Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies

17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Journal Homepage: jast.hho.msu.edu.tr

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Development of a Stabilizing Adaptive Feedback Control System for

Helicopter Gun Turrets
Helikopter Silah Kulesinin Dengelenmesi için Uyarlamalı Geri Beslemeli
Kontrol Sistemi Geliştirilmesi
Mustafa Tolga Yavuz1* , Caglar Uyulan2 , Ibrahim Ozkol3
1 Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Department of Aeronautics
Engineering, 34467 Istanbul, Türkiye
2 Izmir Katip Celebi University, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Department of Mechanical

Engineering 35620 Izmir, Türkiye

3 Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Department of Aeronautics

Engineering, 34467 Istanbul, Türkiye

Received: January 21, 2024 Revised: February 21, 2024 Accepted: March 13, 2024

Abstract Özet
This study introduces a stabilizing controller Bu çalışmada, uyarlamalı geri adımlama kontrolü
design for a helicopter gun turret system using an kullanarak bir helikopter silah kulesi sistemi için
adaptive backstepping control approach. To stabil bir kontrolör tasarımı önermektedir. Silah
model the gun turret system, a two-degree-of- kulesi sisteminin modellenmesinde, silahın nişan
freedom manipulator dynamics is employed, alma sisteminin doğru bir şekilde kontrol
which enables precise control over the weapon edilmesini sağlayan iki serbestlik dereceli bir
pointing mechanism. The proposed controller manipülatör dinamiği kullanılmaktadır. Önerilen
design utilizes an adaptive backstepping control kontrolör tasarımı, ateşleme ve operasyonel
strategy to ensure system stability and robustness koşullar gibi bozucu faktörlere karşı sistem
against disturbances such as firing and other stabilitesini ve gürbüzlüğünü garanti altına almak
operational conditions. Additionally, the design için uyarlamalı geri adımlama kontrol stratejisini
includes an advanced feedback mechanism that kullanmaktadır. Benzetim sonuçları, kontrolörün
dynamically adjusts to changes in the helicopter's etkinliğini göstermekte ve silah kulesi sisteminin
flight dynamics, further enhancing control stabil ve hassas kontrolünü sağlamaktadır.
accuracy. Simulation results show the efficacy of Çalışma, helikopter silah kulesi sistemlerinin
the controller, achieving stable and precise performansını artırmak için basitleştirilmiş bir
control of the gun turret system. The study offers model sunmakta ve bu modelin askeri kara ve
a simplified model to enhance the performance of deniz araçlarında potansiyel uygulamaları
helicopter gun turret systems, with potential bulunmaktadır. Önerilen kontrolör tasarımı, silah
applications in military ground and naval vehicles. kulesi sisteminin hassasiyetini ve stabilitesini
The proposed controller design is a promising artırarak daha güvenli ve verimli savunma
solution to improve the precision and stability of sistemlerine katkıda bulunan bir çözümdür.
the gun turret system, contributing to safer and
more efficient defense systems.

Keywords: Adaptive Backstepping Control, Attack Anahtar Kelimeler: Uyarlamalı Geri Adımlı
Helicopter, Gun-Turret System, Robot Kontrol, Saldırı Helikopteri, Silah Kule Sistemi,
Manipulator, State-Augmented Controller Robot Manipülatörü, Durum Artırılmış Kontrolör

*Corresponding Author
E-mail: [email protected]
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the evolution of sophisticated weapon systems has become increasingly
pivotal in the realm of national security. Central to these advancements is the attack
helicopter, which is outfitted with a gun turret system. This system is integral in
efficiently neutralizing potential enemy targets and effectively responding to enemy
threats during flight, as illustrated in Figure 1. The gun turret endows the helicopter
with the capability to target and engage enemies precisely, significantly enhancing the
probability of successful missions while concurrently minimizing unintended collateral
damage.
However, the effective operation of the gun turret system is often challenged by various
disturbances and uncertainties that are inherent in aerial environments. For instance,
factors such as mechanical vibrations at the moment of firing, wind gusts, and
atmospheric turbulence can substantially impact the stability and accuracy of the gun
turret system. These disturbances are often revealed as swaying or wobbling motions of
the turret, which can severely restrict the gunner's ability to aim and fire with precision.
The impact of these external factors is vividly demonstrated in the FLIR camera images
shown in Figure 2, where the motion of the gun barrel can be observed. This scenario
underscores the necessity for a meticulously designed stabilizing controller. Such a
controller would not only minimize the effects of these disturbances but also
substantially enhance the accuracy and overall effectiveness of the gun turret system. By
integrating advanced control algorithms and adaptive feedback approaches, this
proposed controller design aims to maintain the stability of the gun turret, ensuring
more accurate targeting even under the most challenging flight conditions. This control
approach is poised to make a significant contribution to the field of military technology,
offering enhanced operational capability and effectiveness of smart defense systems.

Figure 1. Probable opportunity targets and threats en route.

136
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

The helicopter's gun turret, conceptualized as a robotic manipulator arm, seeks to

replicate this by precisely controlling the elevation and azimuth angles, a mechanism
depicted in Figure 3. However, achieving such control presents significant challenges. It
requires the implementation of sophisticated control algorithms capable of dynamically
adjusting the gun turret’s position in real-time. These adjustments are essential to
counteract disturbances from the helicopter’s movements or environmental factors, as
well as to compensate for any changes in the target's position. Despite the inherent
challenges, ongoing research in this field is continuously pushing the boundaries of what
is possible in control system design. Researchers and engineers are working
continuously to refine existing methods and develop innovative new approaches to
control smart military systems. The advancements in this area not only promise to
modernize smart military defense systems but also have potential applications in other
fields that require high precision and stability under dynamic conditions. Therefore, the
enhancement of gun turret systems in modern warfare has seen a significant shift
towards integrating cutting-edge technologies and sophisticated control strategies in
recent years.

Figure 2. Helicopter’s gun turret system and infrared camera image [1].

On the other hand, the derivation of mathematical models for these gun turret systems is
an intricate process that involves considering inter-axis dynamics and the nonlinear
coupling between axes of the gun turret system modeled as a robotic manipulator. These
models are essential for developing control strategies that can accurately compensate
for uncertainties and handle constraints inherent in the system. Furthermore, the
effectiveness of these advanced control strategies can be rigorously tested through
simulation tests. These simulations provide valuable insights into the performance and
reliability of the control approaches under various operational conditions. Moreover, the
advancement of automatic targeting systems that rely solely on visual information
represents an innovative step in smart weapons technology. Meanwhile, recent
advancements in gun turret system control and automation have introduced robotic
137
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

formulations, optimal and MPC-based controllers, and intelligent algorithms, enhancing

performance, accuracy, and safety. These innovations leverage machine learning, deep
learning, and fuzzy logic to improve response times and target tracking while addressing
environmental constraints and uncertainties [2-8]. Such progress promises significant
advancements in military technology, offering sophisticated solutions for automatic
weapon pointing and platform systems across various operational scenarios.
In the realm of modeling gun turret systems with robotic formulations, the application
of adaptive control algorithms has demonstrated significant potential in enhancing
system performance among various control approaches. These sophisticated algorithms
are specifically designed to address the challenges posed by the dynamic of gun turret
operations. One key aspect of these algorithms is the adaptive control of robotic
manipulators. This approach is focused on managing model uncertainties and input
disturbances, which are common issues in the real-world operation of gun turrets. By
adapting to these uncertainties, the control system maintains high precision and
stability in the manipulator's movements, ensuring accurate targeting as
aforementioned. Similarly, stability analysis and the design of robust-adaptive sliding
mode control represent another critical area of focus. Sliding mode control is known for
its robustness against system variations and external disturbances such as vibration and
gust. When combined with adaptive strategies, it provides a double layer of safety,
ensuring that the system remains stable even under highly unpredictable conditions.
Additionally, adaptive backstepping control, particularly when based on combined state
augmentation, is explored to handle uncertainties in both dynamics and kinematics, as
well as unknown high-frequency gain. This method is especially valuable for dealing
with complex, nonlinear aspects of gun turret systems, allowing for precise control even
when facing unanticipated changes in system behavior. The primary goal of these
studies is to refine adaptive control for robotic systems, enhancing tracking and
stabilization through innovations like parameter-adaptive controls, PD feedback with
dynamic compensation, and linear adaptive controllers [9-19]. These strategies are not
just about maintaining control but also about advancing the control system to new levels
of sophistication and effectiveness. By continually refining these adaptive control
algorithms, researchers and engineers aim to enhance the operational capabilities of gun
turret systems, ensuring they can perform optimally in a wide range of scenarios, from
standard operations to high-intensity combat situations. This ongoing development is
essential for the advancement of smart military technology, where precision, reliability,
and adaptability are key criteria for successful outcomes.
The primary objective of this study is to develop a state-augmented adaptive back-
stepping controller for the gun turret system shown in Figure 4, utilizing mathematical
expressions akin to those for robotic manipulators. This novel controller design is an
integration of adaptive control and feedback linearization techniques, each playing a
critical role in enhancing the system's performance and stability. Also, feedback
linearization stands at the forefront of this approach. It is employed to transform the
inherently nonlinear dynamics of the gun turret system into a linearized framework.
This transformation is fundamental as it allows the application of conventional control

138
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

techniques, which are typically more straightforward and well-understood, to the

system. On the other hand, linearization alone is not sufficient to handle all the
complexities of the gun turret system. This is where adaptive control comes into play in
control system design. It is seamlessly integrated into the control framework to
compensate for uncertainties and disturbances that the linearized model does not
account for. These uncertainties might include variations in system parameters or
external disturbances like wind gusts and mechanical vibrations, which are
commonplace in real-world scenarios.
To control complex systems characterized by high-order dynamics, the state-augmented
adaptive back-stepping controller is particularly suited. The essence of this approach
lies in augmenting the system state with additional variables, which are designed to
capture the dynamics of the system that are not directly measured or observed. By
incorporating these additional state variables into the controller design, it becomes
possible to significantly enhance the overall performance and stability of the gun turret
system. The effectiveness of this controller is rigorously tested through comprehensive
simulation studies, as illustrated in Figure 6. These simulations are designed to assess
the controller's ability to stabilize the gun turret system under a variety of disturbance
scenarios, particularly focusing on the challenges in controlling elevation and azimuth
angles. The simulations provide a critical evaluation of the controller's performance,
showcasing its potential to maintain stability and precision under dynamic and
uncertain conditions. Briefly, this research contributes to the field of control systems by
offering a sophisticated solution to one of the more challenging problems in modern
robotics and defense technology.

139
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Figure 3. Elevation and azimuth angles of the gun turret system.

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
To thoroughly analyze the dynamics of a helicopter gun turret system and develop an
effective control strategy, the fundamental task of deriving dynamic equations is of
paramount importance as these equations are essential for accurately predicting system
behavior and designing controllers. As shown in Figure 4, one of the critical components
of the weapons pointing system is the gun turret, which can be aptly represented using
established procedures for modeling robotic systems. This mathematical modeling
involves a detailed examination of the gun turret's kinematics and dynamics, akin to
those found in robotic manipulator arms, to accurately capture its motion
characteristics. The process begins by identifying and defining the turret's degrees of
freedom, which typically include rotational movements such as elevation and azimuth
angles. These angles play a crucial role in determining the turret's orientation and
targeting direction.

Figure 4. Coordinate frames of the simplified gun turret system.

To effectively represent a gun turret’s movement and pointing path, a three-dimensional

vector is essential, which captures the spatial orientation and positioning of the turret's
barrel to its target. For a more comprehensive analysis, the gun turret system is
modeled as a two-link manipulator, akin to a simplified robotic arm. This simplified
model allows for a detailed examination of the turret's mechanics, facilitating the design
of a responsive and precise control system. The process of establishing the kinematic
and dynamic models for this system closely follows conventional procedures used in
robot dynamic analysis. These procedures are fundamental for accurately representing
the spherical structure of the gun turret, which is essential for understanding its range
of motion and capabilities. The kinematic model addresses the geometrical aspects of
the turret's movement, including its position, velocity, and acceleration in three-
dimensional space. This model is particularly important for predicting the turret’s
behavior and understanding how its different parts move to each other and the
140
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

helicopter. On the other hand, the dynamic model delves into the forces and torques
acting on the gun turret system. It considers aspects such as inertia, friction, and
external disturbances, providing a more complete picture of the system’s behavior
under various conditions.
A key step in this process is assigning a joint coordinate system to the gun turret system
by utilizing the Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) method, which simplifies the analysis and
control of its movement. Using this coordinate system in the gun turret, the D-H
parameters are presented in Table 1. As known, the D-H table is a standardized way to
represent the kinematic chain of a robotic manipulator, providing a systematic method
to describe the relative positions and orientations of the links and joints in the
manipulator arm [22]. The table leads to the formulation of three one-step
homogeneous transformation matrices. These transformation matrices are fundamental
in robot kinematics, allowing for the transformation of coordinates from one joint to the
next in the manipulator chain. They play a crucial role in calculating the position and
orientation of the gun turret in space, enabling precise targeting and efficient control.

Table 1. D-H parameters of the gun turret system.

Link # 𝐚𝐢 𝐝𝐢 𝛂𝐢 𝛉𝐢

1 0 0.698 −𝜋/2 q1 = Ω

2 0 0 𝜋/2 q2 = ψ

Tip 0 1.841 0 0

In the mathematical modeling of the helicopter gun turret system, the angles of rotation
are denoted as q1 and q2, representing two essential rotational movements of the turret
mechanism. The angle q1 corresponds to the "waist" rotation, which is the rotation
between the helicopter's hull and the base of the turret. This rotation allows the turret
to rotate horizontally (waist rotation), providing a range of motion in azimuth. On the
other hand, q2 represents the "shoulder" rotation, which occurs between the gun tube
and the turret table. This rotation enables the tip of the turret to move vertically,
adjusting the elevation angle of the gun tube. Additionally, the length of the gun tube is
denoted as d3. This length is another parameter as it influences the positioning of the
gun tube's end-point, affecting the overall geometry of the system.
To understand the spatial positioning and orientation of the gun tube's tip point, which
is critical for targeting accuracy, the position vector and orientation matrix are derived
from the base frame of the turret system (Link-0: Hull). The base frame serves as a
reference point for all movements and rotations of the turret system. The mathematical
representation of this relationship is encapsulated in an equation, typically denoted as
Equation 1 in the context of helicopter gun turrets. This equation integrates the D-H
parameters q1, q2, and d3 and utilizes the principles of robotic kinematics to express the
141
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

position and orientation of the gun tube's end-point (the origin of frame 3) to the base
frame. This kinematic equation is fundamental in the control and operation of the gun
turret system. By accurately modeling the relationship between these rotational
movements and the position of the gun tube, the equation enables precise aiming and
maneuvering of the turret, ensuring effective engagement with targets. This is
particularly vital in dynamic environments where both the helicopter and targets may
be moving, requiring constant adjustments of the gun turret for accurate targeting.


c ( q1 ) c ( q2 ) −s ( q1 ) c ( q1 ) s ( q2 ) d3 c ( q1 ) s ( q2 )
 
c
T0 = 
3 ( q2 ) s ( q1 ) c ( q1 ) s ( q1 ) s ( q2 ) d3s ( q1 ) s ( q2 ) 
 (1)

 −s ( q2 ) 0 c ( q2 ) d1 + d3 c ( )
q2 
 
 0 0 0 1 

The significance of the transformation matrix, as detailed in Equation 1 in the context of

the helicopter gun turret system, cannot be overstated as mentioned above. This matrix
plays a pivotal role in understanding and controlling the spatial positioning of the gun
turret's tip point, which is crucial for accurate targeting. In the context of robotic
kinematics and the modeling of the gun turret system, the transformation matrix
provides a comprehensive representation of the relationship between different parts
(links) of the turret. Specifically, the position vector of the tip point relative to the base
frame of the turret system is embedded in the 4th column of this transformation matrix.
This column precisely indicates the tip point's position in three-dimensional space,
taking into account the rotations and translations that occur within the turret
mechanism. The 4th column effectively captures the x, y, and z coordinates (or the
respective equivalent in the specific coordinate system being used) of the tip point,
relative to the base frame. Briefly, this transformation is essential for understanding
where the gun tube is pointing at any given moment, which is critical for the operation
of the turret in real-world scenarios.
Meanwhile, utilizing analytical calculation techniques, joint trajectories can be deduced
as described in Equation 2. This equation deals with the motion planning aspect of the
gun turret system, which enables the determination of the required rotational angles at
the turret's joints (i.e., the 'waist' and 'shoulder' rotations) to achieve a desired position
and orientation of the gun tube's tip point. Joint trajectories are vital for the control
system of the turret system, as they dictate the precise movements needed to align the
gun tube with a target at the moment of firing. By calculating these trajectories, the
control system can direct the turret to move in a specific manner, ensuring that the tip
point reaches the desired position and orientation to engage targets accurately. The
analytical equations expressing joint trajectories can be given as:

142
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

T03 (1,4 ) = p0,3 x = d3c ( q1 ) s ( q2 )

T03 ( 2,4 ) = p0,3 y = d3 s ( q1 ) s ( q2 )
T03 ( 3,4 ) = p0,3 z = d1 + d3c ( q2 ) (2)
 p0,3 y   p0,3 z − d1 
q1 = a tan  , q = a cos 
 p0,3 x  2 
 d3 
   

The expressions being discussed in Equation 2 are known as analytical inverse

kinematics equations, which are fundamental in the field of robotics. These equations
are also crucial for the effective control of the gun turret system on a helicopter because
of its inverse kinematics. As known, inverse kinematics involves determining the
necessary joint trajectories (joint angles) of a robotic manipulator, in this case, the gun
turret, to achieve a specific position of the tip point, which is the gun tube's targeting
point. By utilizing the position vector of the tip point relative to the base (reference
frame), which is obtained from the transformation matrix as mentioned earlier, inverse
kinematics calculations enable the determination of the joint trajectories for the gun-
turret system.

Table 2. Dynamic parameters of the gun-turret system.

The dynamic equations of motion for a 2-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) robotic

manipulator are utilized to model the gun-turret system depicted in Figure 4. The use of
a 2-DOF manipulator model is demonstrative of the system’s complexity, encompassing
the rotational movements at the 'waist' and 'shoulder' of the turret system. To derive
these dynamic equations, the Lagrange-Euler dynamical formulation is employed. This
143
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

formulation is particularly advantageous as it allows for the derivation of dynamic

equations that are independent of the reference coordinate frame. This approach is
beneficial in providing a more generalized and versatile model of the gun turret's
dynamics, applicable under various operating conditions. Meanwhile, in the
mathematical modeling process, certain simplifications are made for practicality and
computational efficiency. One of the frequent simplifications in mechanical systems
involves excluding friction terms from the dynamic equations. While friction can play a
role in the real-world operation of the turret, excluding these terms in the model (as in
Equation 3) helps to simplify the equations and focus on the primary dynamics of the
system. This simplification is a standard practice in the initial modeling stages,
providing a clearer understanding of the system's fundamental behavior before
introducing more complex factors like friction in later refinements. In this case, the
dynamic equation is written as:

() ( )
M q q + C q, q q + G q = () (3)

where q ∈ Rn = [q1 q 2 ]T , q̇ ∈ Rn = [q̇ 1 q̇ 2 ]T, q̈ ∈ Rn = [q̈ 1 q̈ 2 ]T are the angular position

vector, angular velocity vector, and angular acceleration vector of joint variables,
respectively. M (q) denotes the manipulator's inertia matrix and is consistently positive
definite. C (q, q̇ ) is the matrix of the Coriolis and centrifugal forces, G (q) represents the
gravity vector, and τ is the torque vector. Each part (link) of the gun-turret system is
rotary and the dynamic model is derived for this simplified 2-DOF robotic system. The
gun turret's geometrical and dynamical parameters are provided in Table 2.

In the context of the dynamic modeling of the gun turret system, the evaluation of the
derived matrices is a critical step in determining the joint torques required for the
motion of the turret. This is essential for understanding the required forces to drive the
turret's movements and achieve the desired positioning and targeting. Once the dynamic
equations, encapsulated in the previously mentioned dynamic equation of motion, are
established using the Lagrange-Euler formulation, the next step involves evaluating this
equation. Meanwhile, this process typically involves substituting specific values for the
system parameters, such as the mass distribution of the turret, length of the gun tube,
and moments of inertia, into the derived equations. The outcome of this evaluation is the
determination of the joint torques expressed in Equation 4. After evaluating these
matrices, the joint torques were determined by employing the following terms:

144
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

 m1 m2   c c2  0
M = , C =  1 , G =  
 m3 m4  c3 0  0

m1 = I yy1 + I zz3c ( q2 ) + I xx3 s ( q2 ) + d g23m3 − d g23m3c ( q2 ) − 2I xz3c ( q2 ) s ( q2 ) + 1

2 2 2

m2 = I yz3c ( q2 ) − I xy3 s ( q2 )
m3 = I yz3c ( q2 ) − I xy3s ( q2 )
m4 = m3d g23 + I yy3 + 1
(4)
3. ADAPTIVE CONTROLLER DESIGN
The development of a state-augmented adaptive backstepping control represents a
sophisticated approach to managing the complexities of systems characterized by high-
order dynamics. As known, this control strategy hinges on the use of additional state
variables, which are specifically chosen to enhance both the performance and stability of
the system. The correct selection of these additional variables is a critical aspect of the
controller design, requiring an in-depth understanding of the system's dynamics to
ensure the overall stability of the system.
Another fundamental component of this control strategy is the design of adaptive laws.
These laws play a crucial role in updating the controller parameters in real time, which
is essential for maintaining the stability and effectiveness of the control system under
varying operating conditions. The design process of these adaptive laws involves a
comprehensive analysis of the closed-loop system's stability, ensuring that the
controller remains robust and reliable across different scenarios. While the state-
augmented adaptive backstepping control strategy offers significant benefits over
traditional control methods, in terms of handling complex systems and providing
enhanced performance and stability, it does come with its challenges. One notable
challenge is the computational intensity of this control approach. Also, the system's
performance is sensitive to the selection of adaptation gains, making the tuning of these
gains critical.
In the practical design of the controller, the system equations are divided into three
distinct subsystems. For each of these subsystems, a virtual control signal is defined.
This definition is based on the principles of a Lyapunov function, which is a
mathematical tool used to assert and ensure the stability of a dynamic system. The
application of the Lyapunov theorem provides a solid foundation for formulating the
control signal in a manner that guarantees the stability of the closed-loop system. In
light of this, the controller design is further refined by introducing a new Lyapunov
function and deriving an adaptation law from it. This step marks an expansion in the
adaptive capabilities of the state-augmented backstepping controller. It allows the
controller to dynamically adjust to changes in the system's behavior and external
disturbances, thereby maintaining optimal performance and stability. This control
strategy, as investigated in multiple studies [14-18], represents an advancement in

145
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

control system design, especially for complex systems with high-order dynamics like
robot manipulators or helicopter gun turrets.
In the context of controller design, the error function equation denoted as Equation 5 is
integral to the feedback loop of the control system. It is used to continually adjust the
control actions, striving to reduce the error to zero, which would indicate that the
system is performing exactly as desired.

e = qd − q (5)

where 𝑒 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 represents the tracking error and 𝑞𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 represents the desired angular
position vector. The tracking error and its derivative are defined as two new variables
denoted by 𝑧1 , and 𝑧2 in Equation 6, respectively.

z1 = e, z1 = z2 = e = qd − q, z2 = e = qd − q (6)

𝑧̇2 is expanded based on Equation 3 and Equation 5 as in Equation 7

z2 = M −1 ( − +  ) ,  = Mqd + Cqd + G (7)

In control systems, particularly when dealing with complex dynamics like those of a
helicopter gun turret, the order of the system's equations plays a crucial role in
determining the control strategy. For a system with second-order dynamics, the state
equations describe how key variables such as position, velocity, or angle change over
time, typically involving second derivatives to time. To enhance the performance of such
a control system, especially under the presence of uncertainties or nonlinearities, a
method often employed is the introduction and augmentation of a new state into the
system's equations. This technique is also known as state augmentation, and it's
particularly advantageous in dealing with systems that exhibit uncertainties and require
robust stabilization.
The new state introduced is typically defined as a weighted integral of the error and
state variables such as in Equation 8. This approach allows for incorporating past
information about the system's performance (as captured by the error) and its current
state into the control process. By integrating these new state equations into the system's
dynamics, the control system gains an additional dimension of information, which can
be used to fine-tune the control actions. This leads to a more sophisticated control
strategy, enabling the system to adapt more effectively to changing conditions and
uncertainties.
t
x1 =   e (t ) dt, x2 = e (t ) , x3 = e (t ) (8)
0

So the new state equations are written as in Equation 9:

146
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

x1 =  x2 , x2 = x3 , x3 = M −1 ( − +  ) (9)

To recursively design the controller for the helicopter gun-turret system, the complex
system equations, as outlined in Equation 9, are decomposed into three subsystems.
This decomposition simplifies the overall control challenge by enabling focused
attention on specific dynamics within each subsystem. For the first subsystem, a
Lyapunov function, detailed in Equation 10, is established to ensure its stability. As
known, this function is a critical tool in control theory, used to demonstrate that the
system's stability is maintained over time. The recursive aspect of the design process
involves applying this stability-focused approach to each subsystem in turn, ensuring
that each layer of the system is individually stable and effectively controlled.

K
V1 ( x ) = 1 i x12 (10)
2

where 𝐾𝑖 is a positive gain vector. To stabilize the first subsystem, the derivative of the
Lyapunov function must be negative definite, as shown in Equation 11.

Ki
V1 ( x ) = x1 x1 = Ki x1 x2 (11)

Since 𝑥2 is considered a virtual control signal for the subsystem, Equation 11 is re-
written as 𝑉1̇ (𝑥) = −𝐾𝑖 𝑥1 2 , which is negative semi-definite. By defining the virtual
control, the first subsystem can be stabilized. Then, the Lyapunov function for the second
subsystem is considered as presented in Equation 12.

K
V2 ( x ) = 1 i x12 + 1  x22 (12)
2 2

Taking the derivative of the Lyapunov function leads to Equation 13:

Ki
V2 ( x ) = x1 x1 + x2 x2 = Ki x1 x2 + x2 x3 (13)


The virtual control signal denoted by 𝑥3 is defined as in Equation 14:

Ki
x3 = − x1 − K p x2 (14)


where 𝐾𝑝 is a positive gain vector.

Substituting Equation 14 into Equation 13, the derivative of the Lyapunov function can
be obtained as in Equation 15:

147
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

V2 ( x ) = − K p x22 (15)

The derivative of the Lyapunov function is negative semi-definite, leading to the

stabilization of the second subsystem. Finally, the actual control signal, 𝜏, is designed
based on the entire system equations presented in Equation 9. The Lyapunov function
and its derivative are introduced in Equation 16 as:
2
K  K 
V3 ( x ) = 1 i x12 + 1  x22 + 1  x3 + K p x2 + i x1 
2 2 2   
 
x1   M −1 ( − +  ) + K p x3 + Ki x2 
Ki
V3 ( x ) = Ki x1x2 + x2 x3 +  x3 + K p x2 +


 



(16)

The control signal vector represented as the torque values of the control surfaces are
defined in Equation 17 as:

  Ki 
 =  + M  K p x3 + Ki x2 + x2 + K d  x3 + K p x2 + x1  (17)


 



where 𝐾𝑑 represents a positive gain vector.

Substituting the control signal in Equation 17 into the derivative of the Lyapunov in
Equation 16 will result in Equation 18:
2
 Ki 
V3 ( x ) = − K p x22 − K d  x3 + K p x2 + x  0 (18)


 1 

The Lyapunov stability of the closed-loop system is effectively guaranteed by carefully

designing the adaptive control law, as detailed in Equation 18 [9-11, 20]. Meanwhile, one
of the significant challenges in control system design, particularly for dynamic systems
like helicopter gun turrets, is that dynamical system parameters are often not precisely
known and may vary over time. This variability can significantly impact the
effectiveness of the control system. To adeptly overcome this challenge, an adaptive
backstepping approach has been proposed in this study. This approach is particularly
tailored to handle the uncertainty associated with dynamical system parameters. In this
method, instead of relying on fixed parameter values, the parameters of the dynamical
system are treated as uncertain and are consequently replaced by their estimates, which
is a crucial step in enhancing the controller's ability to adapt to changes and
uncertainties in the system.

148
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

The state-augmented adaptive backstepping controller is developed by modifying the

initial control law expressed in Equation 17. In this modification, the vector of
parameters, denoted as “𝜃”, is not used in its direct form. Instead of using this vector, it
is replaced by its estimated counterpart, “𝜃̂”. This replacement is a key step to the
adaptive nature of the employed control strategy. By employing these parameter
estimates, the controller can dynamically adjust to changes and uncertainties in the
system parameters [21]. Hence, this adaptability is vital for maintaining the
performance and stability of the control system under varying operational conditions.
Additionally, to consolidate the theoretical foundation of this adaptive control approach,
a new Lyapunov function is stated in Equation 19. Meanwhile, the Lyapunov function in
this context serves a dual purpose. First, it provides a mathematical framework to
ensure the stability of the adaptive control system. Second, it facilitates the continuous
adjustment of the controller in response to the estimated parameters, ensuring that the
system remains stable and performs optimally despite the parameter uncertainties.

V4  x,ˆ  = V3 ( x ) + 1  2
  2

(19)

where 𝛾 is a positive gain. 𝜃̃ is regarded as an error of estimation 𝜃̃ = 𝜃 − 𝜃̂. By taking

the derivative of the Lyapunov function, the 𝑉4̇ (𝑥) is obtained in Equation 20 as:

2
 Ki   Ki  
V4 ( x ) = − K p x22 − Kd  x3 + K p x2 + x1  +  x3 + K p x2 + x1  M −1 − 1 ˆ


 

    
  

(20)

The parameter update law is introduced in Equation 21 as:

 Ki 
ˆ =  T M −1  x3 + K p x2 + x1  (21)

 


Substituting Equation 21 into Equation 20 will result in Equation 22:

2
 K 
V4 ( x ) = − K p x22 − K d  x3 + K p x2 + i x1  0 (22)


 

In summary, the combination of the adaptive backstepping approach with the state
augmentation and the new Lyapunov function forms a robust framework for dealing
with uncertainties in the dynamical system parameters of the gun-turret system.
149
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Introducing the adaptive control signal and the parameter update law is a pivotal step in
ensuring the stability of the closed-loop system in the helicopter gun-turret controller
design. Here, the adaptive control signal is a key component that dynamically adjusts the
control inputs based on the current state and estimated parameters of the system. This
adaptability is crucial for handling variations and uncertainties in the system's
dynamics, which are common in real-world scenarios. On the other hand, the parameter
update law complements this by continuously refining the estimates of the system
parameters.

The block diagram presented in Figure 5 effectively illustrates the overall structure and
workflow of the state-augmented adaptive control method. In this diagram, one can
expect to see how the various elements of the control system — including the state
augmentation, adaptive control signal, parameter update law, and feedback loop — are
integrated to form a cohesive and robust control strategy. Ultimately, this diagram likely
outlines the flow of information from the system's sensors to the controller, the
processing of this information through the adaptive control algorithm, the generation of
control signals, and the feedback mechanism that continuously feeds system
performance data back into the controller.
4. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The current study emphasizes the application of an adaptive backstepping feedback
control law, utilizing an imaginary robot model that represents a helicopter gun-turret
system. The primary goal is to rigorously assess the performance of this control system,
particularly focusing on its capability for quick convergence in response to initial
kinematic deviations and external dynamic disturbances. To accurately assess the
control system's performance, a simulation scenario is implemented. In this simulation,
the target trajectory for the gun barrel is defined as a semi-circle, as depicted in Figure 6.
This trajectory choice is not arbitrary but serves as a structured method to evaluate and
analyze the control system's efficiency and responsiveness. A task of the simulation
involves intentionally introducing a deviation in the gun barrel's actual pointing path
from its desired starting point. Such deviations, common in real-world scenarios where
systems might start from an offset position or encounter unexpected changes in their
operating environment, are not a result of system error but a deliberate alteration
designed to simulate initial kinematic deviation. In simulation, the key aspect being
evaluated is the system's ability to quickly and accurately converge the gun barrel's
pointing path back to the desired trajectory, despite the initial deviation. This
assessment provides valuable insights into the control system’s adaptability, precision,
and effectiveness in correcting deviations.

150
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Figure 5. The block diagram of the state-augmented adaptive controller.

The simulation results of the study provide insightful and promising outcomes
regarding the performance of the adaptive backstepping feedback control law applied to
the helicopter gun-turret system, which demonstrates the effectiveness of the control
strategy. A key finding from the simulation is that the gun-turret system, equipped with
adaptive backstepping control, is capable of swiftly aligning itself with the desired
trajectory. This rapid alignment is a critical factor in operational scenarios, particularly
in defense applications where response time can be a decisive factor. Moreover, the
system exhibits minimal steady-state error, indicating a high level of precision in
maintaining the target path once it is reached. This precision is also essential for
ensuring the effectiveness and reliability of the gun turret in accurately tracking and
engaging targets. Another significant finding from the simulation is the relationship
between the initial kinematic deviation and the system’s settling time. The results reveal
that decreasing the initial deviation from the desired trajectory leads to a corresponding
decrease in the settling time. This relationship highlights the adaptability of the control
system to different starting conditions, showcasing its capability to efficiently correct
deviations and stabilize the gun turret's path.
Furthermore, the transient response of the gun-turret system, which refers to the
system's behavior during the period of adjustment from the initial state to the steady
state, was noticeably enhanced by the implementation of the adaptive feedback law. The
improvement in transient responses is proof of the effectiveness of the adaptive
backstepping approach in handling dynamic changes and disturbances. This simulation
result is encouraging as it validates the proposed control strategy, demonstrating its
potential to enhance the performance and responsiveness of helicopter gun-turret
systems. Hence, the adaptive feedback law, with its ability to swiftly correct deviations
and stabilize the system with minimal error, proves to be a robust and reliable approach
for controlling complex, high-order dynamic systems in challenging conditions.

151
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Figure 6. Attack helicopter’s flight trajectory against enemy target.

When optimally tuning the controller parameters for the adaptive backstepping
feedback control system applied to the helicopter gun-turret system, it's essential to
consider specific criteria and constraints. These factors are vital in ensuring that the
controller not only meets the desired performance standards but also adheres to
practical and operational limitations. Here are some common criteria and constraints
that might be taken into account:
• The settling time of the joint trajectories should be limited by 0.5 seconds.
• The disturbances subjected to the azimuth and elevation angles should be
attenuated. The disturbances are given as a sinusoidal waveform whose functions
are sin(6πt) for azimuth angle, and 0.4 sin(6πt) elevation angle, respectively.
These disturbances are originated from the motion of the gun barrel in the firing
sequence, and the spatial acceleration of the helicopter body.
• The limits of the azimuth and elevation angles are [±45° ], and [0° − 60° ],
respecitvely.
• The saturation of the azimuth and elevation control torques are defined as ±20
kNm.
• The position of the target remains constant.
Under these constraints, the controller parameters are meticulously adjusted as follows:

1500 1000 500

Kp =   , Kd =   , Ki =   , = 5,  = 2 (23)
430  550   250

The proposed control approach for the helicopter gun-turret system has shown
promising results in terms of its responsiveness and accuracy, as evidenced by the
performance metrics. With settling times of approximately 0.73 seconds for the azimuth
152
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

and 0.57 seconds for the elevation angular displacement responses, the system
demonstrates a remarkable ability to quickly reach a stable state following a change in
command or disturbance. These swift settling times are vital in dynamic combat
situations where rapid target acquisition and repositioning are essential for effective
operation. Furthermore, the elimination of steady-state errors in both azimuth and
elevation responses is a noteworthy achievement of the controller.
Steady-state error is also a critical indicator of the long-term accuracy and stability of a
control system. Its absence in this simulation scenario reveals that the system can
maintain its target position with high precision over time, which is crucial for
applications requiring sustained targeting accuracy.
The root-mean-squared (RMS) errors for azimuth and elevation responses are 0.5577
and 0.5034, respectively. These low values of RMS error underscore the system's high
tracking accuracy. RMS error provides a measure of the average magnitude of the error,
and its minimal values, in this case, indicate that the system consistently maintains
proximity to the desired trajectory, even in the presence of external disturbances or
system variations. Additionally, the damping ratios for the azimuth and elevation
angular displacement error responses, approximately 0.0459 and 0.1394 respectively,
demonstrate the system’s proficient attenuation of disturbances. A damping ratio
measures oscillatory systems' ability to mitigate oscillations and return to equilibrium.
The relatively low damping ratios here suggest that the system effectively dampens out
any oscillatory tendencies, leading to smoother and more stable responses. This is
especially beneficial in ensuring the gun turret remains steady and does not overshoot
or oscillate around the target. Overall, these performance metrics not only validate the
effectiveness of the proposed control approach but also highlight its potential
applicability in advanced military systems where rapid, accurate, and stable control is
important. The combination of quick settling times, high tracking accuracy, and
successful disturbance attenuation establishes this control system as a noteworthy
advancement in the field of smart weapon systems.
Figures 7, 8, and 9 present a variety of plots, such as a projection of the actual and
desired trajectories in the base reference frame of the helicopter’s gun, an error function
of the trajectories over time, and joint torques as the input function over time. Of them,
the projection of actual and desired trajectories is crucial for demonstrating the effectiveness
of the control system. By displaying the actual trajectory of the gun turret against the
desired trajectory within the base reference frame of the helicopter’s gun, Figure 7
visually demonstrates how closely the system follows the intended path. The
comparison between these trajectories can reveal the accuracy and precision of the
control system.

153
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Figure 7. The gun turret’s actual and reference trajectories.

The error function of the trajectories over time shown in Figure 8 is essential for
understanding the control system's performance over time, which represents the
difference between the actual and desired trajectories, as a function of time. It is
particularly useful for evaluating how quickly the system corrects any deviations from
the desired path and how it handles dynamic changes or disturbances. Also, this
temporal view of the error allows for the assessment of the system’s responsiveness and
stability. Furthermore, joint torques shown as the input function over time in Figure 9
provide insights into the control actions taken by the system. This figure displays the
joint torques, which are the inputs to the gun turret, as a function of time. These torques
are essential for driving the turret's movements, and their analysis can reveal much
about the control strategy's effectiveness. By examining how these torques vary over
time, the responsiveness of the system to control commands and its ability to adapt to
changes in the desired trajectory or external disturbances can be assessed.

In the simulation of the adaptive backstepping control algorithm, the initial setup
involved simulating for one second using a fixed step size of 1e-4 seconds with the ode4
(Runge-Kutta) solver. This setup, with its high-resolution step size, ensured a detailed
and accurate representation of the system’s dynamics, allowing for a thorough analysis
of the control system’s response to various inputs and disturbances. To further optimize
performance, the study suggests changing the solver configuration to a variable-step
approach using the ode23tb (stiff/TR-BDF2) solver, with a maximum step size of 6e-4
seconds. The ode23tb solver is particularly well-suited for stiff systems, which are
common in dynamic and complex control environments like those of a helicopter gun
turret. A variable-step solver adjusts the step size dynamically based on the system’s
current state, providing a more efficient simulation. As known, this type of solver
154
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

increases the step size during less dynamic system states to reduce computational load,
and decreases it during more dynamic states to capture the system's behavior
accurately. This adaptive step sizing can lead to improved simulation efficiency without
compromising the accuracy or reliability of the results.
To rigorously evaluate and ensure the robustness of the control system, especially in the
face of parameter uncertainty, a comprehensive simulation was conducted on the
helicopter gun-turret system. In the simulation, all parameters of the gun turret system
were intentionally varied randomly within a range of ±10% between the real plant and
the model. This variation was designed to reflect real-world conditions where system
parameters can deviate due to factors like environmental influences, and operational
anomalies. The importance of this approach lies in its ability to simulate the control
system under conditions that closely resemble actual operational scenarios. In real-
world scenarios, it's rare for all system parameters to remain constant or perfectly
match their nominal values. Thus, assessing the system's performance under these
artificially introduced variations provides a more realistic picture of how the control
system would behave in practical situations. The simulation results revealed that the
system's convergence remained stable, unaffected by the parameter variations.
Consequently, the adaptive feedback control strategy applied to a helicopter gun-turret
system modeled as the imaginary robot model indeed showcases several advantageous
features, making it an effective solution for complex control scenarios. The assessment
of this strategy reveals key attributes essential for practical and efficient control
systems, especially in high-stakes applications like smart defense systems.
Firstly, the approach's decoupled formulation, which effectively eliminates the influence
of centrifugal and Coriolis forces, plays a pivotal role in enhancing the control system. By
isolating these dynamic terms in Equation 3, the control algorithm can focus directly on
the essential aspects of position and orientation control without the added complexity of
compensating for these forces. This results in a control system that is not only more
efficient in terms of computational resources but also more accurate, as it reduces
potential sources of error in the control process.
Secondly, the control system's ability to reject disturbances and exhibit robustness
against model parameter uncertainty is another critical feature. Operational conditions
are often unpredictable and exposed to various external influences affecting system
performance. The control strategy's inherent capacity to handle these disturbances and
uncertainties ensures reliable operation under a wide range of conditions.
Thirdly, the high precision in tracking the target trajectory is a standout feature of this
control system. In smart defense systems, where targeting accuracy can have significant
implications, the ability to precisely follow a designated trajectory is paramount. The
high level of accuracy of this control system in trajectory tracking reveals its potential
for integration into sophisticated defense technology, where precision is a non-
negotiable requirement.

155
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

Figure 8. Error function of the trajectories versus time.

Figure 9. Joint torques versus time.

156
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

To sum up, the simulation results affirm that the adaptive backstepping feedback control
law is a potent and viable strategy for controlling the weapon-pointing path of a
helicopter gun-turret system. Its combination of efficiency, robustness, disturbance
rejection, and high precision makes it an attractive option for complex control tasks,
particularly in the defense sector where these attributes are highly valued.

5. CONCLUSION
The primary aim of this study is to explore the application of robotics in the control of
weapon pointing systems, specifically concentrating on the functionality of a helicopter
gun turret. It also aims to develop a systematic approach to thoroughly investigate and
efficiently control the complex interactions and dynamic coupling between the azimuth
and elevation axes of the gun turret. This approach is crucial for achieving precise and
responsive control over the turret's movements. The utilization of an imaginary robot
model for formulating the control strategies of the turret system provides valuable
insights into the complex dynamics of the gun turret. Understanding these dynamics is
fundamental to developing an effective control system.
One of the key strategies employed in this study to enhance the control system's
performance is the reduction of the nonlinearity in the feedback control. This is achieved
by decomposing the robot's inertial matrix, a technique that simplifies the control
problem. The decomposition of the inertial matrix helps manage the system's complex
dynamics, leading to a control strategy that is not only simpler but also well-suited for
real-time implementation. Such a streamlined control system is essential for operational
scenarios where quick and accurate responses are critical. The study further advances
by employing a state-augmented adaptive backstepping control method. This method is
used both for simulation purposes and to demonstrate the practical effectiveness of the
approach. Adaptive backstepping is especially well-suited for systems with high levels of
uncertainty and nonlinearity, making it an ideal choice for controlling a helicopter gun
turret system.
Comprehensively, the study addresses the challenges associated with the control of gun
turrets, including system modeling, updating model parameters, and the design and
implementation of adaptive backstepping turret controllers in the face of disturbances
and parameter variations. The results of this study also demonstrate that the proposed
control system can effectively maintain the desired trajectory angle with negligible
steady-state error, even in the presence of gun-barrel disturbances. Additionally, the
system exhibits an acceptable settling time. Crucially, the proposed approach proves its
efficacy in controlling the helicopter gun turret drive, even under challenging conditions
of disturbances and parameter uncertainties.
Briefly, this study marks progress in weapon-pointing systems, paving the way for
numerous future research opportunities. Key areas for future exploration include the
development of advanced sampling techniques, which could enable more accurate
modeling of turret dynamics and improve overall model precision. Furthermore,
incorporating machine learning algorithms may also offer enhanced predictive
capabilities for system behavior under diverse conditions, leading to increased control
157
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

accuracy and scalability. The integration of the proposed control system with
autonomous pointing systems represents another exciting research direction, promising
a unified solution for targeting accuracy and autonomy. Additionally, advancements in
Human-Machine Interface (HMI) solutions could greatly enhance operational efficiency
and safety, ensuring seamless communication between operators and the turret system.
Investigating the scalability of the proposed control system could also extend its
application to various weapon systems and platforms across land and marine systems.

REFERENCES
[1] Eagle Dynamics: Digital Combat Simulator. AH 64D M230 Chain Gun Showcase (Sep.
21, 2021). Accessed: Jan 11, 2023. [Online Video]. Available: https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=Z5gZa1DWwW4.
[2] Y. -L. Gu, R. N. K. Loh, N. Coleman, and C. -F. Lin, "Control of Weapon Pointing Systems
Based on Robotic Formulation," in American Control Conference, Chicago, IL, USA,
1992, pp. 413-419.
[3] N. K. Loh and N. Coleman, "Microprocessor Controlled Optimal Helicopter Turret
Control System," in American Control Conference, Arlington, VA, USA, 1982, pp.
1088-1094.
[4] G. Kumar, P. Y. Tiwari, V. Marcopoli and M. V. Kothare, "A study of a gun-turret
assembly in an armored tank using model predictive control," in American Control
Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA, 2009, pp. 4848-4853.
[5] M. K. Anwar, A. Risnumawan, A. Darmawan, M. N. Tamara and D. S. Purnomo, "Deep
multilayer network for automatic targeting system of the gun turret," in
International Electronics Symposium on Engineering Technology and Applications
(IES-ETA), Surabaya, Indonesia, 2017, pp. 134-139.
[6] J. H. Tian, L. -F. Qian and X. -H. Yang, "Intelligent sliding mode control and application
to weapon pointing systems," in International Conference on Computer,
Mechatronics, Control and Electronic Engineering, Changchun, China, 2010, pp. 372-
375.
[7] C. F. Lin, J. Huang, N. Coleman, S. Banks, and M. Mattice, "Fuzzy Logic Enhanced
Control of Nonlinear Flexible Pointing Systems," in The First IEEE Regional
Conference on Aerospace Control Systems, Westlake Village, CA, USA, 1993, pp. 851-
855.
[8] A. M. Idris, K. Hudha, Z. A. Kadir and N. H. Amer, "Development of target tracking
control of the gun-turret system," in 10th Asian Control Conference (ASCC), Kota
Kinabalu, Malaysia, 2015, pp. 1-5.
[9] J. Craig, Ping Hsu, and S. Sastry, “Adaptive control of mechanical manipulators,” in
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, San Francisco, CA, USA,
1986, pp. 190-195.
[10] J. J. Craig, P. Hsu, and S. S. Sastry, Adaptive Control of Mechanical Manipulators,
International Journal of Robotics Research 6(2), 16-28 (1987).
[11] J. J. E. Slotine and W. Li, On the Adaptive Control of Robot Manipulators,
International Journal of Robotics Research 6(3), 49-59 (1987).

158
 M. T. Yavuz et. al / Journal of Aeronautics and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue) (2024) 135-159

[12] P. D. Nguyen, N. H. Nguyen, and H. T. Nguyen, Adaptive control for manipulators

with model uncertainty and input disturbance, International Journal of Dynamics
and Control 11, 2285-2294 (2023).
[13] C. Uyulan, Design and Stability Analysis of a Robust-Adaptive Sliding Mode
Control Applied on a Robot Arm with Flexible Links, Vibration 5(1), 1–19 (2021).
[14] N. Nikdel, M. A. Badamchizadeh, V. Azimirad, and M. A. Nazari, Adaptive
backstepping control for an N-degree of freedom robotic manipulator based on
Combined State Augmentation, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
44, 129–143 (2017).
[15] N. Nikdel and M. A. Badamchizadeh, Adaptive backstepping control for a 2-DOF
robot manipulator: A state augmentation approach, International Journal of
Materials, Mechanics, and Manufacturing 5(2), 113–118 (2017).
[16] J. Zou and J. K. Schueller, Adaptive backstepping control for a parallel robot with
uncertainties in dynamics and kinematics, Robotica 32(6), 1-24 (2014).
[17] Q. Hu, L. Xu, and A. Zhang, Adaptive backstepping trajectory tracking control of
robot manipulator, Journal of the Franklin Institute 349(3), 1087–1105 (2012).
[18] Y. Zhang, C. Wen, and Y. C. Soh, Adaptive backstepping control design for systems
with unknown high-frequency gain, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 45(12),
2350–2354 (2000).
[19] N. Nikdel, M. Badamchizadeh, V. Azimirad, and M. A. Nazari, Fractional-order
adaptive backstepping control of robotic manipulators in the presence of model
uncertainties and external disturbances, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
63(10), 6249–6256 (2016).
[20] J. E. Slotine, and W. Li, Applied Nonlinear Control: An introduction. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991.
[21] Å. K. Johan, and W. Björn, Adaptive Control. Dover Publications, 2008.
[22] M. W. Spong, S. Hutchinson, and M. Vidyasagar, Robot Modeling and Control.
Wiley Publications, 2020.

To Cite This Article: M. T. Yavuz, C. Uyulan, I. Ozkol, Development of a Stabilizing

Adaptive Feedback Control System for Helicopter Gun Turrets, Journal of Aeronautics
and Space Technologies 17(Special Issue), 135-159 (2024).
VITAE
Mustafa Tolga Yavuz received his B.Sc. degree in Mechanical Engineering from the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Türkiye in 2011. He
received his M.Sc. degree in Mechatronic Engineering from ITU, Türkiye in 2014.
Caglar Uyulan received his B.Sc. degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University in 2008. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degrees in Mechatronic Engineering from ITU, Türkiye in 2010 and 2017, respectively.
Ibrahim Ozkol received his B.Sc. degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the Faculty of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Istanbul Technical University, Türkiye in 1985. He
received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Aeronautical Engineering from ITU, Türkiye in
1988 and 1992, respectively.
159