returns:

This equation is referred to as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. It allows for the calculation of
the radiation emitted in all directions and over all wavelengths simply from the knowledge
of the temperature of the blackbody.

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31 Energy Systems
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 Planck Distribution

Planck distribution

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31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (11) Fall 2024-2025
 Blackbody Radiation
The total emissive power Eb, and the monochromatic emissive power Ebλ, of a blackbody are related by

Planck distribution
and Ebλ equal to substitute
& integrate result

The amount of radiation emitted by a Stefan-Boltzmann Law

blackbody in a specific wavelength band
λ1 → λ2, at T

where σ named the Stefan-Boltzmann

constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m2K4

Results in
-

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (12) Fall 2024-2025
 Why the
values in
The given table presents a these
columns are
tabulation of Eb(0 → λT) as a
less than
fraction of the total emissive unity
power, Eb = σT4, for various
values of λT.

Always use Kelvin in the

radiation calculations

If λT is less than 555.6 μm.K

then use Eb (0→ λT)/σT4 = Zero

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Cont.
The given table presents a
tabulation of Eb(0 → λT) as a
fraction of the total emissive
power,
Eb = σT4, for various values of λT.

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31 Energy Systems
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 Example
A glass with transmissivity of 0.92 is used in a certain application for wavelengths 0.3 and 3.0 μm. The glass is opaque to all
other wavelengths. Assuming that the sun is a blackbody at 5760 K and neglecting atmospheric attenuation. Determine the
percent of incident solar energy transmitted through the glass.

If the interior of the application is assumed to be a blackbody at 373 K, determine the percent of radiation emitted from the
interior and transmitted out through the glass.

Solution
Hint:

• Determine the fraction of solar radiation emitted from the sun at

the given wavelength range and incident on the glass.

• Determine the amount that transmitted through the glass.

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31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (15) Fall 2024-2025
 Use interpolation
here

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31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (16) Fall 2024-2025
 Solution – 1 (Cont.)

Why in the greenhouse the temperature inside is hot?

Greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the

external temperature, protecting its contents in cold weather.
17
August.
Solar 31 th Energy Systems
Thermal (17) Fall 2024-2025
 Properties of materials
Reflectivity (ρ)
Absorptivity (α)
Transmissivity (τ)
The three quantities are related by the following equation:

Valid for the average properties over

the entire wavelength spectrum

Spectral Properties
Express the dependence of these
properties on the wavelength

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (18) Fall 2024-2025
August.
Sept. thth
2631 Energy Systems Lecture
Solar Thermal (19) (8) Fall 2024-2025
Properties of materials
Real surfaces emit less energy than corresponding blackbodies. Emissive power
of the body
* Thus, emissivity: is the ratio of the total emissive power, E, of a real surface
to the total emissive power Eb, of a blackbody, both at the same temperature. Emissive power Eb,
of a blackbody both at
Emissivity function of temperature and depends on wavelength. the same Temp

Monochromatic emission Eλ versus

wavelength for a black surface and a
real surface, both at the same
wavelength.

The emissivity of the surface

changes with changing the
wavelength.
Kirchoff’s law of radiation:
For any surface in thermal equilibrium, monochromatic emissivity is equal to
monochromatic absorptivity

For opaque 𝝉 = 𝟎 and diffuse surfaces

From Kirchoff’s law

For grey surfaces (non-dependence on λ)

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Broadband emittance and Absorptance
Monochromatic emittance λ ratio
Monochromatic emission Eλ versus of the energy emitted at a
wavelength for a black surface and a real wavelength to what it would be it
surface, both at the same wavelength. were a blackbody.

The total emissivity could be calculated by

integrating for all wavelengths:

Monochromatic absorptance is the

fraction of the incident radiation at
wavelength λ that is absorbed

The total absorptivity for a surface, for a given

spectrum of the incident energy can be calculated as:

Note that, emissivity is a surface property but absorptivity depends on the incidence radiation spectrum
 Calculation of Emittance and Absorptance
The jth segment in the emission spectrum for
which the monochromatic emittance is ελ,j

To solve the integral, the spectrum can be divided into small

energy increments (Fraction of radiation) ∆𝑓𝑖 so:

Emissivity: is the ratio of the total emissive power, E, of a real surface to the
total emissive power, Eb, of a blackbody, both at the same temperature.

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Example Calculate the emissivity of an opaque surface at 500 K λ(μm) 𝝆𝝀
which has the following monochromatic reflectivity:
0-1 0.2
1-2 0.5
2-12 0.7
Solution 12-14 0.8
>14 0.94
For opaque 𝝉 = 𝟎 and diffuse surfaces
From Kirchoff’s law λ(μm) 𝝆𝝀 ε= 1-ρ
0-1 0.2 1-0.2 = 0.8
1-2 0.5 1-0.5 = 0.5
2-12 0.7 1-0.7 = 0.3
12-14 0.8 1-0.8 = 0.2
>14 0.94 1-0.94 = 0.06
From this relation we can 24

get the values of ε at each ρ

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (24) Fall 2024-2025
 (1-0.8081)

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (25) Fall 2024-2025
 Estimation of the optical properties of transparent plates (glass)
Estimation of radiation exchanges between two surfaces

August.
Sept. thth
2631 Energy Systems Lecture
Solar Thermal (26) (8) Fall 2024-2025
August.
Sept. thth
2631 Energy Systems Lecture
Solar Thermal (27) (8) Fall 2024-2025
 Thermal Radiation

Radiosity (J): The rate of total radiant energy leaving a surface per unit surface area .
Leaving energy includes surface original emission and any reflected rays

Example 3

If the emissivity of the absorber plate is 0.2, at temperature 60 °C and within wavelength
range from 0.1 μm to 50 μm, calculate the Radiosity of the absorber if the reflectivity was
0.1 and the incident irradiation was 500 W/m2 ?
August. th
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 Selective surfaces
Solar collectors must have high absorptance for radiation in the
solar energy spectrum. At the same time, they lose energy by
(reflectance and emittance).

It is desirable to have the long-wave emittance of the surface as low

as possible to reduce losses.

The temperature of surface in most flat plate collectors is less than

200◦C (473 K), while the effective surface temperature of the sun is
 6000 K.

➢ Thus the wavelength range of the emitted radiation overlaps

only slightly the solar spectrum.

(98% of the extraterrestrial solar radiation is at less than 3.0μm and less than
1% of the blackbody radiation from a 200◦C surface is at less than 3.0μm.)

➢ Under these circumstances, it is possible to devise surfaces emittance of Surface at

having high solar absorptance and low long-wave emittance, that 400 K and 3 μm
is (Selective Surface)

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31 Energy Systems
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 Selective surfaces

A hypothetical
Low long-wave emittance of
the surface to reduce losses. selective surface
with the cutoff
wavelength at 3μm.

The reflectance below the cutoff wavelength is very low. For an opaque surface αλ =
1 − ρλ, so in this range αλ is very high. At wavelengths greater than λc the reflectance is
nearly unity, and since ελ= αλ = 1 − ρλ, the emittance in this range is low.

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 • Non-selective materials • Selective materials

Properties of Selective materials

❑ ↑↑ 𝜶𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 (0.2-2.5 μm) and ↓↓ 𝝐𝒕 (λ>2.0 μm)

❑ The spectral transition is abrupt
❑ The optical and physical properties are steady in the
presence of temperature variation, UV radiation etc
❑ Total adherence to the metallic substrate
❑ The materials should be inexpensive and easy to apply

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (31) Fall 2024-2025
 Angular dependence of solar absorptivity
The directional absorptance for solar radiation of ordinary blackened surfaces
(such as are used for solar collectors) is a function of the angle of incidence of
the radiation on the surface, and can be calculated from:

Ratio of solar absorptance and solar absorptance at normal incidence for a flat black surface.

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Estimation of the optical properties of transparent plates (glass)
Transmissivity, absorptivity and reflectivity transparent plates

Transparent Plates (Glass covers)

A beam of radiation strikes the surface of a transparent
plate at an incident angle θ1.

i. part of the incident radiation is reflected

ii. The remainder is refracted, or bent, to angle θ2,
called the refraction angle,
The two angles are related by the Snell’s law:

Refraction causes the transmitted beam to be bent

where n1 and n2 are the refraction indices toward the perpendicular to the surface of higher
density. nair =1.0
n is the ratio of refraction index for the two media forming the interface

The refraction index is the determining factor for the reflection losses at the interface.

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Reflection of radiation
Fresnel has derived expressions for the reflection of unpolarized radiation on passing
from medium (1) with refractive index n1 to medium 2 with refractive index n2.

Represents the perpendicular

component of unpolarized radiation

Represents the parallel component

of unpolarized radiation

Properties calculated at the average of

perpendicular and parallel components

At normal incidence, both

angles are 0

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (34) Fall 2024-2025
Transmittance of Radiation

In solar applications, the transmission of radiation is through a slab or

film of material so there are two interfaces per cover to cause
reflection losses

The transmittance, τr (subscript r indicates that only

reflection losses are considered) can be calculated from the
average transmittance of the two components as follows:
Summing the transmitted terms, the
transmittance for the perpendicular component
Transmittance (τr) is the of polarization is:
average of the two
components parallel and
perpendicular

τr for a glazing system of N

covers of the same material
 The transmittance, τa (subscript α indicates that only absorption losses are considered), can be
calculated from
Where:
Transmittance (τa) in K: is the extinction coefficient depend on the glass quality
semitransparent medium ( just L is thickness of glass cover
absorption neglecting reflection)

Total transmittance For practical collector cover:

The absorptance of a cover can be approximated by:

The absorptivity can be approximated by

The reflectance of a single cover could be found (keeping in mind that

The reflectivity:

August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Steps At normal incidence,
both angles are 0

Snell law The total transmittance,

One glass cover N covers of the same material considering both, reflection
and absorption losses:

Transmissivity
estimation

Absorptivity
estimation

Reflectivity:
Example - 3
A solar energy collector uses a single glass cover with a thickness of 4 mm. In the visible solar range, the
refraction index of glass, n, is 1.526 and its extinction coefficient K is 32 m-1. Calculate the reflectivity,
transmissivity, and absorptivity of the glass sheet for the angle of incidence of 60°.
The refractive index of air nair =1.0 [You have to memorize this]
Combined properties of the cover-absorber tandem

Cover reflectivity

Mathematics

(𝝉𝜶) ≅ 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝝉𝜶 For most

practical applications
Radiation exchange between surfaces
Case A- For two infinite parallel surfaces A1 = A2= A

applies in the flat plate solar

collector between the absorber plate
and the cover.

Case B- For two concentric cylinders

applies in the analysis of a parabolic trough

collector receiver where the receiver pipe is
enclosed in a glass cylinder.

Case C- For a small convex surface, A1, completely enclosed by a

very large concave surface, A2. A1 << A2

Applies for a flat-plate collector

cover radiating to the surroundings
C. Estimation of radiation exchanges between two surfaces

In many engineering calculations, however, the heat transfer equations are linearized in terms of the differences
of temperatures to the first power. For this purpose, the following mathematical identity is used

Combined heat transfer coefficient

(convection + radiation)
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation
When the sun is closest to the earth, on January 3, the solar heat on the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere is
about 1400 W/m2; and when the sun is farthest away, on July 4, it is about 1330 W/m2.

Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on

the plane normal to the radiation on the Nth day of the year, Gon,
varies between these limits, in the range of 3.3% .

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 Extraterrestrial solar radiation
The extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the radiation on the Nth
day of the year

W/m2

Gon

1367 W/m2

Gon

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (43) Fall 2024-2025
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation
For a surface placed parallel to the ground

W/m2

Where Go rate of solar radiation incident on extraterrestrial

horizontal surface at a given time of the year.

August. th
31 Energy Systems
Solar Thermal (44) Fall 2024-2025
 The total radiation, Ho, incident on an extraterrestrial horizontal surface
during a day can be obtained by the integration of Eq. (2.78) over a
period from sunrise to sunset. The resulting equation is:

(J/m2)

where hss is the sunset hour in degrees, obtained from Eq. (2.15). The units
of Eq. (2.79) are joules per square meter (J/m2).

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31 Energy Systems
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 To calculate the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface by an
hour period, Eq. (2.78) is integrated between hour angles, h1 and h2
(h2 is larger). Therefore,

It should be noted that the limits h1 and h2 may define a time period other than 1 h.

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August. th
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August. th
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 Atmospheric attenuation:
The solar heat reaching the earth’s surface is reduced below Gon because a large part of it is scattered, reflected
back out into space, and absorbed by the atmosphere. As a result of the atmospheric interaction with the solar
radiation, a portion of the originally collimated rays becomes scattered or non-directional. Some of this scattered
radiation reaches the earth’s surface from the entire sky vault. This is called diffuse radiation. The solar heat that
comes directly through the atmosphere is termed direct or beam radiation.

The degree of attenuation of solar radiation traveling through the earth’s atmosphere depends on the length of the
path and the characteristics of the medium traversed. In solar radiation calculations, one standard air mass is
defined as the length of the path traversed in reaching sea level when the sun is at its zenith (the vertical at the
point of observation). The air mass is related to the zenith angle, (Figure 2.27), without considering the earth’s
curvature, by the following equation:

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August.
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 Terrestrial Irradiation

ഥ 𝑇, is defined as
The monthly average clearness index, 𝐾

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 51
August.
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August. th
31 Energy Systems
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 Long-term average radiation distribution (hourly values)

53
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 r = ratio of hourly total radiation
to daily total radiation.

rd = ratio of hourly diffuse

radiation to daily diffuse
radiation.

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August. th
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 56
August.
Solar 31 th Energy Systems
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 r = ratio of hourly total radiation
to daily total radiation.

rd = ratio of hourly diffuse

radiation to daily diffuse
radiation.

Itotal =Ibeam + I diffuse

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