SETS

Set: Set is a well defined collection of distinct objects called as element or member.

→ George Cantor was a Russian mathematician who is considered as the founder of set theory.

Example: Set of mathematical instrument.

Set of prime number.

Set of integer.

→ Sets are denoted by capital letters and element or member or objects are denoted by small letters.

→ Sets are always written within a curly bracket.

NOTE: (i) If ‘x’ is an element of set ‘A’ then we called ‘x belongs to A’ and write x∈A.

(ii) If ‘x’ is not an element of set ‘A’ then we called ‘x does not belong to A’ and write x∉A.

Types of set:

(a) Empty or Null or Void set: A set having no element is said to be empty set.

→ Empty set is denoted by the symbol ‘ⲫ’.

(b) Singleton Set: A set which have only one element is known as Singleton set.

(c) Finite Set: A set which have finite number of element or which element can be counted is known as
finite set.

(d) Infinite Set: A set which is not finite is called as Infinite Set.

(e) Equal Set: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have same element.

(f) Equivalent Set: Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they have same number of element.

Representation of set:

(a) Tabular form or Roster method: In this method we write all the elements of a set within a curly
bracket.

→ In this method a comma is given between two consecutive element.

→ In this method reputation of object have no effect i.e we can’t write a single element repeatedly.

→ In this method sequence of writing element doesn’t matter.

(b) Set builder method or property form: In this method we describe a set by the property of elements of
this set.

→ In this method the set is described as { x : p(x) hold}.

Subset:Let A and B are two sets of every element of A is an element of B then A is called a subset of B.

→This is denoted by the symbol ‘⊂’ .

→ Mathematically, If A⊂B then x∈A ⇒ x∈B.

Example: Let A={1,2,3,4} and B={1,2,3,4,5,6}

Here, every element of A is an element of B. So,A⊂B.

NOTE: (i) Every set is a subset of itself.

(ii) Empty set is a subset of every set.

(iii) If A has ‘n’ number of elements then total number of subset of set A is 2 n.

→ Subsets are of two types.

Proper Subset: If A and B are two non empty sets such as A⊂B and A≠B then we called A is a proper Subset
of B and is denoted as A⊂B.

Improper Subset: If A and B are two sets such as A is an empty set or A=B then A is an improper Subset of B
and is denoted as A⊆B.

Super Set: Let A and B are two sets such as A⊂B then we called B is a super Set of A and denoted by B⊃A.

NOTE: If A⊂B and A⊃B then A=B this property is known as ‘property of extension’.

Power Set: If A is any set then the collection of all its subsets is another set which is called power set of A.

→ The power set of A is denoted by P(A).

→ If A has n elements then P(A) has 2 n elements.

Cardinal Number: The cardinal number of a finite set A is the number of elements in A.

→ This is otherwise known as ‘order of a set’.

→ This is denoted as |A| or O(A) or n(A).

Operations with sets or Algebra of set:

Union: If A and B are two sets then the union of sets A and B is the set of all elements in set A or B or in both.

→ This is denoted by the symbol ‘∪’.

→ Mathematically, A∪B= {x: x∈A or x∈B} .

Example: Let, A={1,2,3,4,5}

and B={2,4,6}

then A∪B= {1,2,3,4,5} ∪ {2,4,6}

={1,2,3,4,5,6}

Properties of union:

(i) Idempotent law: For any set A, A∪A=A.

(ii) Identity law: For any set A, A∪ⲫ=A

(iii) Commutative law: For any two sets A and B, A∪B=B∪A.

(iv) Associative law: For any three sets A,B and C, (A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C).
Intersection: If A and B are two sets then the intersection of sets A and B is the set of all those elements
which are belong to both A and B.(or set of all common elements of A and B).

→ This is denoted by the symbol ‘∩’.

→ Mathematically, A∩B={x: x∈A and x∈B}.

Example: (i) Let, A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7} (ii) Let, A={1,3,5,7}

and B={2,4,6,8} and B={2,4,6,8}

then A∩B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7}∩{2,4,6,8} then A∩B={1,3,5,7}∩{2,4,6,8}

={2,4,6} ={ } or ⲫ

NOTE: If A and B are two sets such as A∩B=ⲫ then A and B are called disjoint set otherwise A and B are
intersecting or overlapping sets.

Properties of intersection:

Idempotent law: For any set A,A∩A=A.

Identity law: For any set A,A∩U=A

Commutative law: For any two sets A and B,A∩B=B∩A.

Associative law: For any three sets A,B and C,(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C).

Note: Distributive law:For any three sets A,B and C

(i) A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

(ii) A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C).

Difference: If A and B are two sets then the difference of sets A and B is the set of all elements of A which
does not belong to set B.(or set of all elements which are only belong to set A).

→ This is denoted by the symbol ‘—’ or ‘\’.

→ Mathematically, A-B or A\B ={x: x∈A and x∉B}.

Example: Let, A={1,2,3,4,5}

B={2,4,6,8}

then A\B or A-B={1,2,3,4,5}-{2,4,6,8}

={1,3,5}

Symmetric difference: If A and B are two sets then symmetric difference of sets A and B is the set of all
elements which are either only in A or only in B but not in both.

→This is denoted by the symbol ‘∆’.

→Mathematically, A∆B={x: x∈A,x∈B and x∉A∩B}

={x: x∈A-B and x∈B-A}

→ A∆B=(A∪B)-(A∩B)

=(A-B)∪(B-A)

Some more properties of set:

1.If A and B are two sets then A⊂(A∪B) and B⊂(A∪B).

2.If A and B are two sets then (A∩B)⊂A and (A∩B)⊂B.

3.If A⊂B then A∪B=B,A∩B=A and A-B=ⲫ.

4.If A∩B=ⲫ then A-B=A,B-A=B and A∆B=A∪B.

5.If B⊂C then (A∪B)⊂(A∪C) and (A∩B)⊂(A∩C).

6.If B⊂A and C⊂A then (B∪C)⊂A.

7.If A⊂B and A⊂C then A⊂(B∩C).

8.Symmetric difference is Commutative i.e A∆B=B∆A.

9.For any two sets A and B (A-B)∪B=A∪B and (A-B)∩B=ⲫ.

10.For any two sets A and B A-B≠B-A.

11.A∩ⲫ=A

12.A-ⲫ=A

13.A∆A= ⲫ

14.A∪B=(A∆B)∪(A∩B).

Venn Diagram: A venn diagram is a widely used diagram style that shows the logical relation between sets.

→ This is proposed by ‘John Venn’ in 1880.

→ In this process we denote a set by round shape or circle.

Universal set: A set that contains all the sets in a given context is known as Universal Set.

→ It is denoted by ‘U’. U
3 A| 4
→ Its venn diagram always represented by a rectangular shape.
A
5
Complementary Set: If ‘U’ is the universal set in a given context
1 2
6
and A⊂U then the difference U-A is known as the complement 8
7
of A (with respect to A).

→ This is denoted by A| or Ac or ~A or ¬A.

Example:Let,U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}

and A={2,4,6,8}

then A| =U-A

={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} - {2,4,6,8}

={1,3,5,7}

Properties: (i) U|= ⲫ

(ii) ⲫ|=U

(iii) A U A| = U

(iv) A ∩ A| = ⲫ

(v) (A|)| = A

(vi) A ⊂ B ⇔ B| ⊂ A|

(vii) A – B= A ∩ B|

De-Morgans Law: For any two sets A and B

(i) (A∪B)|= A|∩B|

(ii) (A∩B)|= A|∪B|

Proof: (i) Let, x∈(A∪B)|

⇔x∉(A∪B)

⇔x∉A and x∉B

⇔x∈A| and x∈B|

⇔x∈(A|∩B|)

Here,(A∪B)| ⊂A|∩B|

And A| ∩ B| ⊂(A∪B)|

So,(A∪B)|=A|∩B|
(ii)Let,x∈(A∩B)|

⇔x∉(A∩B)

⇔x∉A or x∉B

⇔x∈A| or x∈B|

⇔x∈(A|∪B|)

Here,(A∩B)|⊂A|∪B|

And A|∪B|⊂(A∩B)|

So,(A∩B)|=A|∪B|

Some important results on cardinality of finite set:

(a)|A∪B| = |A|+|B|-|A∩B|

= |A-B|+|B-A|+|A∩B|

= |A∆B|+|A∩B|

(b)|A∪B∪C| = |A|+|B|+|C|-|A∩B|-|B∩C|-|A∩C|+A∩B∩C|

(c)|A-B| = |A|-|A∩B|

= |A∆B|-|B-A|

(d)|B-A| = |B|-|A∩B|

= |A∆B|-|A∩B|

(e)|A∆B|= |A-B|+|B-A|

= |A∪B|-|A∩B|

= |A|+|B|-2|A∩B|

(f)|A|| = |U|-|A|

(g)|A|∪B||=|U|-|A∩B|

(h)|A|∩B||=|U|-|A∪B|

(i)|A∩B|=|A|-|A-B|

=|B|-|B-A|

=|A∪B|-|A∆B|

(j)|A|=|A∩B|+|A-B|

(k)|B|=|A∩B|+|B-A|