Quantum Physics

Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 1 : De Broglie Hypothesis of Mater Waves
Session 2 : Problems on De Broglie hypothesis

Origin of Quantum Physics

Vidya Prasarak Mandal's College of Engineering is an institute for technical education in Thane,
The concept of quantum physics was first used by Max Planck to explain the result obtained
black body radiation experiment. A black body is designed to absorb 99.9% of radiation incident
on it. This can be done with a hollow sphere with a narrow hole. Inner surface of this hollow
sphere s coated with carbon black. When radiation enters through a narrow hole, it hits the wall
of the sphere and get almost fully absorbed. Remaining radiation is reflected back. And collide
again with the wall. After number of reflections, almost all the radiation is absorbed.

Due to absorption of radiation, temperature of the body increases and it starts emitting radiation
from narrow hole. This radiation contains all wavelengths. It is called as black body radiation.

When intensity vs wavelength curve is plotted, it is found that radiation for longer wavelengths is
very low. For shorter wavelengths, intensity is more. For a particular wavelength, 𝜆max,
maximum energy is radiated. This is called peak wavelength.

Even though all wavelengths are emitted, there is a maximum intensity only for a peak
wavelength. Black body appears of the colour corresponding to that wavelength.

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If we increase temperature of the black body, 𝜆max shifts towards left side and the colour of the
black body changes.
1
This shift in the peak wavelength was explained by Wien‟s displacement law as - 𝜆 max ⍺ T

But taw could explain the part of the curve towards the lower wavelengths. Also, if the
temperature is close to zero, 𝜆max will be infinite. But when the temperature is lowered, the
radiation curve changes the behaviour which could not be explained.

Rayleigh and Jean also tried to explain this radiation curve using their Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
law based on classical statistics. As per this law, energy density is proportional
to square of the frequency i.e. inversely proportional to square of the wavelength. This law is
applicable to higher wavelengths. But fails at the lower wavelengths.

Max Planck suggested that radiated energy must be depending on the frequency of radiation. He
represented this energy E = hv and replaced the average energy kT in Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
calculated by him using Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

So Planck‟s radiation law is written as –

This equation now, gives correct explanation for the black body radiation curve. Thus, while
explaining black body radiation, Planck introduced a revolutionary idea which says – “Energy of
radiation depends on frequency (E = hv).”

Einstein used idea of Planck to explain his photoelectric effect. He confirmed that light consists
of discrete units of energy known as photons carrying energy - E = hv. Thus, photoelectric effect
confirmed the particle nature of light. Wave nature of light is already known due to phenomena
like interference, diffraction, polarization etc. This dual nature of light is known as wave-particle
duality.

Also, Motion of macroscopic particles can be explained by classical theory of Mechanics. But it
fails to explain the motion of microscopic particles like electron, proton etc. Quantum mechanics
was developed from Quantum theory to explain the properties associated with such particles. de
Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and Schrodinger‟s
equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and

Schrodinger‟s equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie Hypothesis

It states that - There is a wave associated with every moving particle moving with velocity v, and
h h
the wavelength of this wave is given by – 𝜆 = =
p mv

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Proof of de Broglie relation

Let us consider the case of the photon. Energy of the photon, according to Plank’s theory of
radiation is given by –
E = h (1)
where h is Plank’s constant and  is frequency of radiation.

If we consider a photon as a particle of mass m, its energy is given by Einstein Mass Energy
relation as –
E = m c2 (2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get,
h = m c 2 = (3)

As photon travels with velocity of light “c” in free space, its momentum “p” is given by –

p = mass  velocity = m c ------------------------------------(4)

Dividing equation (3) by (4) we get –

h m c2
= = c
p mc
h c
 =
p 
h  c 
 λ = ∵ = λ
p   

de Broglie assumed that above relation holds good for all material particles like electrons,
neutrons etc. For such particles,
h h
𝜆= =
p mv

where „m‟ is the mass of the particle and „v‟ is the velocity of the particle.

Justification for De Broglie Hypothesis using Bohr’s Postulates

According to Bohr‟s Postulate, the angular momentum „L‟ of an electron revolving in a

stationary orbit is quantized.

nh
 L = n =
2

We may consider the stationary electron orbits in an atom to be analogous to the circular loop of
string. The stationary electron-wave pattern can form in the orbit if an integral number of
electron wavelengths fit into the orbit as shown in following fig.

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h
2 r = n  = n
h
Thus, circumference of the as  = from De Broglie hypothesis.
orbit mv mv
h
 m vr = n
2
 L = n  Where L = mvr is angular momentum

Thus Bohr’s postulate can be obtained using De Broglie Hypothesis. So if Bohr’s postulate is
true, De Broglie Hypothesis is also true.

De Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

Consider a particle moving with velocity v. Its momentum p = mv and the de Broglie wavelength
of matter wave associated with it is given by –
h h
λ = = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
p mv
The Kinetic energy of the particle is –
1 1 1 2
E = mv2 = m2 v2 = p
2 2m 2m
 p2 = 2mE
 p = 2mE − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we get –

h
λ =
2mE

Experimental Verification of de Broglie Experiment

(Davisson and Germer Experiment)

The first experimental evidence of de Broglie hypothesis came from the experiments performed
by Davisson and Germer. Following figure shows the experimental arrangement used by
Davisson and Germer.

The various constructional parts are shown in following fig. –

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 Quantum Physics

i) Electron gun : It consists of a tungsten filament F. Electrons are emitted by thermionic

emission. Due to the action of electric field across the gun, a fine stream
of electrons emerges out of this gun.
ii) Anode (A) : It accelerates the electrons towards the target.
iii) Target (T) : It is a single crystal of Nickel. It can be rotated about its axis, which is
parallel to the axis of electron beam. The position of the crystal can be
adjusted. A thin pencil beam of electrons is allowed to reflect from the
crystal surface in different directions.
iv) Collector (C) : Collect the reflected electrons. It is a Faraday cylinder connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G. It can be moved along the circular scale to
locate the position of maxima and minima between the angle 200 and
900. The inner and outer walls of the cylinder are insulated from each
other and a retarding potential is applied between them so that only
fastest moving electrons can enter the cylinder.
v) Outer Chamber : The whole arrangement is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.

In this experiment, the beam of electrons was made to fall normally on the surface of a crystal
and then the collector (C) was moved to various positions on the scale. The galvanometer current
for each position was noted. This current is a measure of the intensity of the diffracted beam of
electrons. Graph of this current (intensity of diffracted beam) against the angle between the
incident beam and the beam entering the collector was plotted. This procedure was repeated for
different voltages and several curves were drawn as shown in following Fig.-

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In one set of experiment, Davisson and Germer found that when the accelerating potential is
raised to 54 volts, a maximum appears when the angle between incident and diffracted beam (=
) was 500 for the first order spectrum. This maximum confirms the existence of diffraction
phenomenon and hence the wavelike behavior of electrons. Hence, by using the de Broglie
relation, the wavelength of the wave associated with the electron can be calculated and is given
by – h = 6.6210-34 Joules - sec, m = 9.110-31 Kg, e = 1.6 10-19 Coulomb, V = 54 volts
h h 6.6210-34
λ = = =
p 2meV 2  9.110-31 1.6 10-19  54
= 1.67 10-10 m = 1.67 A0

The wavelength of the wave can also be calculated by using Bragg’s relation which is
established result in optics.

From Bragg’s diffraction law, we have 2 d sin θ = n λ

2 d sin θ
 λ =
n
where d = a sin  = 2.1510-10  sin 250 = 9.086 10-11 is the inter - planar spacing
a = 2.1510-10 m is the inter - atomic spacing

 = 900 - = 900 - 250 = 650 is the angle between the diffracted beam
2
and atomic planes.
n = 1 is the order of the spectrum
λ is the wavelength of the electron wave which is to be determined.

Substituting all these values in Bragg’s law,

2 d sin θ 2  9.086 x 10-11 sin 65
λ = = = 1.65 A0
n 1
This value matches with the wavelength calculated using de Broglie relation. This confirms the
correctness of de Broglie relation.

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Properties of Matter Waves

1. Waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves.

h h
2. Wavelength of matter wave is given by λ = =
p mv
3. Wavelength of matter wave is inversely proportional to mass and velocity.
c2
4. Phase velocity of matter wave vp =  c
v
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves and can be associated with any particle
whether charged or uncharged.
6. Matter waves can propagate in a vacuum; hence they are not mechanical wave.

Numericals based on De Broglie Hypothesis

1. An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V.

i) Calculate the associated wavelength.
ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 A0. At what angle of
deviating from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?

i) Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 9.1 × 10−31kg, e = 1.6 × 10−19C

V = 200 volts, λ =?

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 200

= 8.688 × 10−11𝑚 = 0.8688 𝐴0

ii) d = 3 × 10−10m, order m = 1

2dsinθ = nλ
λ
= sin−1 ( 8.688 × 10 ) = 8.320
−11
∴ θ = sin−1
2d 2 × 3 × 10−10
2. Calculate the wavelength of the wave associated with a neutron moving with energy 0.025 eV. Mass
ofneutron is 1.676 x 10-27 kg.
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 1.676 × 10−27kg
E = 0.025 eV = 0.025 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
𝜆=?
h h 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= = =
p √2mE √2 × 1.676 × 10−27 × 0.025 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 1.811 × 10−10m

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3. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the proton moving with a velocity equal to 1 th of velocity of
20

light. Mass of proton is 1.6 x 10-27 kg.

Given :
h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 1.6 × 10−27kg
1
v= × 3 × 108, 𝜆 = ?
20
h h 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= = =
p mv 1.6 × 10−27 × 1 × 3 × 108
20
= 2.763 × 10 m
−14

4. Calculate velocity and de Broglie wavelength of an 𝑎 − particle of energy 1 keV. Mass of 𝑎 − particle
is 6.68 x 10-27 kg.
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 6.68 × 10−27kg
E = 1 keV = 1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
v=? 𝜆=?
h h 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= = =
p √2mE √2 × 6.68 × 10−27 × 1000 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 4.535 × 10−13m

5. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out of the enclosure.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He-atoms. Mass of He-atoms = 6.7 x 10-27 kg.
𝐺i𝑣𝑒𝑛 : ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34𝐽. 𝑠, 𝑚 = 6.7 × 10−27𝑘𝑔
3 3
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇 = × 1.38 × 10−23 × 400 = 8.28 × 10−21𝐽
2 2
𝜆 =?
ℎ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= = =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝐸 √2 × 6.7 × 10−27 × 8.28 × 10−21
= 6.294 × 10−11𝑚 = 0.6294 𝐴0

6. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1. 674 × 10−27kg
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 1.674 × 10−27kg
𝜆 = 1 A0 = 10−10m, E =?
h h h2 (6.63 × 10−34)2
𝜆= = ∴E= =
p √2mE 2m𝜆2 2 × 1.674 × 10−27 × (10−10)2
1.313 × 10−20
= 1.313 × 10 J =
−20 = 0.082 eV
1.6 × 10−19

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7. A bullet of mass 40 gm and an electron both travel with the velocity of 1100 m/s. What wavelengths can
be associated with them? Why the wave nature of bullet cannot be revealed using diffraction effect?

𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛,
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 : ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34𝐽. 𝑠, 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31𝑘𝑔, 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19𝐶
𝑚
𝑣 = 1100 , 𝜆 =?
𝑠

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 9.1 × 10−31 × 1100

= 6.623 × 10−7𝑚 = 6623 𝐴0

𝑖𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 : ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34𝐽. 𝑠, 𝑚 = 40 𝑔𝑚 = 40 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔,

𝑚
𝑣 = 1100 , 𝜆 =?
𝑠

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 40 × 10−3 × 1100
= 1.507 × 10−35𝑚

As the wavelength associated with bullet is of the order of 10-35m, to reveal the
wave nature of wave associated with bullet, a diffraction grating having width
of the slit of the order of 10-35m is needed. Such diffraction grating is not
available. So, the wave nature of the bullet cannot be revealed.
8. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A 0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1. 674 × 10−27kg
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 1.674 × 10−27kg
𝜆 = 1 A0 = 10−10m, E=?
h h
𝜆= =
p √2mE
h2 (6.63 × 10−34)2
E= =
2m𝜆2 2 × 1.674 × 10−27 × (10−10)2
1.313 × 10−20
= 1.313 × 10−20J = = 0.082 eV
1.6 × 10−19
9. An electron accelerated through 1000 volts and is reflected from a crystal. The first order reflection
occurs when glancing angle is 700. Calculate the interplanar spacing of the crystal.
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 9.1 × 10−31kg,
e = 1.6 × 10−19C, V = 1000 volts, n = 1, 𝜆 =? d =?
h 6.63 × 10 −34
𝜆= =
√2meV √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1000

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= 3.885 × 10−11m
Using Bragg‟s law, 2 d sin𝜃 = n𝜆
n𝜆 1 × 3.885 × 10−11
∴d= =
2 sin𝜃 2 × sin70
= 2.067 × 10−11m = 0.2067 A0
10. An electron accelerated through 100 volts are reflected from a crystal. Calculate the glancing angle at
which the first order reflection occurs. Given lattice spacing = 2.15 A0.
Given : h = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, m = 9.1 × 10−31kg, d = 2.15 × 10−10m
e = 1.6 × 10−19C, V = 100 volts, n = 1, 𝜆 =? 𝜃 =? ,
h 6.63 × 10−34
𝜆= =
√2meV √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 100
= 1.229 × 10−10m
Using Bragg‟s law, 2 d sin𝜃 = n𝜆
n𝜆 1 × 1.229 × 10−10
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( )
2d 2 × 2.15 × 10−10
∴ 𝜃 = 16.610

11. An electron and photon each have a wavelength of 2 A0. What are their momentum and energy?
Mass of neutron = 1. 676 × 10−27kg, Mass of electron = 9. 1 × 10−31kg,
Planck′s constant = 6. 63 × 10−34J. s
Given:
Mass of neutron = 1.676 × 10−27kg, Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10−31kg,
Planck′s constant = 6.63 × 10−34J. s, 𝜆 = 2 × 10−10m
For an electron,
h 6.63 × 10−34 kg. m
momentum, p = = = 3.315 × 10−24
𝜆 2 × 10−10 s
p2 2
(3.315×10−24 )
Energy, E = = = 6.038× 10−18J
2m 2×9.1×10−31

For an photon,
h 6.63 × 10−34 k g. m
momentum, p = = = 3.315 × 10−24
𝜆 2 × 10−10 s
hc 6.63×10−34×3×108 = 9.945× 10−16J
Energy, E = hv = ℎ
= 2×10−10

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Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 3 : Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Session 4 : Problems on HUP
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP)

According to the classical mechanics, the position and momentum of the moving particle can be
determined with great accuracy. However, when the particle is considered as a wave, it is not
possible to know the exact location of the particle on the wave as the wave extends throughout
the region in the space.

The de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle traveling with a uniform velocity
‘v’ is given by –
h
λ =
mv
This is a monochromatic wave of infinite extent. The phase velocity ‘vp’ of such monochromatic
wave is given by –
hλ h E mc2 c2
vp = λ = = = = = --------------------(1)
h h p mv v
λ
This phase velocity is always greater than the velocity of light in vacuum. Hence it is
theoretically impossible for a monochromatic de Broglie wave-train to transport a particle or
energy.

Further the stability of the material particle demands that it should be concentrated over a small
region of space at any instant of time. Thus, mass of a particle is a localized entity whereas the
de Broglie wave with which we represent the moving particle of infinite extent.

From Einstein’s theory of velocity, it follows that the speed of light is maximum velocity that
can be attained by a particle in nature. It means that the velocity of the particle ‘v’ is always less
than the speed of light ‘c’. From equation (1) it follows that the de Broglie wave velocity must be
greater than ‘c’, which is not acceptable. Further, it follows from this result, that the wave
associated with the particle would travel faster than the particle itself, thereby leaving the particle
far behind. Hence it was concluded that a material particle would not be equivalent to a single
wave-train.

Schrodinger solved this difficulty by postulating that a material particle in motion is equivalent
to a wave packet rather than a single wave. A wave packet consists of a group of waves (each
having slightly different velocity and wavelength). The phases and amplitudes of these waves are
chosen in such a way that they undergo interference constructively over only a small region of
space where the particle can be located. Outside this region, they undergo destructive
interference so that that the amplitude reduces to zero rapidly. Such wave packet is shown in the
following figure-

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This wave packet moves with its own velocity ‘vg’, called as group velocity. The individual
waves forming the packet have an average velocity ‘vp’ called as a phase velocity. It can be
proved that the velocity of the material particle is same as the group velocity of wave packet.

The phase velocity is the velocity with which a particular phase of the wave propagates in the
medium.
Let the equation of the wave travelling in x-direction with vibrations in y-direction is –
y = A sin(t - kx)
where A = amplitude of vibration,
2
k= is propagation constant, = 2 is angular frequency

 2
  = and  =
2 k
 2 
phase velocity, vp =   =  = ---- (1)
2 k k
wavelength of De Broglie wave associated with a particle of mass ' m' moving with
velocity ' v' is given by -
2 2 m v
=
h k = =
mv  h
To find frequency ( ), let us equate energy e with relativistic total energy mc2
mc2 2 m c 2
i.e. h = mc2  = and  = 2 =
h h
2 m c 2
 h c2
 from (1), phase velocity (vp ) = = =
k 2 m v v
h
Thus, the phase velocity of the wave under consideration is always greater than the velocity of
light. Further the stability of the material particle demands that it should be concentrated over a
small region of space at any instant of time. Thus, mass of a particle is a localized entity whereas
the single monochromatic wave with which we represent the moving particle of infinite extent.
So, a single monochromatic wave cannot be associated with the moving particle.

Schrodinger postulated that a material particle in motion is equivalent to a wave packet rather
than a single wave. A wave packet consists of a group of waves (each having slightly different
velocity and wavelength). The phases and amplitudes of these waves are chosen in such a way
that they undergo interference constructively over only a small region of space where the particle

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can be located. Outside this region, they undergo destructive interference so that that the
amplitude reduces to zero rapidly. Such wave packet is shown in the following figure-

This wave packet moves with its own velocity ‘vg’, called as group velocity. The individual
waves forming the packet have an average velocity ‘vp’ called as a phase velocity. It can be
proved that the velocity of the material particle is same as the group velocity of wave packet.
If two waveshave their angular velocities differing by d and
propagation constantsdiffering by dk (due to difference d in their wavelengths),
their equations can be written as -
y1 = A sin (t - kx)
and y2 = A sin [( + d)t - (k + dk)x]
The resultant displacement ' y' at time ' t' is - y = y1 + y2

As d and dk are very small compared to  and k respectively,

y = 2A sin (t - kx) cos

The sine term in the above equation represents a wave of angular frequency  and
propagation constant k.
d
The cosine term modulates this wave with angular frequency to produce
2
d
wavegroups traveling with velocity vg = which is group velocity.
dk
d
= dv
 vg dk - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(2)
dv

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Thus, de Broglie group velocity associated with a wave packet is equal to

the velocity of the particle

The association of group of waves (wave packet) with a moving particle means that, the position
of the particle at any instant of time cannot be specified with desired degree of accuracy. All that
we can say is, the particle is somewhere within the wave packet. The probability of finding the
particle at a point in a wave packet is directly proportional to the amplitude of the wave at that
point.

If the width of the wave packet is small as shown in fig. (a) then the particle can be located
somewhat accurately, but the determination of wavelength (And hence the momentum) becomes
a problem. If width of the wave packet is more (fig. (b)), then wavelength measurement (and
hence determination of momentum) is accurate. However, position of the particle cannot be
determined accurately.

With this discussion, Heisenberg, put forward his uncertainty principle which states that –

It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the position and momentum of the moving particle
accurately. In any simultaneous determination of position and momentum of the particle, the
product of uncertainties is equal to or greater than

where x is the fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of position and

px is fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of momentum along X-axis.

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Experimental Verification of HUP

In order to confirm HUP, the following ideal experiments were performed.

1) Heisenberg’s Gamma Ray Microscope Experiment and
2) Single Slit Diffraction Experiment.

As we do not have any ideal instruments, these experiments are performed in thought without
violating any physics concepts. Hence, they are called as thought experiments or hypothetical
experiments.

Heisenberg’s Gamma Ray Microscope Experiment

In this experiment, we try to measure both position and momentum of electron. For this, let us
set up a high power -ray microscope as shown in the following fig.

Let ‘O’ be the electron, ‘’ be the wavelength of -rays and ‘’ be the semi-vertical angle of the
cone of rays that enter the microscope objective. As the gamma ray photons collide with
electrons, some of them bounce into the microscope and enable the observer to see the electron.
According to the classical mechanics, the observer should be able to find out the exact position
and momentum of the electron. However, there are two fundamental limitations in this
experiment –
i) The accuracy in determining the position of electron by a microscope is limited by the
laws of Optics. According to Optics, the resolving power of a microscope is given by –
λ
x =
2 sin 
where x is minimum distance between two points that can be distinguished as separate.
 is wavelength of scattered gamma ray photon.
Due to this, if position of the electron changes by x, the microscope would not be able
to detect it. To make x very small, radiation of very short wavelength such as X-rays or
Gamma rays should be used. Thus x will be an error or uncertainty in determination of
position of the electron.
λ
 x = (1)
2 sin 
ii) While determining the momentum of the electron, the interaction of electron with gamma
ray photon will result in change of momentum of electron because of its recoil.

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In order that this change is to be as small as possible, consider a single gamma ray photon
incident on an electron along the X-axis. A scattered photon of wavelength ‘’ will enter
the objective anywhere between OA and OB. The momentum of scattered photon is p. If
it enters the objective along OA, X-component of its momentum would be + p sin 
Hence, momentum imparted to the electron along X - axis p' - p sin − − − − (2)
=

If scattered photon enters the microscope along OB, then X-component of its momentum
would be − p sin 
The momentum given to the electron can therefore have any value between those given
Hence, momentum imparted to the electron along X - axis = p' - (- p sin )
= p' + p sin − − − − (3)
by equation (2) and (3)
 px = p' + p sin - (p' - p sin )
h
 px = 2 p sin  = 2 sin  --------------------------------(4)
λ
From equation (1) and (4), the product of uncertainties is given by –
λ h
x . px = . 2 sin 
2 sin  λ
h
= h 
4π
Which confirms the HUP.

Diffraction of abeam of electrons through a narrow slit

Consider a narrow-slit AB of width x as shown in the figure. Let a beam of electrons fall on this
slit. After passing through the slit, the electron beam produces a diffraction pattern containing a
central maximum. The first minimum is obtained on either side of the central maximum at an
angle  given by the relation –

d sin θ = n λ where, d = Δx and n =1

 Δx sin θ = λ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
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 Quantum Physics

We cannot locate the exact position of the electrons in the beam when it passes through the slit.
The uncertainty in the measurement of the position of the electron n the slit is equal to the width
of the slit, which is given by –

λ
Δx = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
sin θ

Let p be the momentum of the electron. The electron can be incident on the screen anywhere
between central position and the first minimum. If the electron moves in the direction EC after
diffraction, the change in momentum ‘p’ is given by

Δp = p sin θ ( 3)

This p will be uncertainty in determination of the momentum. If we take product of

uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum, we get –

Δx  Δp
λ
=  p sin θ
sin θ
h h
= λ  p =  p = h 
p 4π

which confirms the HUP.

Why electron cannot exist in nucleus?

Approximate radius of nucleus r = 5 x 10-15 m

Therefore, uncertainty in position Δx  2 r = 2 x 5 x10-15 m
h
∆x ∆p ≥
4𝜋
h
∴ ∆x m∆v ≥
4𝜋
h 6.63 × 10 −34
∴ ∆v ≥ = = 5.797 × 109 m/s
4𝜋 m ∆x 4 × 3.142 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 10−14
From this equation, the uncertainty of velocity is more than c (3 × 108m/s). For this to happen,
velocity of an electron must be greater that c. which is not possible. So the position of electron
can't be in nucleus.

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Time-Energy Uncertainty Relation :

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (HUP) is applicable to all conjugate or complimentary pairs

of physical variables whose product has the dimension of Planck’s constant ‘h’. Some common
such pairs are Position-Linear momentum, Energy-Time, Angular momentum-Angular
displacement etc.

The Time-Energy Uncertainty Principle states that –

In any simultaneous determination of the time and energy of the particle, the product of
uncertainties is equal to or greater than Planck’s constant ‘h’.
h
i.e. E . t 
4π
where E is the fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of energy and
t is fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of time.

It can be proved from HUP as follows –

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ so that its K.E. is –

1
E = mv2
2
1
 E = m 2 v v
2
= vp (∵ mv = p)
x x
= p (v = )
t t
h
 E . t = x . p 
4π
Problems based on HUP:
1. A position and momentum of 1 keV electron are simultaneously measured. If position is located
within 10 nm then what is the percentage uncertainty in its momentum?

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∆𝑝 5.275 × 10−27
× 100 = × 100 = 0.0391
𝑝 1.706 × 10−23
2. An electron has a speed of 400 m/s with uncertainty of 0.01%. Find the accuracy in its position.
𝑚 ∆𝑣 0.01
𝐺i𝑣𝑒𝑛 : 𝑣 = 400 , = , 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔,
𝑠 𝑣 100
ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34, ∆𝑥 =?
𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑣 = 9.1 × 10−31 × 400 = 3.64 × 10−28
𝑠
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 0.01 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
∆𝑝 = 𝑚 ∆𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑣 =𝑝× = 3.64 × 10−28 × = 3.64 × 10−32
𝑣 𝑣 100 𝑠
ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑i𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑈𝑃, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ 1 6.63 × 10−34
∴ ∆𝑥 ≥ × =
4𝜋 ∆𝑝 4 × 3.142 × 3.64 × 10−32
∆𝑥 = 1.449 × 10−3𝑚

3. An electron has a speed of 900 m/s with an accuracy of 0.001%. Calculate the uncertainty in the
position of the electron.

𝑚 ∆𝑣 0.001
𝐺i𝑣𝑒𝑛 : 𝑣 = 900 , = , 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔,
𝑠 𝑣 100
ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34, ∆𝑥 =?
𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑣 = 9.1 × 10−31 × 900 = 8.19 × 10−28
𝑠
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 0.001 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
∆𝑝 = 𝑚 ∆𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑣 =𝑝× = 8.19 × 10−28 × = 8.19 × 10−33
𝑣 𝑣 100 𝑠
ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑i𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑈𝑃, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ 1 6.63 × 10−34
∴ ∆𝑥 ≥ × =
4𝜋 ∆𝑝 4 × 3.142 × 8.19 × 10−33
∆𝑥 = 6.44 × 10−3𝑚

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4. The speed of an electron is measured to within an uncertainty of 2 x 104 m/s.

What is the minimum space required by the electron to be confined to an atom?
𝑚
𝐺i𝑣𝑒𝑛 : ∆𝑣 = 2 × 104 , 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔,
𝑠
ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34, ∆𝑥 =?
ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑i𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑈𝑃, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 = ∆𝑥. 𝑚 ∆𝑣 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ 1 6.63 × 10−34
∴ ∆𝑥 ≥ × =
4𝜋 𝑚 ∆𝑣 4 × 3.142 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 2 × 104
∆𝑥 = 2.898 × 10−9𝑚

5. An electron confined in a box of length 10-8 m. Calculate minimum uncertainty in its velocity.

𝐺i𝑣𝑒𝑛 : ∆𝑥 = 10−8𝑚, 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔,

ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34, ∆𝑣 =?
ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑i𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑈𝑃, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 = ∆𝑥. 𝑚 ∆𝑣 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ 1 6.63 × 10−34
∴ ∆𝑣 ≥ × =
4𝜋 𝑚 ∆𝑥 4 × 3.142 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 10−8
∆𝑣 = 5797 𝑚/𝑠

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Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 5: Schrodinger’s Time Independent and Time Dependent Equation
Session 6 : Particle trapped in an Infinite Potential Well
Session 7 : Applications of Quantum Physics

THE WAVE FUNCTION  :

Schrödinger assumed that a quantity  represents a De Broglie wave. It is called as a wave

function. This wave function mathematically describes the motion of particle. It is not possible to
locate the particle precisely at point (x,y,z). This wave function gives a probability of finding the
particle at (x,y,z) at time t. It is a function of space and time coordinates.
The wave function  introduced in Schrödinger’s wave mechanics is an abstract mathematical
quantity. It is this wave function, which takes care of the wave nature or wavelike behaviour of
particles. It may be complex in nature
(x,t) = A(x,t) + iB(x,t)
where, A is real part and B is the imaginary part.
Its complex conjugate is *(x.t) = A(x,t) - iB(x,t)
If dV = dx dy dz is an infinitesimally small volume element surrounding point (x,y,z) the
probability of finding the particle in that volume element is given by -
* = A2 – i2B2 = A2 + B2 = ||2
And the product * = A2 – i2B2 = A2 + B2 = ||2 gives the probability of finding the
particle at (x,y,z) at time (t).
If particle exists, probability of finding the particle somewhere in the space must be unity.


   * dxdydz = 1
−

This condition is called as normalization condition. The wavefunction is normalized. It means, it

satisfies this condition.
The wave function is required to fulfill the following conditions –
1.  must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
ψ ψ
2. Its derivative, or must also be finite, continuous and single valued
x t
everywhere.

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3.  must have atleast some physically acceptable solutions.
4.  must obey the principle of linear superposition i.e.  can anytime be expressed as a
linear combination of two wavefunctions say
 (x,t) = A1(x,t) + B2(x,t)
However, except condition 4, a particular condition may not be satisfied for a certain application.

SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION
It is an equation which describes the behaviour of the wave function associated with microscopic
particles.

In 1926, Schrodinger developed a rigorous mathematical theory using De Broglie’s idea of

matter waves. This theory is known as ‘Wave Mechanics’. The essential feature of this theory is
that it incorporates the expression for De Broglie wavelength into the general classical equation
derived for a moving particle is known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.

Derivation of Schrodinger’s Time Independent Wave Equation (STIE):

According to the De Broglie theory, a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ is associated
h
with a wave of wavelength λ = . Though, we do not know, what it is that vibrates, this
mv
vibration is represented by ‘’, the periodic changes which are responsible for
h
λ = (1)
mv
The wave equation of stationary wave associated with the particle in terms of Cartesian co-
ordinate system at any instant is given by –
ψ = ψ0 sin ωt

ψ = ψ0 sin 2π t (2)

Where o is the amplitude at the point under consideration which is a function of x, y, z and  (
is frequency of vibration).

The classical differential equation of wave motion can be written as –

 2ψ 2  ψ +
2  2ψ  2ψ 
= v  + 
t 2  x 2 y 2
z 2 
 
 2ψ
=
t 2

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In one dimensional case we can write –

 2ψ 2  ψ
2
= v (4)
t 2 x 2
Differentiating equation (2)
ψ
= ψ 0 2π cos 2πt -------------------------------------- (5)
t

Differentiating it further –
 2ψ
= - ψ 0 4π2 2 sin 2πt
t 2

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 Quantum Physics

 2ψ
= - 4π2 υ2 ψ (6)
t 2

velocity (v)
Also, frequency () =
wavelength ()
Equation (6) becomes) –
 2ψ 4π2 v2
= - ψ (7)
t 2 2
From equation (4) and (7) we get –
2  ψ 4π2 v2
2
v = - ψ
x2 2
 2ψ 4π2
 + ψ = 0 ---------------------------------------- (8)
x2 2
h
Now, we will introduce wave mechanical concept by replacing  by from De Broglie
mv
theory. Thus equation (8) becomes –
 2ψ 4π 2 m 2 v2
 + ψ = 0 ------------------------------------- (9)
x 2 h2
The total energy of electron E is given by the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy.

i.e. E = K.E. + P.E.

1
 E = mv2 + V
2
 mv2 = 2 (E - V)
 m2 v2 = 2 ------------------------------------- (10)
m (E - V)
Substituting (10) in (9) we get –
 2ψ + 8π2m

x 2 h2 (E - V) ψ = 0
h
If ħ= it becomes
2π

This equation (11) is known as one dimensional Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation. This
is also termed as Schrodinger’s fundamental wave equation with respect to space.

This equation is independent of time and gives a steady value. It is particularly useful when the
energy of the particle is very small as compared to its rest energy. In most atomic problems,
energy of the particle is very small when compared to rest energy.

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Derivation Of Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Wave Equation (STDE)

Let us consider a free particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in one dimension. Let ‘p’ be
the momentum and ‘E’ be the energy of the particle. By the term free particle, it means that no
forces are acting on it and its total energy E is entirely kinetic energy.

This moving particle is associated with De Broglie waves which have wavelength  and
frequency . These are related as –

----------------------------------------- (2a)

----------------------------------------- (2b)

2π
Where k = represents the propagation constant and  = 2 represents angular
λ
frequency of the waves.

From equation (1) and (2) we get –

ħ2
ħω = k2 (3)
2m

Now, a wave equation is needed which will describe these traveling waves. This wave equation
will also involve equation (3) in it. Further the function should be harmonic one, because such
functions can be superimposed, thereby giving a wave packet which will represent a particle. It
means that it must be sine, cosine or exponential function of (kx – wt). Let Such function is
ψ = A ei(kx - wt) .

Now,

And,

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 Quantum Physics

If we include the effect of forces acting on the particle i.e. when the particle is not free, the
potential energy of the particle is V.

Now, total energy of the particle is

p2
E = + V
2m
If we represent these as operators

And operator on wave function , then we can write –

This equation (1.6.7) represents the Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Equation (STDE).

Physical significance of STIE and STDE is that it is used to find the allowed energy levels of
quantum mechanical systems. The associated wave function gives the probability of finding
position of the particle. As Newton’s laws predict the future behavior of a dynamic system in
classical mechanics, Schrodinger’s equations are used to predict future behavior in quantum
mechanics.

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PARTICLE (ELECTRON) IN AN INFINITE POTENTIAL BOX

a
The particle is free to move within the walls from − to +
a
as there is no potential in that
2 2
region.
At boundaries, potential is . Therefore, the particle can neither cross these boundaries nor it can
a
be located at x =  .
2
a a
 and its derivatives are finite, continuous and single valued within −  x  + but it is
2 2
discontinuous at boundaries and does not exist outside the boundaries.

Only real part solution is required as the particle must be present somewhere within the well
(box).

Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation is –

d2 (x)
+ V(x)  (x) = E (x) --------------------------------- (1)
dx 2
a a
for region between −  x + ; V=0
2 2
 d2 (x) = E
(x)
dx 2
d2 (x) 2mE
 2
+  (x) = 0 --------------------------------- (2)
dx 2

Real solution of the above equation is given by –

a a
 =  sin kx  cos kx ; −  x  +
+ 2 2 --------------------------------- (3)
a
; x 
= 0 2
At the boundaries, (x) = 0.

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a ka
  (x = - ) = -  sin +  cos ka = 0 --------------------------------- (4)
2 2 2
a ka
  (x = + ) =  sin +  cos ka = 0 --------------------------------- (5)
2 2 2
Adding two equations (4) and (5),

ka
2 B cos = 0
2
n
 kn = ; n = 1, 3, 5, ......... ---------------------- (6)
a
Subtracting (1.7.5) from (1.7.4),
ka
2 B sin = 0
2
n
 kn = ; n = 2, 4, 6, ......... ---------------------- (7)
a
Now, momentum of the particle is given by –

;n = 1, 2, 3, ............ ------ (8)

Energy of the particle is given by –

Thus, energy of the particle in infinite potential well (Box) is quantized.

1. An electron is bound in a one-dimensional potential well of width 2 A0 and of infinite height. Find its
energy values in ground state and first two excited states.
Given : m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, a = 2 × 10−10m
h = 6.63 × 10−34, E0, E1 , E2 =?
n2h2
E=
8 m a2
For ground state, n = 1, E = E0
n2h2 12 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E0 = = = 1.5 × 10−18J
8ma 2
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10)2
For first excited state, n = 2, E = E1
n2h2 22 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E1 = = = 6 × 10−18J
8 m a2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10)2
For second excited state, n = 3, E = E2
n2h2 32 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E2 = = = 1.35 × 10−17J
8 m a2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10)2

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2. An electron is trapped in a one-dimensional box of length 0.1 nm. Calculate the energy required to excite
the electron from its ground state to the 4th excited state.
Given : m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, a = 0.1 × 10−9m
h = 6.63 × 10−34, E4 − E0 =?
n2h2
E=
8 m a2
For ground state, n = 1, E = E0
n2h2 12 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E0 = = = 6.04 × 10−18J
8 m a2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (0.1 × 10−9)2
For fourth excited state, n = 5, E = E4
n2h2 5 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E4 = = = 1.51 × 10−16J
8ma 2
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (0.1 × 10−9)2
E4 − E0 = 1.51 × 10−16 − 6.04 × 10−18 = 1.45 × 10−16J
1.45 × 10−16
= = 906.25 eV
1.6 × 10−19
3. An electron is bound by a potential which closely approaches an infinite square well of width 2.5 x 10-10
m. Calculate the first lowest permissible energy for the electron.
Given : m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, a = 2.5 × 10−10 m
h = 6.63 × 10−34, For lowest permissible Energy level, E = E1and n = 2
n2h2
E=
8 m a2
For lowest permissible Energy level, n = 2, E = E1
n2h2 22 × (6.63 × 10−34)2
∴ E1 = = = 3.864 × 10−18J
8 m a2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2.5 × 10−10 )2

Applications of Quantum Physics

• Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant.
Quantum tunnelling is vital in many electronic devices, being the basis for transistor
operation. Flash memory chips, found in USB drives, use quantum tunnelling to erase their
memory cells.
• The MRI scanner has powerful magnets, which cause the protons of hydrogen atoms in
water to align. The signal given off by the protons is processed and used to build up a
picture.
• Laser’s work using the quantum phenomenon known as stimulated emission.
• Quantum dots are tiny particles of a semiconductor material, with a width of about 50 atoms.
By controlling the size of the dot, the light it emits or absorbs can be very precisely
controlled.
o Lighting Solar cells Light detectors Security marking
• light-sensing devices used in Modern digital cameras and solar cell
• One of the ultimate applications will be nanotechnology. At nano scale, the quantum effect
is dominant.

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 Quantum Physics

Quantum Computing

Quantum computing means developing a computer that uses quantum mechanical phenomena to
perform operations on data through devices such as superposition and entanglement.

Quantum superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. It states that, much

like waves in classical physics, any two (or more) quantum states can be added together
("superposed") and the result will be another valid quantum state.

Quantum entanglement is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which the quantum states of

two or more objects have to be described with reference to each other, even though the
individual objects may be spatially separated. This leads to correlations between observable
physical properties of the systems. For example, it is possible to prepare two particles in a single
quantum state such that when one is observed to be spin-up, the other one will always be
observed to be spin-down and vice versa, this despite the fact that it is impossible to predict,
according to quantum mechanics, which set of measurements will be observed. As a result,
measurements performed on one system seem to be instantaneously influencing other systems
entangled with it.

Quantum computing uses the power of atoms and molecules to perform memory and processing
tasks.

Quantum computing uses quantum bits or qubits which can either take value 0 or 1 or both
simultaneously.

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>.
A single bit of this form is known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited
state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

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Advantages of Quantum Computing

• The main advantage of quantum computing is it can execute any task very fast when
compared to the classical computer. So, a very high speed can be achieved.
• In quantum computing qubit is the conventional superposition state and so there is an
advantage of exponential speedup which is resulted by handling number of calculations.
• The other advantage of quantum computing is even classical algorithm calculations are
also performed easily which is similar to the classical computer.
• The size of quantum computers will be very small compared to classical computers and
power consumption will also be very less.
Disadvantages of Quantum Computing:
• The main disadvantage of computing is that the technology required to implement a
quantum computer is not available at present. The reason for this is the consistent
electron is damaged as soon as it is affected by its environment and that electron is very
much essential for the functioning of quantum computers.
• The research on this problem is still going on and requires time, efforts and high cost.

Classical Computer Quantum Computer

1 It is large scale integrated multi-purpose It is high speed parallel computer based on

computer. quantum mechanics.

2 Information storage is bit based on voltage Information storage is Quantum bit based
or charge etc. on direction of an electron spin.

3 Information processing is carried out by Information processing is carried out by

logic gates e.g. NOT, AND, OR etc. Quantum logic gates.

4 Circuit behaviour is governed by classical Circuit behaviour is governed explicitly by

physics. quantum mechanics.

5 Classical computers use binary codes i.e. Quantum computers use Qubits i.e. 0, 1
bits 0 or 1 to represent information. and both of them simultaneously to run
machines faster.

6 Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear algebra

Algebra. over Hilbert Space and can be represented
by unitary matrices with complex elements.

7 No restrictions exist on copying or Severe restrictions exist on copying and

measuring signals measuring signals

8 Circuits are easily implemented in fast, Circuits must use microscopic technologies
scalable and macroscopic technologies that are slow, fragile and not yet scalable
such as CMOS. e.g. NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance).

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